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PICTORIAL   HSTORY 


AMERICA, 


Fizarro  in  Cuzco. 


The  Temple  of  Tolomeco. 


PICTORHL  HISTORY 


AMERICA; 


EMBRACING    BOTH    THE 


NORTHERN  AND  SOUTHERN  PORTIONS 


OF  THENEJ  WORLD 


BY  S*  G     GOODRICH. 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH    MORE    THAN    THREE    HUNDRED    ENGRAVINGS. 


HARTFORD: 

PUBLISHED  BY  HOUSE  &  BROWN, 

1848. 


STEREOTYPED  BY 

GEORGE  A.  CURTIS, 

X    RNOLAND  TVPB  AND  STEREOTYPE  FOUNDRY,  BOSTON. 


00 


CON/TENTS, 


GEOGRAPHICAL  VIEW    OF  AMERICA. 

CHAPTER  I.  FAG. 

Geographical  Description  of  North  and  South  America,  .         ...         11 

DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA    BY   THE 
NORTHMEN. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Account  of  the  alleged  Discovery  6f  America  by  the  Northmen,        .         .        21 

DISCOVERIES  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  THE 
SPANIARDS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

State  of  Geographical  Science— Efforts  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese- 
Proceedings  of  Columbus, 87 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Columbus  discovers  America,          .         .         .         .      **.*«*'       .        .        37 

CHAPTER  V. 

Various  Discoveries  of  Columbus  in  America — Return  to  Spain,        .         .        48 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Second  Voyage  of  Columbus  to  America— His  Third  Voyage— His  Fourth 
Voyage — His  return  to  Spain  and  his  Death — Sufferings  of  the 
Natives,  ....  .  '  >•/ 57 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Spanish  Discoveries  on  the  Continent — Proceedings  of  Cortez,          .         .        67 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Final  Conquest  of  Mexico — Death  of  Cortez — Guatimala,         ...        76 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Discovery  of  the  South  Sea — Conquest  of  Peru, 86 

CHAPTER  X. 

Historical  Sketch  of  the  Peruvian  Empire — Proceedings  of  the  Spaniards 

in  Peru, 9B 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Conquest  of  Chili — Paraguay — Rio  de  la  Plata,      .        .        .        .        .111 
I* 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII.  PAGK 

Proceedings  in  Venezuela  and  Guiana  —  Commercial  Operations  in  South 

America,     ...........       121 

BRAZIL. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Discovery  of  Brazil  —  Settlement  and  Progress,         .....       137 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Progress  of  the  Colony,          .........       145 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Progress  of  the  Colony,          .........       152 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Flourishing  Condkion  of  Brazil  —  The  Mines  —  Policy  of  the  Government 

—  Present  State  of  the  country,    .....  .       162 

WEST    INDIES. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  &c.  —  Slaves  and  the  Slave  Trade,        .        .       167 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
The  Buccaneers,  ...........      175 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

St.  Domingo,     f*fa%e  y-  •      •         •        nj-i  *t        •  /:or       .  "     .       188 

SPANISH    SETTLEMENTS. 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Peru,   ..........  .       197 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Peru,  continued,  .        ,        ......     *  .  gOC 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Peru,  continued,  .        .......  .      216 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

United  Provinces  —  Banda  Oriental,         ....  223 

CHAPTER  XXIY. 
Paraguay  —  Chili,  .......  334 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Colombia  —  Venezuela  —  New  Grenada  —  Ecuador  —  Bolivia,      .        .  344 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

CHAPTER  XXVI.  PAOK 

Mexico — Texas — Central  America,         ...        •    ,    •        •        '        •      252 
• 

BRITISH    AMERICA,    &c. 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Canada,         .         .   •     .  !  n'-"    .         .         .         .    •     i      '..'    'ssl-'j      262 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Canada,  continued,         ....       ••,*"'•*••       ..         •       •'•  272 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Canada,  continued, ••''  :'"t'-'    V. '•"••^*i'    ;'»;  •'  >      279 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Nova  Scotia,         .        .        '• tf  V- ''•"'"'•' .')•*"'•>'.     .        .        .        .285 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Nova  Scotia,  continued — Hudson's  Bay  Territory — Russian  America — 

Greenland,.        '5  "•  ^  •":»'•  "•',••      :;  •  '< "'.      *&&b\**X         .       295 

UNITED    STATES. 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Florida,  ..  .         .         .      •.         .   t,ll4i'r^  ,«  •>..  *      301 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
Florida,  continued,        ..........      313 

CHAPTER  XXXiV. 

Florida,  continued, 323 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

Virginia,        .  V1  :    -1.        <        .         .         .       330 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

Virginia,  continued, .        .      339 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

Virginia,  continued,       .        .        .        .  .        .        .        .        .351 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

Massachusetts,      . '.'  '  "."'     .      363 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

Massachusetts,  continued,      ....  ~    .     'V       .        .      377 


Til'  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XL.  PAGB 

Massachusetts  continued — Connecticut,  ......       387 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

New  England  Colonies, .       396 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

New  Hampshirer— Connecticut — Rhode  Island — New  Haven,  .        .        .      407 

CHAPTER  XLIII. 
New  York,  t 413 

CHAPTER  XLIV. 

New    Jersey — Pennsylvania — Delaware — Maryland — North    and    South 

Carolina — Georgia, 423 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

United  Colonies  of  New  England— Philip's  War, 433 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

The  Charters  of  the  New  England  Colonies  revoked — Sir  Edmund  Andros,    443 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 
Massachusetts, 451 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 
Witchcraft  in  Salem,     . 460 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 
New  England, 471 

CHAPTER  L. 

Indian  Wars  in  the  South, 477 

CHAPTER  LI. 

Collision  with  the  Canadian  Indians, .      484 

CHAPTER  LII. 

Same  subject  continued,         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .491 

&  ' 

CHAPTER  LIII. 

The  French  War,          .        .        .        .  '*..        .        .  1L  •        •        .497 

sK 

CHAPTER  LIV. 

Troubles  with  England, .  510 

CHAPTER  LV. 
The  same  subject  continued, 530 


CONTENTS.  1* 

CHAPTER  LVI.  PAO« 

The  same  subject  continued,           .                       •  ..»  '/»•..•  •      63* 

CHAPTER  LVII. 

Battle  of  Lexington  —  Opening  of  the  Revolution      ....  541 

CHAPTER  LVIII. 

Progress  of  the  Revolution,    .........      W6 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

Declaration  of  Independence  —  Capture  of  New  York,       ....      664 

CHAPTER  LX. 
Progress  of  the  War,     ..........      574 

CHAPTER  LXI. 
Burgoyne's  Expedition  and  Capture,       ......  587 

CHAPTER  LXII. 

Negotiations  with  France,      ......         ...      808 

I 

CHAPTER  LXIII. 

Progress  of  the  War,     ..........      880 

CHAPTER  LXIV. 

Arnold's  Treason  —  Progress  of  the  War,         .  ...      688 

CHAPTER  LXV. 

Progress  of  the  War  —  Surrender  of  Cornwallis  —  Peace,  ....      64* 

CHAPTER  LXVI. 

The  Confederation  —  The  Constitution  —  Washington  President,  &c.,        .      664 

CHAPTER  LXYII. 

French   Revolution  —  Adams  President—  Madison  President  —  War  with 

England,    ...........      674 

CHAPTER  LXVIII. 

Progress  of  the  War,     .......        ...      681 

CHAPTER  LXIX. 

Events  of  the  War,       .......       v'  •      "fl* 

B 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  LXX.  PAG, 

Progress  of  the  War — Negotiations  .at  Ghent — Hartford   Convention — 

Peace, 725 

i 

CHAPTER  LXXI. 
War  with  Algiers — Monroe  President — John  Quincy  Adams  President — 

Jackson  President,  ........       743 

CHAPTER  LXXII. 

Jackson's    Administration,   continued — Van    Buren  President — Harrison 

President — Administration  of  John  Tyler, 757 

CHAPTER   LXXIII. 

Mr.  Folk's  Inauguration. — Relations  with  Mexico. — Proclamation  of  War 
by  the  President. — Discussion  in  relation  to  Oregon. — Military  Opera- 
tions, .  ....  770 


APPENDIX, 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Early  Notions  respecting    the   American   Indians— Their  Origin— General 

Remarks— Indians  of  the  United  States, \ 

CHAPTER  II. 

Indians  of  Mexico— Central  America— South  America— General  Remarks,       .     24 


PICTORIAL  VIEW  OF  AMERICA, 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  AMERICA, 

CHAPTER    I. 


THE  continent  of  America  includes  an  extent  of  territory  equal 
to  one  half  of  the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  and  con- 
stitutes about  three  tenths  of  the  dry  land  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  It  is  bounded  east  and  west  by  the  great  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans.  On  the  west,  the  Pacific  separates  it  from  Asia, 
and  at  Behring's  Straits,  in  the  north,  the  two  continents  come 
almost  in  contact.  On  the  north  is  the  Arctic  Ocean,  divided  by 
huge  frozen  islands  into  bays  and  inlets.  On  the  east,  the  Atlan- 
tic separates  it  from  Europe  and  Africa.  On  the  south,  it  presents 
a  storm-beaten  cape  to  the  expanse  of  the  Southern  or  Antarctic 
Ocean.  The  northern  boundary  of  America  is  now  found  to  ex- 
tend to  about  70°  north  latitude.  The  southern  extremity  of  the 


12  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    AMERICA. 

Continent,  on  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  is  in  lat.  54°  south.  Hence 
America  comprehends  the  whole  of  the  tropical  and  temperate, 
with  part  of  the  Arctic  climates,  on  both  sides  of  the  equator.  Its 
extent  from  north  to  south  is  about  9000  miles.  This  great  con- 


The  Western  Hemisphere. 


tment  is  nearly  separated  into  two  portions  by  the  narrow  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  It  will  be  more  proper,  therefore,  to  describe  North 
and  South  America  separately. 

North  America  extends  from  8°  to  70°  north  latitude,  and  from 
55°  to  168°  west  longitude,  and  contains  an  area  of  about  7,500,- 
000  square  miles,  exclusive  of  the  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Baffin's  Bay  and  Barrow's  Strait.  Presenting  a  broad  front  to 
the  Arctic  Sea,  it  gradually  expands  in  width  to  about  50°  north 
latitude,  when  it  again  contracts  its  dimensions  until  it  reaches  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  Its  winding  outline  presents  a  great  extent 
of  seacoast,  which  is  estimated  to  amount  to  about  9,500  miles  on 
the  eastern,  and  somewhat  more  on  the  western  side,  in  addition 
to  the  frozen  shores  of  the  northern  border.  It  may  be  divided 
into  five  physical  regions.  1.  The  table-land  of  Mexico,  with 
the  strips  of  low  country  on  its  eastern  and  western  shores.  2. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION    OF   AMERICA. 


13 


The  plain  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  a  country  with  a  mild  and  humid  atmosphere  as  far  north 


as  55°,  but  inhospitable  and  barren  beyond.  3.  The  great  cen- 
tral valley  of  the  Mississippi,  rich  and  well  wooded  on  the  east 
side ;  bare  but  not  unfertile  in  the  middle ;  bare,  dry,  sandy  and 
almost  a  desert  on  the  west.  4.  The  eastern  declivities  of  the 
Allegany  mountains,  a  region  of  natural  forests,  and  of  mixed, 
but  rather  poor  soil.  5.  The  great  northern  plain  beyond  50°, 
four  fifths  of  which  is  a  bleak  and  bare  waste,  overspread  with 
innumerable  lakes,  and  resembling  Siberia  both  in  the  physical 
character  of  its  surface  and  the  rigor  of  its  climate. 

South  America  lies  between  the  12th  degree  of  north,  and  the 
56th  degree  of  south  latitude,  and  extends  in  breadth  from  36°  to 
81°  of  west  longitude.  It  comprises  6,500,000  square  miles.  Its 
coast  is  less  indented  by  bays  than  North  America,  but  it  presents 
the  same  tapering  form  to  the  south.  Its  greatest  breadth,  about 
six  degrees  south  of  the  equator,  is  3,200  miles,  and  its  length 
2 


14 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DESCRIPTION   OF   AMERICA. 


4,500.     South  America  may  also  be  divided  into  five  distinct 
physical  regions.     1.  The  low  country  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific, 


about  4,000  miles  in  length,  and  from  50  to  200  in  breadth.  The 
two  extremities'  of  this  district  are  fertile ;  the  middle  is  a  sandy 
desert.  2.  The  basin  of  the  Orinoco,  surrounded  by  the  Andes 
and  their  branches,  and  consisting  of  wide  plains  nearly  destitute 
of  wood,  but  covered  with  a  high  herbage  during  a  part  of  the 
year.  3.  The  basin  of  the  Amazon,  a  vast  plain,  with  a  rich  soil 
and  a  humid  climate,  and  exhibiting  a  surprising  luxuriance  of 
vegetation.  4.  The  great  southern  plain  of  the  Plata,  in  parts 
dry  and  barren,  and  in  parts  covered  with  a  strong  growth  of 
weeds  and  tall  grass.  5.  The  high  country  of  Brazil,  eastward 
of  the  Panama  and  the  Uruguay,  presenting  alternate  ridges  and 
valleys,  thickly  covered  with  wood  on  the  Atlantic  slope. 

Mountain  ranges,  characterized  by  their  lofty  boldness  and  im- 
mense extent,  stretch  across  this  continent,  and  give  it  a  peculiar 
and  striking  character.  One  chain,  the  longest  on  the  face  of  the 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION   OF   AMERICA 


15 


globe,  and  with  one  exception  the  loftiest,  appears  to  extend  from 
its  northern  to  its  southern  extremity.  By  far  the  most  distin- 
guished portion  is  that  colossal  range,  which,  under  the  name  of 
Andes,  traverses  South  America  along  the  shore  of  the  Pacific. 
Commencing  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  throwing  some  lateral 
branches  along  the  northern  coast,  it  continues  in  its  progress 
southward,  always  swelling  in  magnitude,  till  almost  beneath  the 
equator  it  shoots  up  into  the  summits  of  Chimborazo  and  Antisana, 


Chimborazo. 


believed,  till  lately,  the  loftiest  peaks  on  the  globe;  while  it  spreads 
terror  by  the  tremendous  volcanoes  of  Pichincha  and  Cotopaxi. 
In  passing  through  Peru,  it  continues  still  very  lofty,  and  on 
reaching  its  southern  region  forms  a  vast  knot  or  mass,  amid 
whose  peaks  tower  Ilimani  and  Sorata,  which  recent  observation 
has  proved  to  exceed  even  Chimborazo  in  height,  though  still 
inferior  to  the  highest  summits  of  the  Himmaleh.  In  its  progress 
behind  Chili,  this  great  chain  continues  to  form  an  exceedingly 
steep,  though  not  very  broad,  ridge.  It  becomes  less  considerable 
as  it  approaches  the  southern  limit  of  the  continent,  and  the  pecu- 
liarly dreary  and  desolate  aspect  which  it  there  assumes  is  owing 
less  to  elevation  than  to  the  wintry  severity  of  the  climate.  The 
heights  on  the  adjacent  isle  of  Terra  del  Fuego  do  not  exceed 
6,000  feet;  and  even  the  formidable  cliffs  with  which  Cape  Horn 
faces  the  tempests  of  the  Southern  Ocean  do  not  rise  higher  than 
1,600  feet. 


16 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION   OF   AMERICA. 


The  same  chain  extends  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  north- 
ward. The  isthmus  is  occupied  by  a  ridge  of  moderate  elevation ; 
but  after  a  short  interval  it  swells  into  that  great  plain  of  table- 
land, upwards  of  6,000  feet  high,  which  covers  the  greater  part  of 
Mexico  and  Guatemala,  and  converts  the  tropical  climate  of  those 
latitudes  into  a  temperate  one.  From  this  level  shoot  up  much 
higher  the  snowy,  conical  peaks  of  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl  and 
Toluca,  the  two  former  of  which  send  forth  formidable  volcanic 
eruptions.  Beyond  Mexico  this  great  elevation  is  partly  pro- 
longed in  the  great  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  run 
parallel  to  the  northern  Pacific,  and  bound  on  the  west  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  Though  their  cliffs  are  steep  and  rugged,  they 
by  no  means  equal  the  elevation  of  the  Andes,  scarcely  at  any 
point  surpassing  12,000  feet.  Beyond  the  55th  parallel  they  rap- 
idly sink,  though  a  branch,  about  2,000  feet  high,  runs  along  the 
western  bank  of  the  Mackenzie  river,  and  even  along  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Very  high  mountains  are  seen  at  different 
parts  of  the  shore  of  the  northern  Pacific,  particularly  in  the  60th 
parallel,  where  mount  St.  Elias  is  supposed  to  exceed  16,000  feet. 


Apalachian  chain — the  White  Mountains. 

In  North  America  an  eastern  chain,  the  Apalachians  or  Alle- 
ganies,  may  be  traced,  in  a  continuous  ridge  parallel  to  the  Atlan- 
tic. Detached  and  somewhat  irregular  branches  spread  throueh 
Canada,  Labrador  and  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay.  The  moun- 
tains which,  resting  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  form  the  West  India 
islands,  appear  to  be  elevated  summits  of  the  same  range.  After 
disappearing  for  a  small  interval  in  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  it 
appears  again  in  numerous  ridges,  which  spread  wide  over  Guiana. 
On  the  southern  side  of  the  Amazon,  Brazil  is  traversed  by  seve- 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION   OF    AMERICA.  ll 

ral  successive  ranges,  which  are  in  some  degree  prolonged  to  the 
La  Plata,  beyond  which  they  sink  finally  into  the  vast  plains  of 
the  Pampas.  All  these  eastern  ranges  are  very  low,  when  com- 
pared with  the  grand  western  chain.  They  are  generally  from 
2,000  to  3,000  feet  in  elevation,  and  seldom  exceed  6,000.  They 
are  not  the  seat  of  violent  volcanic  action.  Several  of  the  West 
India  peaks,  however,  are  somewhat  higher  than  the  above,  and 
one  or  two  are  volcanic. 

The  plains  of  the  American  continent  are  almost  as  remarka- 
ble as  its  mountains.  There  are  three  systems.  One  is  the  plain 
along  the  Atlantic,  between  that  ocean  and  the  eastern  range  of 
mountains,  now  occupied  by  the  southeastern  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Brazil.  The  former  portion  is  moderately,  and  the 
latter  luxuriantly  fertile.  The  second  plain  is  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  continent,  between  the  great  western  chain  and  the 
Pacific.  It  is  narrow  and  moist,  and  of  various  aspects  and  pro- 
ductions. But  the  plains  which  extend  through  the  centre  of  the 
continent,  between  the  great  ranges  of  the  eastern  and  western 
mountains,  are  of  prodigious  extent,  exceeding  even  those  which 
cover  so  great  a  part  of  Asia  and  Africa.  While  the  latter  have 
a  vast  portion  of  their  surface  doomed  to  a  hopeless  sterility 
by  heaps  of  moving  sand,  the  interior  plains  of  America  are, 
almost  throughout,  completely  watered,  and  overgrown  in  many 
places  with  an  excessive  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  It  is  true 
they  display  solitudes  as  vast,  and  tenanted  by  races  as  savage,  as 
the  most  dreary  deserts  of  the  Old  World.  But  this  backward 
state  is  evidently  owing  to  the  unfavorable  and  inland  site  of  these 
vast  tracts,  being  destitute  of  maritime  intercourse.  Even  the  rich 
moisture  of  the  ground,  covered  with  dense  and  tangled  forests 
and  lofty  grasses,  though  it  marks  the  natural  luxuriance  of  the 
soil,  obstructs  the  first  efforts  of  cultivation. 

The  great  plain  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Allega- 
nies  extends  without  interruption  to  the  Polar  Sea;  so  that  one  of 
its  borders  is  covered  with  the  palms  and  the  splendid  foliage  of 
the  tropic,  while  the  other  extremity  sees  the  last  scanty  buds  of 
Arctic  vegetation  expire.  These  northern  plains  present  a  very 
gloomy  aspect,  overspread  with  dreary  pine  forests,  intersected  by 
frozen  lakes,  and  affording  shelter  only  to  numerous  tribes  of  the 
elk,  deer  and  other  fur-clad  animals.  The  extent  of  this  plain  is 
about  3,240,000  square  miles. 

Another  plain,  almost  equally  vast  and  luxuriant,  occurs  in  the 
heart  of  South  America,  where  it  occupies  the  basin  of  the  Ama- 
zon between  the  Andes  and  the  mountains  of  Brazil.     It  is  still 
2*  c 


18  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    AMERICA. 

covered  with  unbroken  forests,  and  tenanted  by  rude  and  savage 
tribes.  The  extent  of  this  plain  is  about  3,120,000  square  miles. 
In  the  northern  quarter  is  the  great  plain  of  the  Orinoco,  estimated 
at  348,000  miles,  covered  with  gigantic  grasses,  and  almost  uncul- 
tivated at  the  present  day.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  continent 
is  the  immense  surface  of  the  Pampas,  bordering  the  La  Plata, 
and  trodden  by  numerous  herds  of  wild  cattle.  This  plain  com- 
prehends 1,620,000  miles. 

Lofty  plains  or  table-lands  form  a  characteristic  feature  in  the 
geography  of  the  western  continent.  The  principal  one  occu- 
pies the  whole  of  Mexico  and  part  of  Guatemala :  it  is  6,000  feet 
Jiigh.  The  Andes,  within  their  lofty  ridges,  enclose  very  elevated 
sites,  on  which  numerous  cities  are  built. 

But  the  grandest  natural  features  of  America  are  her  rivers, 
which  in  magnitude  far  surpass  those  of  the  other  quarters  of  the 
globe.  They  are  unequalled  both  in  the  length  of  their  course, 
and  the  masses  of  water  which  they  pour  into  the  ocean.  The 
principal  of  these  rivers  take  their  rise  in  the  great  western  chain 
of  mountains,  from  its  eastern  side,  whence,  being  swelled  by 
numerous  streams,  they  roll  their  deep  and  spacious  waters  across 
the  great  interior  plain,  till  they  approach  the  eastern  range  of 
mountains.  Here  they  receive  a  fresh  and  copious  series  of  tribu- 
taries, till,  bearing  the  waters  of  half  a  continent,  they  reach  the 
ocean.  The  Missouri  takes  its  rise  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
flows  eastward  into  the  great  North  American  valley,  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Mississippi,  and  receives  from  the  Allegany  chain 
the  copious  tribute  of  the  Ohio :  these  combined  floods,  subse- 
quently augmented  by  tributaries  from  the  eastern  and  western 
ranges,  thus  bear  southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  South 
America,  the  Amazon,  after  a  long  course  along  the  foot  of  the 
loftiest  Andes,  rolls  eastward  across  the  great  plain,  receiving 
ample  tributaries  from  the  eastern  ranges,  till,  on  reaching  the 
Atlantic,  it  becomes  almost  an  inland  sea.  The  La  Plata,  with 
its  branches,  collects  all  the  southern  waters  of  the  Andes,  and 
flows  southeast  to  the  Atlantic  in  the  magnitude  of  an  immense 
gulf.  Inferior  to  these,  yet  maintaining  a  rank  among  the  great 
rivers  of  the  globe,  are,  in  North  America,  the  St.  Lawrence, — 
which,  with  the  Mississippi,  derives  its  ample  store  of  waters  not 
from  any  mountain  chain,  but  from  that  cold,  watery  region  of 
forests  and  swamps,  forming  the  northern  prolongation  of  the  great, 
central  plain, — and  the  Oregon,  rising  in  the  western  declivity 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  flowing  west  into  the  Pacific.  In 
South  America,  another  great  stream,  the  Orinoco,  taking  its  first 
rise  in  the  Andes,  is  formed  chiefly  during  its  winding  course 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    AMERICA.  19 

among  the  interior  ranges  that  traverse  the  northern  portion  of 
South  America.  Though  inferior  to  the  two  other  gigantic  streams 
in  its  neighborhood,  yet,  such  is  the  store  of  waters  it  collects  from 
this  region  of  forests  and  swamps,  that  it  pours  its  ample  flood 
into  the  ocean  by  seven  capacious  mouths.  The  length  of  the 
navigable  waters  of  the  Amazon  and  its  branches  is  estimated  at 
50,000  miles ;  of  the  Missouri,  40,000 ;  of  the  La  Plata,  20,000 ; 
of  the  Orinoco,  8,000;  and  of -the  St.  Lawrence,  2,000.  The 
internal  navigation  of  the  western  continent  surpasses  therefore, 
•  beyond  all  comparison,  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  globe. 

Still  another  grand  and  characteristic  feature  of  American 
geography  may  be  found  in  the  lakes  of  this  country.  The  lar- 
gest and  most  numerous  are  in  North  America.  They  are  not 
mountain  lakes,  nor  formed  by  mountain  streams.  They  origi- 
nate in  those  great,  wooded,  watery  plains  in  which  the  Mississippi 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  take  their  rise.  The  chain  of  connected 
lakes  on  the  upper  course  of  *th£  latter  river,  form  the  largest 
bodies  of  fresh  water  in  the  world. 

Finally,  the  western  continent  is  superior  to  the  eastern,  not 
only  in  its  navigable  waters,  penetrating  into  its  inmost  recesses, 
but  also  in  its  not  being  defaced  with  sandy  deserts  to  any 
remarkable  extent.  The  desert  of  Atacama,  in  Peru  and  Chili, 
comprises  only  a  narrow  strip  of  country  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  desert  of  Pernambuco,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Brazil,  is 
more  extensive;  but  both  are  insignificant  when  compared  with 
those  of  the  Old  World.  The  wide  tract  at  the  eastern  foot  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  has  been  called  the  American  t)e- 
sert,  and  a  similar  tract  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Chilian  Moun- 
tains, are  traversed  by  large  rivers,  and  produce  an  abundant 
vegetation.  The  western  continent,  therefore,  although  only  half 
the  size  of  the  eastern,  has  at  least  quite  an  equal  amount  of 
useful  soil.  Two  thirds  of  the  surface  of  the  Old  World  are 
unproductive,  and  much  of  the  remaining  soil  is  poor  •  while 
more  than  two  thirds  of  the  New  World  are  not  only  productive, 
but  for  the  most  part  fertile  to  the  highest,  degree. 

We  shall  close  this  description  of  the  western  continent  with  a 
brief  view  of  its  political  divisions  at  the  present  day.  The 
northern  part  of  America  belongs  to  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  so 
far  as  the  right  of  discovery  and  the  possession  of  a  few  settle- 
ments, thinly  scattered  over  an  icy  and  barren  waste,  afford  those 
powers  a  claim  to  the  property.  These  regions  are  peopled  by 
wandering  tribes  of  aborigines,  but  their  numbers  are  few.  The 
European  settlements  are  insignificant,  except  those  of  the 'British 
on  Hudson's  Bay.  South  of  this  country  is  the  more  populous 


20  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    AMERICA. 

district  of  British  America,  extending  to  the  42d  degree  of  lati- 
tude, containing  the  flourishing  colonies  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  European 
descent,  and  the  government  is  dependent  on  Great  Britain.  Next 
lies  the  republic  of  the  United  States,  extending  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  from  forty-eight  degrees  north,  nearly  to  the 
tropic.  The  eastern  half  of  this  immense  territory  is  occupied  by 
the  Anglo-American  race ;  the  western  is  still  in  possession  of  the 
aborigines,  who  however  are  daily  receding  and  disappearing 
before  the  rapid  progress  of  civilization.  South  of  the  United 
States  is,  first,  the  new  republic  of  Texas,  and  next,  the  territory 
•f  Mexico,  almost  equal  'to  the  United  States  in  extent,  but 
less  populous.  This  republic  has  a  mixed  population  of  Spanish 
and  Indian  descent,  and  large  portions  of  the  country  are  still 
in  a  savage  state.  Its  limits  extend  to  sixteen  degrees  of 
north  latitude.  The  narrow  portion  of  the  continent  which 
approaches  the  Isthmus  of  ftarien  is  occupied  by  the  republic  of 
Guatemala,  the  inhabitants  of  which  do  not  materially  differ  from 
those  of  Mexico.  The  West  India  islands,  lying  between  North 
and  South  America,  are  colonies  of  several  of  the  European  pow- 
ers, and  are  peopled  by  a  mixture  of  the  European  arid  African 
race.  One  of  these  islands,  Hayti,  is  independent,  and  has  a 
population  entirely  African. 

The  northern  part  of  South  America  contains  the  republics  of 
Venezuela,  Ecuador  and  New  Granada,  with  a  few  colonies  in  Gui- 
ana, belonging  to  the  British,  French  and  Dutch.  Proceeding  south- 
erly across  the  equator,  we  meet  with  the  great  empire  of  Brazil, 
occupying  more  than  one  third  of  the  Southern  continent.  This 
empire,  formerly  a  colony  of  Portugal,  but  now  an  independent 
territory,  is  peopled  on  its  Atlantic  borders  by  inhabitants  of  the 
Portuguese  and  African  race.  The  interior  is  occupied  chiefly  by 
tribes  of  Indians.  On  the  western  coast  lie  the  republics  of 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Chili.  The  republic  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  or  the  United  Provinces,  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific.  Between  Brazil  and  this  territory  lie  the  two  small 
republics  of  Paraguay  and  Banda  Oriental.  All  these  republics 
are  inhabited  by  people  of  Spanish  and  Indian  descent. 

The  continent  now  becomes  narrowed  toward  a  point,  and  offers 
to  our  view  the  savage  and  inhospitable  region  of  Patagonia,  in 
which  few  inhabitants,  except  the  aborigines,  are  to  be  found. 
The  southern  extremity  of  America  is  formed  by  the  craggy  and 
iesert  island  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  tenanted  only  by  a  scanty 
population  of  natives,  as  rude  and  savage  as  their  own  bleak  and 
storm-beaten  shores. 


DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  BY  THE  NORTHMEN, 
CHAPTER   II. 


Landing  of  the  Northmen  in  America. 


THE  Welsh  have  a  tradition  of  some  celebrity,  in  virtue  of 
which  they  claim  the  discovery  of  the  western  world.  Madoc, 
a  Welsh  chieftain,  in  1170,  fitted  out  several  vessels  on  a  maritime 
adventure.  Proceeding  to  the  westward,  after  a  long  navigation 
he  arrived  at  "  a  fair  and  large  country,"  in  which  many  wonder- 
ful things  were  seen.  After  leaving  the  greater  number  of  his 
companions  there,  he  returned  to  Wales,  and  prevailed  on  a  num- 
ber of  his  kindred  and  acquaintance  to  accompany  him  in  a  second 
expedition,  from  which  he  never  returned.  This  is  the  substance 
of  the  Welsh  tradition.  There  is  no  reason  for  serious  belief  that 
the  Welsh  ever  crossed  the  Atlantic.  The  state  of  their  naviga- 
tion in  the  twelfth  century  was  no  way  compatible  with  so  long 
and  hazardous  a  voyage.  No  trace  of  a  Welsh  settlement  has 
ever  been  discovered  in  the  western  world.  The  resemblance 
affirmed  to  exist  between  some  of  the  American  languages  and 
the  Welsh  is  altogether  fanciful. 

The  discovery  of  America  by  the  Northmen,  in  10QI,  rests  on 
stronger  evidence;  and  strange  as  this  may  appear,  the  fact 


22  DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA   BY   THE   NORTHMEN. 

becomes  indisputable  when  we  consider  that  the  best  authenti- 
cated Icelandic  chronicles  unanimously  affirm  it;  that  their  rela- 
tions contain  nothing  that  can  admit  of  reasonable  doubt;  and  that 
they  are  supported  by  several  concurrent  testimonies.  There  was, 
say  those  ancient  chronicles,  an  Icelander,  named  Heriol,  who, 
with  his  son  Biarn,  made  every  year  a  trading  voyage  to  different 
countries,  and  generally  wintered  in  Norway.  Happening  one 
time  to  be  separated  from  each  other,  the  son  steered  his  course 
for  Norway,  where  he  supposed  he  should  meet  with  his  father ; 
but,  on  his  arrival  there,  found  he  had  gone  to  Greenland,  a  coun- 
try but  lately  discovered,  and  little  known  to  the  Norwegians. 
Biarn  determined,  at  all  events,  to  follow  his  father,  and  set  sail 
fof  Greenland;  "although,"  says  the  chronicler,  "he  had  nobody 
on  board  who  could  direct  him  on  the  voyage,  nor  any  particular 
instructions  to  guide  him;  so  great  was  the  courage  of  the 
ancients.  He  steered  by  the  observation  of  the  stars,  and  by 
what  he  had  heard  of  the  situation  of  the  country  he  sought." 
During  the  first  three  days  he  bore  towards  the  west,  but  the 
wind  varying  to  the  north,  and  blowing  strong,  he  was  forced 
to  run  to  the  southward.  The  wind  ceasing  in  about  twenty- 
four  hours,  they  discovered  land  at  a  distance,  which,  as  they 
approached,  they  perceived  to  be  flat  and  low,  and  covered  with 
\vood ;  for  which  reason  they  would  not  go  on  shore,  being  con- 
vinced it  could  not  be  Greenland,  which  had  been  represented 
to  them  as  distinguishable  at  a  great  distance  for  its  mountains 
covered  with  snow.  They  then  sailed  away  towards  the  north- 
west, and  discovered  a  harbor  which  was  formed  by  an  island, 
but  did  not  stop  there.  After  some  days  they  arrived  in  Green- 
land, where  Biarn  met  with  his  father. 

The  following  summer,  namely,  in  the  year  1002,  Biarn  made 
another  voyage  to  Norway,  where  he  informed  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal lords  of  the  country,  named  Count  Eric,  of  the  discovery 
he  had  made  of  some  unknown  islands.  The  count  blamed 
his  want  of  curiosity,  and  strongly  pressed  him  to  proceed  with 
his  discovery.  In  consequence  of  this  advice,  Biarn,  as  soon 
as  he  had  returned  to  Greenland,  began  to  think  seriously  of 
exploring  those  lands  with  more  attention.  Leif,  the  son  of  Eric 
Rufus,  who  had  discovered  Greenland,  and  who  was  still  chief 
of  the  colony  settled  there,  being  desirous  of  distinguishing  him- 
self like  his  father,  determined  to  go  thither  himself;  and  prevail- 
ing on  Eric  to  accompany  him.  they  fitted  out  a  vessel  with 
thirty-five  hands;  but  when  the  old  man  was  setting  out  on 
horseback  0to  go  to  the  ship,  his  horse  happened  to  fall  down 
under  him — an  accident  which  he  considered  as  an  admonition 


DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA    BY   THE   NORTHMEN.  23 

from  heaven  to  desist  from  the  enterprise ;  and,  therefore,  return- 
ing home,  the  less  superstitious  Leif  set  sail  without  him. 

He  soon  descried  one  of  the  coasts  which  Biarn  had  before 
seen,  that  lay  nearest  to  Greenland.  He.  cast  anchor  and  went 
on  shore,  but  found  only  a  flat,  rocky  region,  without  any  kind  of 
verdure :  he,  therefore,  quitted  it,  after  bestowing  upon  it  the 
name  of  Helleland,  or  the  "Stony  Land."  A  short  navigation 
brought  him  to  another  place,  which  Biarn  had  also  noted.  In 
this  ]and,  which  lay  very  low,  they  saw  nothing  but  a  few  scat- 
tered thickets  and  white  sand.  This  he  called  Markland,  or  the 
"  Woody  Land."  Two  days  prosperous  sailing  brought  them  to 
a  third  shore,  which  was  sheltered  to  the  north  by  an  island. 
They  disembarked  there  in  very  fine  weather,  and  found  plants 
which  produced  a  grain  as  sweet  as  honey.  Leaving  this,  they 
sailed  westward  in  search  of  a  harbor,  and  at  length  entering  the 
mouth  of  a  river,  were  carried  up  by  the  tide  into  a  lake.  As 
soon  as  they  landed,  they  pitched  their  tents  on  the  shore,  not  yet 
daring  to  wander  far  inland.  The  river  afforded  them  plenty  of 
very  large  salmon;  the  air  was  soft  and  temperate;  the  soil 
appeared  to  be  fruitful  and  the  pasturage  very  good.  The  days 
in  winter  were  much  longer  than  in  Greenland,  and  they  had  less 
snow  than  in  Iceland.  Entirely  satisfied  with  their  new  resi- 
dence, they  built  houses  and  spent  the  winter  there. 

But  before  the  setting  in  of  this  season,  a  German  of  their  com- 
pany, named  Ty  rker,  was  one  day  missing.  Leif,  apprehensive 
for  the  safety  of  a  man  who  had  been  long  in  his  father's  family, 
and  who  was  an  excellent  workman,  sent  all  his  people  in  search 
of  him.  He  was  at  length  found,  singing  and  leaping,  and  express- 
ing the  most  extravagant  joy.  The  astonished  Greenlanders 
inquired  the  reason  of  such  strange  behavior.  Tyrker  informed 
them  that  he  had  discovered  wild  grapes.  Excited  by  this  news, 
they  immediately  went  to  the  place,  and  brought  back  several 
bunches  to  their  commander,  who  was  equally  surprised.  Leif  still 
doubted  whether  they  were  grapes,  but  the  German  assured  him 
he  was  born  in  a  country  where  the  vine  grew,  and  that  he  knew 
them  too  well  to  be  mistaken.  Yielding  to  this  proof,  Leif  named 
the  country  Vinland,  or  the  Land  of  Wine.' 

Leif  returned  to  Greenland  in  the  spring,  but  one  of  his 
brothers,  named  Thorwald,  thinking  the  discovery  yet  imperfect, 
obtained  from  Eric  this  same  vessel  and  thirty  men.  Thorwald, 
arriving  in  Yinland,  made  use  of  the  houses  built  by  Leif,  and 
living  on  fish,  which  were  very  plenty,  passed  the  winter  there. 
In  the  spring  he  took  part  of  his  people  and  set  out  westward  to 
examine  the  country.  They  met  everywhere  with  very  pleasing 


24  DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA    BY    THE   NORTHMEN. 

landscapes,  all  the  coasts  being  covered  with  forests,  and  the  shores 
with  a  black  sand.  They  saw  a  multitude  of  little  islands,  sepa- 
rated by  small  arms  of  the  sea,  but  no  marks  either  of  wild  beasts 
or  of  men,  except  a  heap  of  wood  piled  up  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid. 
Having  spent  the  summer  in  this  survey,  they  returned  in  autumn 
to  their  winter  quarters :  but  the  summer  following,  Thorwald 
being  desirous  of  exploring  the  eastern  and  northern  coasts,  his 
vessel  was  a  good  deal  shattered  by  a  storm,  and  the  remainder 
of  that  season  was  taken  up  in  repairing  her.  He  afterwards  set 
up  the  keel,  which  was  unfit  for  service,  at  the  extremity  of  a 
neck  of  land,  thence  called  Kiellar  Nses,  or  Cape  Keel. 

On  his  landing  one  day,  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  the  shore 
he  discovered  three  little  leathern  canoes,  in  each  of  which  were 
three  persons,  seemingly  half  asleep.  Thorwald  and  his  com- 
panions instantly  ran  and  seized  them  all,  excepting  one  who 
escaped ;  and,  by  a  ferocity  as  imprudent  as  %it  was  cruel,  put 
them  to  death  the  same  day.  Soon  afterwards,  as  they  lay  on  the 
same  coast,  they  were  suddenly  alarmed  by  the  arrival  of  a  great 
number  of  these  little  vessels,  which  covered  the  whole  bay.  Thor- 
wald gave  immediate  orders  to  his  party  to  defend  themselves 
with  planks  and  boards  against  their  darts,  which  quite  filled  the 
air;  and  the  savages,  hiving  in  vain  wasted  all  their  arrows,  after 
an  hour's  combat  betook  themselves  to  flight.  The  Norwegians 
called  them  in  derision  Skraellings,  or  Mannikins.  The  chronicles 
tell  us  that  these  men  were  small  and  timid,  and  that  there  would 
be  nothing  to  fear  from  a  whole  army  of  them :  they  add  that 
these  Skraellings  are  the  same  people  who  inhabit  the  western 
parts  of  Greenland,  and  that  the  Norwegians  who  are  settled  on 
those  coasts,  had  called  the  savages  there  by  the  same  name. 

Thorwald  was  the  only  one  who  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
dying  soon  after,  paid  the  penalty  that  was  justly  due  for  his 
inhuman  conduct.  As  he  desired  to  be  buried  with  a  cross  at  his 
feet  and  another  at  his  head,  he  seems  to  have  imbibed  some  idea 
of  Christianity,  which  at  that  time  began  to  dawn  in  Norwegian 
Greenland.  His  body  was  interred  at  the  point  of  the  cape  where 
he  had  intended  to  make  a  settlement ;  which  cape  was  named 
Krossa  NCBS,  or  Cape  Cross.  The  season  being  too  far  advanced 
for  undertaking  the  voyage  home,  the  rest  of  the  crew  spent  the 
winter  there,  and  did  not  reach  Greenland  till  the  following 
spring.  We  are  further  told  that  they  loaded  the  vessel  with 
vines,  and  all-  the  raisins  they  could  preserve. 

Eric  had  left  a  third  son,  named  Thorstein,  who,  as  soon  as  he 
was  informed  of  his  brother  Thorwald' s  death,  embarked  the  same 
year,  with  his  wife  Gudride  and  a  select  crew  of  twenty  men. 


DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA   BY   THE   NORTHMEN.  25 

His  principal  design  was  to  bring  his  brother's  body  back  to 
Greenland.  But,  during  the  whole  summer,  the  winds  proved  so 
contrary  and  tempestuous,  that,  after  several  fruitless  attempts, 
he  was  driven  back  to  a  part  of  Greenland  far  distant  from  the 
colony  of  his  countrymen.  Here  he  was  confined  during  the 
rigor  of  the  winter,  deprived  of  all  assistance,  and  exposed  to  the 
severity  of  so  rude  a  climate.  These  misfortunes  were  increased 
by  a  contagious  sickness,  which  carried  off  Thorstein  and  most 
of  the  company.  His  widow  took  care  of  her  husband's  body, 
and,  returning  with  it  in  the  spring,  interred  it  in  the  burial  place 
of  his  family. 

Hitherto  we  have  seen  the  Norwegians  only  making  slight 
efforts  to  establish  themselves  in  Vinland. '  The  year  after  Thor- 
stein's  death,  proved  more  favorable  to  the  design  of  settling  a 
colony.  A  rich  Icelander,  named  Thorfin,  whose  genealogy  the 
chronicles  have  carefully  preserved,  arrived  in  Greenland  from 
Norway,  with  a  great  number  of  followers.  He  cultivated  an 
acquaintance  with  Leif,  who,  since  his  father  Eric's  death,  was 
chief  of  the  colony,  and  with  his  consent  espoused  Gudride,  by 
whom  he  acquired  a  right  to  those  claims  her  former  husband  had 
on  the  settlements  in  Vinland.  Thither  he  soon  went  to  take 
possession.,  having  with  him  Gudride  and  five  other  women, 
besides  sixty  sailors,  much  cattle,  provision  and  implements  of 
husbandry.  Nothing  was  omitted  that  could  forward  the  enter- 
prise. Soon  after  his  arrival  on  the  coast,  he  caught  a  whale, 
which  proved  very  serviceable  to  the  whole  company.  The  pas- 
turage was  found  to  be  so  plentiful  and  rich,  that  a  bull  they  had 
carried  over  with  them  became  in  a  short  time  remarkable  for 
his  fierceness  and  strength. 

The  remainder  of  that  summer  and  the  winter  following  were 
spent  in  taking  all  necessary  precautions  for  their  preservation. 
The  next  summer,  the  Skrcellings  came  down  in  crowds  and 
brought  various  merchandises  for  traffic.  After  staying  there 
three  years,  Thorfin  returned  home  with  a  valuable  cargo  of 
raisins  and  other  commodities,  the  fame  of  which  spreading 
through  the  north,  drew  many  adventurers  to  Vinland. 

Such  is  the  story  of  the  settlement  of  Vinland;  and  it  is  a  fortu- 
nate circumstance  that  these  ancient  accounts  have  preserved  not 
only  the  geographical  descriptions,  but  also  nautical  and  astrono- 
mical facts,  which,  besides  substantiating  the  narrations,  serve  to 
fix  the  position  of  the  points  of  the  American  coast  named  above. 
Helleland  is  the  island  of  Newfoundland;  Markland  is  Nova 
Scotia;  Vinland  is  Massachusetts  arid  Rhode  Island,  in  which 
latter  state  the  chief  settlement  appears  to  have  been  made. 
3  r, 


26 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA    BY   THE    NORTHMEN. 


Kieilar  Noes  is  Cape  Cod,  which  the  Northmen  describe  with  per- 
fect exactness  as  consisting  of  trackless  deserts,  and  long,  narrow 
beaches  and  sand  hills.  Krossa  Naes  is  either  the  Gurnet  at 
Plymouth,  or  Point  Alderton  at  the  entrance  of  Boston  harbor. 
Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard  and  the  Elizabeth  Islands  are  also 
described  with  an  accuracy  that  leaves  no  doubt  of  their  identity. 
There  is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  people  of  the  north  con- 
tinued to  make  voyages  to  Vinland  for  a  long  time,  and  the  Ice- 
landic chronicles  continue  to  speak  of  Vinland  afterwards.  A 
Saxon  priest,  named  John,  passed  over  to  Vinland  with  an  inten- 
tion of  converting  the  Norwegian  colony ;  but  we  may  conclude  his 
attempt  did  not  succeed,  since  we  find  that  he  was  condemned  to 
death.  In  the  year  1121,  Eric,  a  bishop  of  Greenland,  went  over 
there  on  the  same  errand,  but  we  know  not  with  what  success. 
Since  that  time  Vinland  seems,  by  degrees,  to  have  been  forgotten 
in  the  north,  and  that  part  of  Greenland  which  had  embraced 
Christianity  being  lost,  Iceland  also  fallen  from  its  former  state, 
and  the  northern  nations  being  wasted  by  a  pestilence  and  weak- 
ened by  internal  feuds,  all  remembrance  of  the  discovery  was  at 
length  utterly  obliterated ;  and  the  Norwegian  Vinlanders  them- 
selves, having  no  further  connexion  with  Europe,  were  either 
incorporated  with  their  barbarian  neighbors,  or  destroyed. 


DISCOVERIES  AND  CONQUESTS  OF  THE  SPAN- 
IARDS, 

CHAPTER    III. 

State  of  geographical  science  during  the  middle  ages. —  Origin  of  the  spirit  of 
maritime  discovery. — Efforts  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese. — Ancient 
legends  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. — Birth  and  education  of  Christopher  Colum- 
bus.— His  reasons  for  believing  the  existence  of  a  continent  in  the  west. — His 
attempt  to  carry  his  project  of  discovery  into  execution. — His  scheme  condemned 
by  a  learned  body  at  Salamanca,  and  rejected  by  the  Spanish  court. — Persever- 
ance of  Columbus. —  Queen  Isabella  patronizes  the  undertaking. — Preparations 
for  the  voyage. 


Columbus  soliciting  Queen  Isabella  to  aid  his  projects  of  discovery. 

A  THOUSAND  years  had  passed  away  since  the  barbarous  nations 
of  the  north  of  Europe  overthrew  the  Roman-  empire  of  the  West, 
and  erected  new  institutions  upon  its  ruins ;  yet  the  science  of 
geography  had  made  but  little  progress.  The  Western  World 
was  still  unknown,  and  the  intercourse  between  Europe  and  India 
was  carried  on  through  the  Red  Sea.  The  spirit  of  maritime 
discovery  received  its  first  impulse  from  the  kings  of  Castile,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  These  monarchs,  in  fol- 
lowing up  their  conquests  and  settlements  in  the  Canary  islands, 


28  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

led  the  way  to  further  navigations  into  the  Atlantic,  in  search  of 
new  islands  in  the  west.  Hence,  also,  arose  the  traffic  with  the 
African  coast,  and  the  splendor  and  wealth  of  the  city  of  Seville, 
the  great  mart  for  slaves  and  other  African  productions;  and 
hence  the  extraordinary  zeal  for  nautical  adventure  along  the  coast 
of  Andalusia.  The  Portuguese,  emulous  of  the  glory  of  their 
neighbors,  entered  into  the  same  career,  and  pursued  it  with  such 
vigor  and  perseverance,  as  to  outstrip  their  precursors,  by  improv- 
ing naval  science  and  extending  their  commerce  in  a  surprising 
manner.  Their  ships  sailed  along  the  western  coast  of  Africa, 
and  at  length  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Curiosity  received 
a  new  stimulus  from  these  discoveries ;  the  boundless  ocean  of  the 
west  offered  a  wide  field  for  speculation.  The  annals  of  the 
Egyptians,  cotemporary  with  the  most  ancient  human  records ; 
the  marvellous  narratives  of  Plato,  concerning  the  Atlantic  island, 
and  its  mighty  monarchs  and  nations  in  the  western  ocean,  re- 
gained their  lost  reputation;  and  the  credit  which  Alexander  the 
Great  gave  to  the  opinion  of  Anaxarchus,  respecting  the  existence 
of  a  new  world,  was  now  deemed  to  be  well  founded. 

These  notions  spread  themselves  over  Europe,  from  the  period 
of  the  Spanish  conquest  of  the  Canary  islands,  as  literature  and 
nautical  science  shed  mutual  light  on  each  other.  A  number  of 
ancient  manuscripts  were  brought  to  light,  in  which  many  sayings 
were  found  relative  to  several  countries,  formerly  seen,  or  con- 
jectured to  exist  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  What  chiefly  impressed 
the  minds  of  men,  however,  was  the  large  island,  abounding  with 
navigable  rivers,  which,  it  was  said,  the  Carthaginians  had  discov- 
ered at  a  distance  from  the  continent,  the  extraordinary  fertility  of 
which  had  induced  them  to  inhabit  it;  but  the  government,  afraid 
that  this  happy  colony  might  eclipse  the  mother  country,  ordered 
the  settlers  to  evacuate  it,  and  never  to  return  thither  under  pain 
of  death. 

The  book  in  which  this  account  was  found,  bore  the  name  of 
Aristotle,  and  its  authenticity  no  person  dared  to  doubt.  To  the 
narration  of  this  philosopher  several  embellishments  were  added ; 
for  instance,  that  seven  Spanish  bishops,  with  a  number  of  Chris- 
tians, had  fled  thither,  and  found  an  asylum  from  the  persecution 
of  the  Moors,  the  conquerors  of  Spain,  in  the  eighth  century. 
There  were  also  fabulous,  but  still  credited  accounts,  of  Portuguese 
voyagers  who  had  sailed  to  that  island ;  and  the  settlements  were 
soon  represented  in  books  and  maps  under  the  name  of  the  Seven 
tmvns.  At  last  it  was  reported  that  of  a  quantity  of  earth,  brought 
from  one  of  these  western  harbors,  the  third  part  was  pure 
gold.  This  idle  legend  stimulated  several  mariners  to  set  out  in 


FABLES    OF   THE    ANCIENTS    IN   RESPECT    TO   THE   ATLANTIC.          29 

pursuit  of  the  ore ;  and  though  they  persisted  in  vain,  yet  their 
disappointment  was  not  sufficient  to  discredit  the  story ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  spread  still  wider,  and  the  island  was  actually  repre- 
sented under  the  name  of  Antilla  on  most  of  the  maps  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

The  island  of  Brandon  was  not  less  renowned  and  stood  higher 
in  fable.  This  name  was  given  to  a  meteoric  appearance  which 
had  been  observed  westward  of  the  Canary  islands ;  and  which 
induced  the  inhabitants  of  the  Azores  and  Madeira,  as  well  as  the 
mariners  who  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  to  fancy  that  they  saw 
a  country,  which,  however,  only  existed  in  their  own  imagination. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  voyages  of  discovery  in  the  western 
ocean,  and  not  a  few,  by  the  orders  of  the  court  of  Portugal. 
Various  pretended  discoveries  were  soon  represented  on  the  maps, 
as  realities.  General  maps  of  the  unknown  ocean  were  drawn, 
and  filled  with  painted  islands  and  continents,  which  no  person 
had  really  visited  or  even  seen.  Notwithstanding  this,  after  the 
mature  consideration  of  all  authorities,  maps,  and  traditions,  so 
little  certainty  could  be  attained,  nay,  even  so  little  probability, 
that  no  person  would  venture  to  seek  discoveries  in  such  a  bound- 
less sea,  unless  he  had  yielded  himself  up  wholly  to  the  influence 
of  rash  credulity. 

The  ancient  Carthaginians,  the  Arabs  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
the  later  adventurers  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  had  made  researches 
in  vain  for  this  purpose.  The  unsuccessful  perseverance  of  the 
latter  seemed  to  be  an  evident  proof,  that,  if  those  pretended  west- 
ern countries  were  really  in  existence,  they  were  not,  however, 
situated  at  a  convenient  distance  from  those  shores  to  which  the 
seamen,  in  the  existing  state  of  navigation,  were  under  the  neces- 
sity of  returning.  As  long  as  this  necessity  existed,  adventurers 
dared  not  risk  a  distant  voyage  on  the  Atlantic  wave ;  nor  could 
they  be  expected  to  persevere  long  enough  in  fruitless,  hazardous, 
and  expensive  efforts.  But  at  the  time  which  Providence  had  deter- 
mined as  the  period  for  opening  a  communication  between  the  two 
worlds,  a  man  appeared,  who  was  born  for  the  achievment  of  dis- 
coveries of  incalculable  importance  to  mankind. 

This  was  Christopher  Columbus,  or  Colon,  as  he  called  himself 
after  he  had  removed  to  Spain.  He  was  born  at  Cogoleto,  in  the 
republic  of  Genoa,  in  1446.  His  father,  Domingo  Colombo,  a 
citizen  of  that  republic,  manufactured  and  dealt  in  woollen  stuffs ; 
his  paternal  estate  in  the  duchy  of  Piacenza  being  too  small  for 
the  decent  maintenance  of  his  family. 

Christopher  cultivated  the  sciences  at  a  tender  age,  and  made 
such  rapid  progress  in  the  Latin  language,  and  the  rudiments  of 
3* 


30  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

thtr  mathematics,  as  enabled  him  soon  to  understand  the  cosmo- 
graphic  writers,  of  the  reading  of  which  he  was  particularly  fond 


Portrait  of  Columbus. 

Ai  uie  age  of  fourteen,  he  returned  from  the  university  of  Pavia 
to  his.  native  country.  He  learned  navigation,  and  pursued  it 
three  and  twenty  years  successively,  with  such  zeal  and  perse- 
verance, that  he  remained  at  sea  for  a  long  time,  in  order  to  gratify 
his  unbounded  and  praiseworthy  curiosity.  He  made  voyages 
on  the  seas  frequented  by  Europeans,  full  of  desire  to  sail  farther 
than  other  navigators  had  ventured.  He  sailed  through  the 
Northern  Ocean,  a  hundred  leagues  beyond  Iceland,  the  Ultima 
Thule,  or  the  boundary  of  what  had  been  thought  navigable  up  to 
that  day.  At  >every  place  where  he  landed,  he  endeavored  to 
open  a  trade  with  the  natives,  in  order  to  obtain  information  of 
these  countries.  He  compared  the  knowledge  he  acquired  in 
this  way  with  the  accounts  then  in  existence  relative  to  those 
regions,  and  enriched  them  with  his  own  observations.  In  this 
judicious  practice,  he  was  aided  by  his  knowledge  of  the  sciences 
auxiliary  to  navigation,— the  use  of  sound  astronomy,  extensive 
geographic  learning,  and  an  able  hand  in  delineating  maps,  and  in 
making  spheres  and  other  instruments. 

In  order  to  finish  this  career,  and  to  reach  that  sublime 
point  to  which  his  towering  mind  prompted  him,  he  settled  him- 
self at  Lisbon,  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Alfonso  the  Fifth. 
The  Portuguese,  even  at  that  day,  were  celebrated  as  the  first 
navigators  in  the  world,  and  the  ministry,  led  on  by  the  Infant 


PROCEEDINGS   OF   COLUMBUS   IN    SPAIN.  31 

Henry,  and  taught  by  experience,  opened  their  arms  to  every  for- 
eigne1*,  possessed  of  distinguished  knowledge  in  cosmography  and 
nautical  science.  Columbus  was,  therefore,  received  with  the 
utmost  cordiality,  and  he  made  several  voyages  to  the  newly- 
discovered^  lands.  At  this  time  his  brother-in-law,  who  had  been, 
for  some  time  lieutenant  of  Porto  Santo,  informed  him  that  the 
western  winds  had  driven  some  wood  on  that  island,  which  ap- 
peared to  be  worked  without  the  help  of  iron-  and  that  canes  of 
uncommon  size,  like  those  described  by  Ptolemy  in  the  remotest 
Indies,  had  drifted  on  shore. 

Similar  signs  of  the  existence  of  land  were  perceived  upon  the 
island  of  Madeira  and  the  Azores,  and  farther  to  the  west,  on  the 
ocean.  These  observations  and  incidents  were  confirmed  by  two 
dead  bodies  thrown  by  the  sea  on  the  shores,  which  differed  in  fea- 
tures from  those  already  known.  Though  Columbus  was  not  weak- 
ly credulous,  yet  these  remarks  and  the  westerly  winds  observed 
from  time  to  time,  which  only  continued  for  some  days,  inclined 
him  to  believe  that  there  must  be  countries  towards  the  west,  and 
at  an  accessible  distance.  It  did  not  surprise  him  that  they  had 
not  yet  been  discovered,  as  no  one  had  hitherto  ventured  into 
these  parts  of  the  ocean  beyond  a  hundred  leagues.  He  conjecr 
tured,  besides,  on  plausible  grounds,  that  those  countries  might 
form  the  utmost  bounds  of  the  Indies ;  and  he  concluded  very 
justly  that  the  passage  to  the  eastern  ocean  would  be  much 
shorter  and  more  convenient  by  the  western  road,  than  by  that 
which  the  Portuguese  endeavored  to  find  southward,  by  sailing 
round  Africa. 

Full  of  the  belief  that  he  could  find  the  continent  of  India  by 
sailing  to  the  west,  he  disclosed  his  plan  to' John  II.,  king  of  Por- 
tugal. That  monarch,  however.  ..Jluenced  by  certain  of  his 
counsellors,  received  the  proposal  with  coolness :  but,  during  the 
negotiation  respecting  this  subject,  Columbus  was  astounded  and 
mortified  to  learn  that  the  Portuguese  had  despatched  a  vessel  on 
this  discovery,  under  color  of  a  voyage  to  the  Cape  Verd  Islands. 
Fired  with  indignation  at  this  act  of  meanness,  he  quitted  Portu- 
gal, and  made  an  offer  of  his  services  to  his  native  state  of  Genoa ; 
but  without  success.  He  next  despatched 'his  brother  Bartholo- 
mew to  England,  with  a  proposal  of  the  scheme  to  Henry  VII. 
Bartholomew  was  detained  and  baffled  by  numerous  obstacles, 
and  Columbus  proceeded  to  Spain,  establishing  himself  at  the 
seaport  of  Palos.  In  1486,  he  obtained  an  interview  with  the 
Spanish  sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  at  Cordova,  when  he 
explained  to  them  his  design.  They  gave  it  serious  attention,  and 


32  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

ordered  him  to  assemble  a  body  of  the  most  learned  cosmographers, 
to  consult  and  report  upon  the  subject. 

The  meeting  of  this  learned  body  was  held  at  Salamanca,  where 
the  court  resided  that  winter.  No  journals  of  this  famous  con- 
ference have  been  preserved :  it  is  known,  however,  that  Colum- 
bus exhibited  a  written  statement  of  his  plan,  supported  by  argu- 
ments, and  that  he  labored  hard  to  remove  the  difficulties  raised 
against  it. 

Some  ridiculous  objections  have  escaped  oblivion,  worthy  of 
men  who  were  ignorant  of  the  first  elements  of  geography.  It 
was  stated  that  the  sea  might  be  found  ascending,  so  that  the 
ships  must  climb,  as  it  were,  up-hill ;  that  the  extent  of  the  ocean 
was  immense,  and  three  years  would  not  be  sufficient  to  reach 
to  the  limits  of  the  east.  Objections  of  still  greater  absurdity 
were  raised  against  the  discovery  of  the  western  countries;  it 
was  urged  that  as  they  had  remained  unknown  to  the  greatest 
philosophers  which  the  world  had  ever  produced,  of  course  it  was 
very  unlikely  that  a  new  mariner  should  be  better  informed  on 
the  subject  than  they  were;  and,  still  further,  supposing  such 
countries  to  exist,  they  would  be  found  desert  and  uninhabitable, 
because  the  human  kind  were  confined  to  that  part  of  the  earth 
described  by  Ptolemy;  and,  lastly,  St.  Augustine,  a  great  author- 
ity, had  exploded  the  existence  of  the  antipodes  !  Columbus  did 
not  find  it  very  difficult  to  dissipate  the  prejudices  of  the  unlettered, 
with  arguments  at  one  time,  the  testimonies  of  writers  at  another, 
and  the  experience  of  the  voyagers  of  their  own  day ;  but  he  was 
not  able  to  render  himself  intelligible  to  men  devoid  of  practical 
knowledge  and  the  true  principles  of  science,  while  they  were  at 
the  same  time  puffed' up  with  sophistry  and  conceit. 

At  last,  the  king  and  queen,  wearied  perhaps  by  his  importunities, 
sent  him  word  that  the  cares  and  expenses  attendant  on  the  con- 
quest of  Granada  would  not  permit  them  to  embark  in  anything 
ne\y,  and  that  a  more  seasonable  opportunity  might  present  itself 
at  a  future  day,  when  his  proposals  would  be  duly  attended  to. 

Columbus  begged  to  be  heard  once  more;  but,  finding  the 
royal  pair  fixed  in  their  resolves,  he  concluded  that  they  were 
founded  on  the  suggestions  of  the  ignorant  cosmographers,  who 
deemed  the  proposed  discoveries  chimerical  and  visionary.  He 
therefore  interpreted  the  answer  into  a  complete  refusal ;  and, 
hopeless  of  ever  coming  to  a  determination  with  the  court,  he 
opened  his  scheme  to  two  wealthy  and  opulent  nobles,  whose 
maritime  dominions  contained  ships  and  seamen ;  but,  finding 
that  his  proposal  would  not  be  listened  to  by  either,  he  wrote  tc 


PROCEEDINGS   OF    COLUMBUS   IN   SPAIN.  33 

Louis  XL  of  France,  with  a  view  to  commence  a  negotiation  at 
Paris,  and,  in  case  he  should  not  succeed,  to  go  to  London. 

He  now  departed  from  the  court  and  went  to  Rabida,  to  see  his 
eldest  son,  whom  he  intended  to  leave  at  Cordova,  and  bid  adieu 
to  his  faithful  friend,  Fray  Juan  Perez.  This  divine,  who  had 
taken  up  his  cause  from  the  very  beginning  with  enthusiasm, 
prevailed  on  him  to  defer  his  departure,  promising  to  win  over  the 
mind  of  the  queen,  to  whom  he  was  confessor,  and  whose  kind- 
ness and  attachment  to  the  clergy  were  remarkable.  This  eccle- 
siastic set  forward  immediately  to  the  camp  at  Santa  Fe,  where  the 
court  was  held,  with  the  army  then  carrying  on  the  siege  of  Gra- 
nada. He  presented  the  rational  motives  for  adopting  the  plan— 
the  weighty  advantages  of  gain  and  glory  that  would  flow  from  it, 
and  the  irreparable  loss  to  the  Spanish  monarchy  if  any  other 
power  should  seize  upon  it.  He  represented  Columbus  as  an  able, 
well-informed  and  judicious  man,  abundantly  qualified  for  the  task 
which  he  proposed,  and  that  it  would  be  an  irremediable  mistake 
to  let  slip  so  fair  an  opportunity  «)f  aggrandizing  the  kingdom, 
particularly  if  he  were  permitted  to  depart  from  the  country  under 
any  displeasure. 

Overcome  by  such  a  persuasive  address,  the  queen  desired 
Columbus  to  be  sent  for,  and  ordered  that  a  sum  of  money  should 
be  advanced  to  defray  his  travelling  expenses.  Immediately,  on 
his  arrival,  the  negotiation  was  renewed.  Columbus,  warmed 
with  ideas  of  splendor  and  glory,  expressed  himself  in  strong 
terms,  and,  among  other  things,  wished  to  be  invested  with  the 
titles  of  admiral  and  viceroy,  with  the  authority  and  jurisdiction 
annexed  to  both.  He  was  encouraged  and  favored  by  cardinal 
D.  Pedro  Gonzales  de  Mendoza,  the  first  minister  of  the  crown, 
who,  at  the  request  of  Fray  Juan  Perez  and  the  minister  of 
finance,  Quintanilla,  had  honored  him  with  an  audience,  and 
conceived  a  very  good  opinion  of  his  person  and  address.  On 
the  contrary,  Prior  Prado  and  several  others  looked  on  the  under- 
taking as  too  adventurous,  and  the  projector  as  a  vain,  inflated 
man — considering  the  reward  he  demanded  enormous,  even  if  he 
should  be  able  to  fulfil  his  engagements.  If  he  did  not  succeed, 
they  deemed  it  an  absurdity  to  confer  such  -distinguished  honors 
on  a  needy  adventurer.  It  was  not  possible  to  accommodate  the 
difficulty,  as  Columbus  steadily  adhered  to  the  terms  which  he 
first  proposed.  However,  he  at  length  so  modified  them  as  to 
offer  to  take  upon  himself  one  eighth  part  of  the  expenses  of 
the  equipment,  if  the  same  portion  of  the  gain  should  be  allowed 
him.  Notwithstanding  this,  his  terms  seemed  to  be  still  too  .high  for 
acceptance ;  and  Columbus  gave  up  all  hopes.  Whilst  the  court 

i 


34  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

and  the  whole  nation  were  singing  hymns  and  celebrating  festi- 
vals for  the  conquest  of  Granada,  he  saw  himself  neglected;  and 
oppressed  with  the  thoughts  of  having  lost  seven  years  in  Spain, 
he  made  preparation  to  leave  a  country  which  he  had  considered 
as  his  home,  with  an  utter  uncertainty  as  to  what  fate  would  await 
him  in  France  or  England.  Under  all  these  impressions,  his  con- 
stancy never  deserted  him ;  he  at  last  took  leave  of  his  friends, 
and  set  out  for  Cordova  in  January,  1492. 

He  had  scarcely  departed,  when  Luis  de  St.  Angel,  receiver  of 
the  ecclesiastical  rents,  warmed  by  love  and  fervent  zeal  for  his 
country,  addressed  the  queen,  and  energetically  represented  to  her 
majesty  that  he  "  was  greatly  surprised,  as  she  was  ever  considered 
as  the  protectress  and  support  of  great  undertakings,  that  she 
should  seem  to  want  courage  to  put  a  plan  in  execution  that 
would  bring  in  immense  wealth,  tend  to  propagate  the  Christian 
religion  among  barbarous  nations,  redound  to  the  glory  of  the 
crown,  and  add  considerable  countries  to  the  royal  dominion.  It 
was  peculiar  to  sublime  and«exalted  minds  to  exert  the  utmost 
diligence  in  the  discoveries  of  the  wonders  and  mysteries  of 
nature  and  the  world,  to  dispel  the  doubts  in  which  they  were 
involved,  and  to  clear  up  the  truth ;  for  which  reasons  it  would 
be  glorious  to  attempt  such  important  discoveries.  It  would 
betray  something  more  than  pusillanimity  to  give  up  such  an 
enterprise  for  the  paltry  sum  of  2,500  piastres,  which  was  the 
whole  amount  of  what  Columbus  demanded.  Nor  were  the 
rewards  and  honors  demanded  by  Columbus  out  of  bounds,  as  he 
took  upon  himself  a  share  of  the  expense,  and  risked  his  honor 
and  life ;  though  it  was  very  likely  that  he,  as  a  prudent  and  judi- 
cious man,  would  come  off  triumphantly.  And  if  this  prize  should 
be  gained  by  any  other  European  power,  who  could  estimate  the 
loss  and  damage  which  the  kingdom  and  the  crown  would  sus- 
tain? Friends  and  enemies  would  blame  the  pernicious  pusil- 
lanimity and  ignorance  which  did  not  seize  on  an  opportunity  so 
seasonable,  and  their  very  descendants  would  feel  the  loss  and 
shame  of  it."  Q,uintanilla,  who  had  entered  during  this  address, 
seconded  and  confirmed  St.  Angel's  opinions.  The  queen  col- 
lected courage,  thanked  them  for  their  advice,  and  promised  to 
undertake  the  whole  affair  herself  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  She 
added,  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  delay  the  expedition  till  she 
had  recovered  from  the  war ;  but  if  this  delay  should  not  fait  in 
with  their  wishes,  she  was  ready  to  mortgage  her  'jewels  for  the 
requisite  sum  to  fit  out  the  equipment.  St.  Angel,  filled  with 
transport,  offered  to  advance  the  whole,  and  hoped  the  royal  com- 


CONTRACT  WITH  COLUMBUS.  35 

mand  would  be  immediately  given  to  fit  out  the  fleet  without 
delay. 

A  messenger  was  instantly  despatched  in  pursuit  of  Columbus. 
He  was  overtaken  on  the  bridge  of  Pinas,  two  miles  from  Gra- 
nada ;  and  when  he  returned  to  the  town  of  Santa  Fe,  he  was 
received  with  such  kindness  and  cordiality,  that  he  forgot  all  the 
vexations  he  had  undergone.  The  king  took  a  part  in  the  busi- 
ness with  pleasure,  not  only  out  of  complaisance  to  the  queen,  but 
at  the  instance  of  several  persons  of  high  rank,  at  the  head  of 
whom  was  the  first  lord  of  the  bedchamber,  Juan  Cabrero.  All 
obstacles  and  difficulties  immediately  vanished.  An  order  was 
issued  to  Juan  de  Coloma,  secretary  of  state,  to  draw  out  the  con- 
tract with  Columbus,  according  to  his  memorial  and  demands. 
The  writings  were  finished  on  the  17th  April,  at  Santa  Fe,  in  the 
following  terms : — 1.  If  Columbus  should  discover  any  islands  or 
continent  in  the  ocean,  he  was  to  retain  in  them,  for  himself  and 
his  heirs,  the  dignity  of  admiral,  with  the  same  honors  and  pre- 
rogatives which  the  high  admiral  enjoyed  in  the  district.  2.  He 
was  to  be  the  governor-general  of  all  the  countries  which  should 
be  discovered  by  him,  or  any  person  under  his  direction,  and 
invested  with  the  authority  of  nominating  three  persons  to  th°, 
special  government  of  every  island  or  province;  the  appoint- 
ment to  be  at  the  choice  of  the  king.  3.  He  and  his  lieutenants 
were  to  hear  and  determine  all  suits  in  law,  arising  out  of  the  new 
commerce,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  high  admirals  of  Castile  in 
their  departments.  4.  He  was  to  have  the  tenth  part  of  the  profits 
of  all  wares  and  fruits  that  should  be  acquired,  by  whatever  means, 
within  the  circuit  of  his  admiraltyship.  5.  He  should  contribute 
the  eighth  part  of  the  expenses  of  fitting  out  whatever  number  of 
ships  should  be  thought  necessary  to  be  employed  in  the  commerce 
and  intercourse  of  the  new  world,  and  at  the  same  time  receive 
the  same  quota  from  the  profits  that  should  be  acquired.  Agree- 
ably to  these  articles,  the  stipulated  privileges  were  granted  to  him 
on  the  30th  of  the  same  month,  at  Granada,  together  with  the  title 
of  Don,  which  was  then  only  conferred  on  persons  of  high  birth. 

The  king  and  queen  took  care  that  everything  necessary  to  fit 
out  the  equipment  should  be  carried  into  immediate  effect.  They 
wrote  letters  to  the  princes  who  might  be  found  to  exist  at  the 
limits  of  the  eastern  and  western  oceans,  requesting  that  their 
ambassador  and  minister  might  be  received,  favored  and  protected 
in  the  most  honorable  manner.  An  order  was  directed  to  the  city 
of  Seville  to  permit  arms,  provisions,  and  all  other  things  neces- 
sary for  the  voyage,  to  pass  free  of  all  duty.  The  town  of  Palos 
was  bound  to  furnish  the  crown  with  two  caravels,  for  three 


36  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

months  every  year,  and  these  two  vessels  were  now  appointed  for 
the  expedition. 

The  care  of  finding  a  third  ship  to  complete  the  number  stipu- 
lated by  Columbus,  and  the  requisite  arrangements  and  prepara- 
tions for  the  whole,  were  left  to  himself;  for  which  purpose,  the 
sum  of  17,000  florins,  deemed  to  be  sufficient,  was  paid  into  his 
hands,  advanced  by  St.  Angel.  The  king  and  queen  besides,  as 
a  testimony  to  his  personal  merit,  confirmed,  at  his  request,  the 
liberties  and  privileges  of  the  mariners  of  Seville ;  a  favor  which 
was  very  opportunely  conferred,  as  he  attracted  their  attention 
by  it,  and  gained  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  the  seamen.  Under 
all  these  favorable  omens  he  took  leave  of  the  court  on  the  12th 
May,  filled  with  gratitude  and  satisfaction. 

Having  arranged  everything  with  respect  to  the  maintenance 
and  education  of  his  two  sons,  Diego  and  Hernando,  he  proceeded 
to  Palos,  where  the  ships  were  to  be  fitted  out.  It  was  a  difficult 
matter  to  find  a  sufficient  number  of  seamen  to  undertake  such  a 
dangerous  and  laborious  voyage.  But  what  encouraged  the  peo- 
ple most  was  the  lively  zeal  and  ingenuity  of  Fray  Juan  Perez,  of 
Rabida,  seconded  by  the  example  and  authority  of  the  brothers 
Pinzon,  rich  ship-owners,  and  well  skilled  in  nautical  affairs,  who 
assisted,  in  person  and  by  their  fortune,  in  the  advancement  of  the 
undertaking.  They  assumed  part  of  the  expenses  which  fell  upon 
the  admiral,  persuaded  a  number  of  their  friends  and  relations  to 
embark  with  him,  and  accelerated  by  their  activity  the  equipment 
of  the  three  vessels  with  provisions  for  twelve  months,  and  a 
crew  of  ninety  men.  The  largest  of  the  vessels  was  named  Santa 
Maria,  on  board  of  which  Columbus,  as  admiral,  hoisted  his  flag. 
To  the  command  of  the  second,  called  the  Pinta,  he  appointed 
Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon.  The  third,  which  carried  latine  sails, 
was  named  Nina,  and  was  commanded  by  Pinzon,  the  third 
brother.  The  three  crews  numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty 
persons.  They  embarked  in  the  name  of  God,  having  previously 
made  confession  and  taken  the  sacrament,  after  th,e  example  of 
their  devout  admiral. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Columbus  sets  sail. — Fears  of  the  crew. — Artifices  of  Columbus  to  dissipate  their 
apprehensions. — Discovery  of  the  variation  of  the  compass. — Appearances  of 
birds  and  sea-weed. — Alarm  of  the  crew. — Murmurs,  and  resolutions  to  return. — 
Firmness  and  address  of  Columbus. — False  appearances  of  land  and  disappoint- 
ments of  the  crew. — Discovery  of  the  island  of  Guanaham. —  Columbus  takes 
possession. — Description  of  the  island  and  its  inhabitants. — Discovery  of  gold 
among  them. — More  islands  explored. — Intercourse  with  the  natives. 


Columbus  setting  sail. 


ON  Friday,  August  31,  1492,  Columbus  left  the  harbor  of  Palos 
with  this  little  fleet,  and  steered  toward  the  Canary  Islands. 
On  the  Monday  following,  the  Pinta  broke  her  rudder.  Some  of 
the  seamen,  who  had  exhibited  marks  of  fear  in  the  harbor,  were 
suspected  as  the  cause  of  this  serious  accident,  in  hopes  that  it 
would  induce  the  admiral  to  return  to  port.  But  the  intrepid  and 
dexterous  Martin  Alonzo  endeavored  to  remedy  the  disaster  by 
binding  the  rudder  with  ropes,  which,  however,  were  too  feeble 
to  resist  a  blast  of  wind,  and  only  lasted  four  days.  With  much 
effort  the  three  ships  at  last  reached  the  island  of  Grand  Canary. 
They  were  obliged  to  remain  at  this  place  about  a  month. 

With  such  vessels  as  these,  Columbus,  on  the  6th  of  September, 
committed  himself  to  an  ocean,  whose  bounds  were  unknown,  and 
4 


38  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

steered  his  course  directly  to  the  west.  At  the  last  sight  of  land, 
many  of  the  crew  began  to  sigh  and  weep,  and  gave  over  all 
hopes  of  ever  seeing  home  again.  The  admiral  encouraged  them 
with  the  flattering  prospects  of  fruitful  and  extensive  countries, 
and  as  he  foresaw  that  their  fears  and  despondency  would  in- 
crease in  proportion  as  they  advanced  on  their  voyage,  he  had 
the  precaution  to  keep  two  journals;  a  secret  one,  in  which  he 
accurately  noted  down  the  ship's  way,  and  a  public  one,  in  which 
he  artfully  shortened  it.  He  observed,  to  his  great  surprise,  about 
two  hundred  leagues  off  the  Isle  of  Ferro,  that  the  needle  did  not 
point  as  usual  to  the  north,  but  declined  to  the  northwest.  He 
marked  down  this  declination,  hitherto  unknown,  and  found  that 
it  increased  in  proportion  as  they  advanced  to  the  west.  At  first, 
he  imagined  that  the  needle  was  not,  as  commonly  supposed, 
attracted  or  ruled  by  the  polar  star,  but  by  some  other  fixed  and 
invisible  point ;  but  when  these  declinations  were  more  frequently 
observed,  he  found  that  this  hypothesis  was  not  sufficient  to 
explain  the  cause  of  such  variations ;  for  it  was  observed  that 
several  needles  pointed  at  the  beginning  of  the  night  to  the  north- 
west, and  at  break  of  day  were  parallel  to  the  meridian.  This 
phenomenon,  as  it  was  then  called,  filled  the  captains  and  pilots 
with  terror,  and  convinced  them  that  all  hopes  must  vanish  when 
the  mariner's  compass  became  useless.  But  the  ingenious  Colum- 
bus, whose  p'resence  of  mind  never  deserted  him,  dispelled  their 
fears  by  accounting  for  this  phenomenon  in  a  plausible  manner. 
He  ascribed  it  to  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  polar  star  round  the 
pole.  Thus  the  crew  were  perpetually  suspended  between  hope 
and  fear. 

On  the  9th  September,  the  crew  of  the  Nina  perceived  a  tropic 
bird,  which  appeared  to  have  come  from  some  land  at  no  great 
distance.  ,  The  next  day,  they  saw  a  surprising  flame  of  fire 
descend  at  a  great  distance;  and  soon  after,  they  discovered  float- 
ing fields  of  grass  and  marine  plants  which  resembled  beautiful 
meadows.  Some  rejoiced  very  much  at  these  presages  of  land ; 
and  their  hopes  were  increased,  when  one  of  the  seamen  found  a 
living  crab  in  the  grass.  Others  feared  the  vessels  might  strike  on 
hidden  shoals,  or  that  the  grass  might  impede  their  course,  which 
in  fact  soon  occurred.  They  saw  again  a  number  of  tropic  birds, 
and  shoals  of  tunnies.  They  had  now  sailed  upwards  of  four 
hundred  leagues  in  an  unknown  sea,  when  the  captain  of  the 
Pinta  declared  that  he  had  descried  many  birds  towards  the  west, 
and  marks  of  land,  enveloped  in  thick  fogs,  towards  the  north. 
Columbus  was  of  opiniofl,  that  it  might  be  a  cluster  of  small 
islands ;  and  as  he  was  firmly  persuaded  that  the  Indian  countries 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  VOYAGE  OF  COLUMBUS.  39 

must  be  farther  off,  he  continued  the  same  course  toward  the 
west,  in  a  gentle  and  favorable  breeze. 

The  impatience  and  timidity  of  the  crew,  now  burst  forth  into 
open  murmurings.  They  had  proceeded  so  far  into  the  boundless 
deep,  that  the  boldest  mariner  was  affrighted.  Even  the  fair  and 
serene  weather  was  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of  destruction; 
they  considered  all  countries  that  might  afford  any  relief,  as  very 
remote ;  the  almost  continued  easterly  winds,  with  which  they 
had  begun  their  voyage  induced  them  to  believe  that  their  return 
by  the  same  track  would  be  utterly  impossible.  Some  time  after, 
however,  they  recovered  a  little  courage,  when  they  saw  more  of 
those  sea  fowl,  which,  from  the  19th  September,  had  given  them 
hopes  of  soon  finding  land.  Even  Columbus  did  not  consider 
this  impossible,  in  consequence  of  which  he  began  to  sound,  and 
though  ground  could  not  be  discovered  two  hundred  fathoms 
deep,  he  continued  to  heave  the  lead.  As  the  voyagers  proceeded, 
a  whale  was  now  and  then  seen,  as  well  as  meadows  floating  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  in  which  small  crabs  and  tortoises  were 
found ;  and  small  singing  birds,  which  seemed  to  be  of  the  land 
kind,  and  which  could  not  have  come  from  any  great  distance. 
Notwithstanding  all  these  signs,  however,  when  the  shore  so  impa- 
tiently sought  for  by  every  eye  did  not  appear,  the  crews  began 
to  murmur  afresh,  and  louder  than  ever.  Nothing  alarmed  them 
so  much  as  the  continuance  of  the  easterly  wind.  Columbus  in 
vain  endeavored  to  persuade  them  that  the  smooth  sea  was  caused 
by  the  shelter  of  some  neighboring  land;  he  was  neither  believed 
nor  respected,  notwithstanding  all  his  exertions  to  maintain  his 
ascendency  by  alternate  threats  and  promises.  When  his  author- 
ity was  at  last  almost  entirely  gone,  and  even  the  sacred  name  of 
king  was  no  longer  respected,  he  gave  over  almost  every  hope  of 
enforcing  obedience  and  of  continuing  his  voyage ;  but  happily, 
on  the  morning  of  the  23d,  agreeably  to  the  wishes  of  the  crew,  a 
northwesterly  wind  sprang  up,  and  the  sea  became  somewhat 
agitated.  This  was  considered  as  a  distinguished  mark  of  divine 
favor;  and  the  circumstance,  together  with  the  sight  of  more  fish 
and  fowl,  once  more  calmed  the  turbulence  of  the  mariners. 

But  alas  !  this  was  a  short-lived  joy.  When  the  men  reflected 
upon  the  fallibility  of  all  these  flattering  omens,  the  great  damage 
the  ships  had  sustained,  and  the  large  tract  of  ocean  which  lay 
between  them  and  their  native  country,  a  dreadful  fear  seized  upon 
them  all ;  they  began  to  plot  and  conspire,  and  in  the  agony  of 
their  grief  cursed  the  author  of  their  misfortunes,  whom  they 
characterized  as  an  ambitious,  fanatical  schemer,  whose  only  object 
was  to  gratify  his  wild  ambition,  at  the  expense  of  their  lives ; 


40  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

and  that  to  hazard  such  a  daring  enterprise  against  the  opinion 
of  so  many  learned  and  eminent  men,  was  an  imprudent  temerity, 
which  deserved  the  severest  punishment.  They  had  now  made 
a  voyage  that  was  never  equalled  before ;  if  they  advanced  farther, 
their  destruction  was  inevitable.  The  general  determination  was 
to  return  to  Spain ;  and  some  of  the  crew  added  that  if  the  admiral 
did  not  immediately  accede  to  this,  they  would  throw  him  secretly 
overboard,  and  give  out  that  he  had  fallen  into  the  sea  as  he  was 
consulting  the  stars. 

But  such  was  the  spirit  and  intrepidity  of  Columbus,  notwith- 
standing the  imminent  dangers  which  threatened  him,  that  he 
determined  to  run  the  risk  of  his  'life,  rather  than  relinquish  his 
design.  He  had  the  address  to  sooth  some  with  soft  words  and 
flattering  promises;  others  with  reproaches  of  cowardice,  threats 
and  menaces,  in  consequence  of  the  full  powers  with  which  he 
was  invested;  he  endeavored  also  to  encourage  some;  to  fan  the 
sparks  of  honor  in  others,  and  to  frighten  the  rebellious  into  proper 
subjection.  He  continued  to  steer  west,  except  at  one  time,  when 
he  deviated  to  the  southwest  by  the  advice  of  Martin  Alonzo 
Pinzon,  who  fancied  that  he  saw  land  in  that  quarter;  but  it 
turned  out  to  be  a  cloud.  Fish,  fowl  and  verdant  spots  often  ap- 
peared on  the  surface  of  the  main  once  more. 

The  malcontents  were  ready  to  burst  forth  into  mutiny  afresh, 
when,  on  the  evening  of  the  fourth  of  October,  besides  the  usual 
marks,  a  number  of  little  birds  appeared,  flying  in  flocks.  Similar 
objects  followed  in  so  great  a  quantity,  and  in  such  rapid  succes- 
sion, that  some,  whose  imagination  was  inflamed  by  their  impa- 
tience to  see  land,  imagined  that  they  saw  it  at  every  moment, 
and  scarcely  could  their  lips  refrain  from  the  annunciation  of  a 
prospect  so  truly  desirable.  The  thirst  of  gain  had  its  share, 
however,  in  this  anxiety ;  for  the  king  had  promised  a  pension 
of  thirty  dollars,  or  ten  thousand  maravedis  a  year,  to  the  one 
who  first  discovered  land.  The  sagacious  admiral  observed  that 
hope  often  disappointed,  depressed  the  spirits ;  and  in  order  to 
prevent  this,  he  ordered  that  the  first  person  who  should  cry  out 
"land!"  should  be  utterly  excluded  from  the  royal  bounty,  if 
the  land  should  not  be  discovered  in  three  days  after. 

Nevertheless,  on  the  morning  of  the  7th  October,  the  crew  of 
the  Nina,  which  was  a  quick  sailer  and  usually  ahead  of  the  rest, 
believed  to  a  certainty  that  they  had  discovered  land,  on  which 
they  hoisted  a  flag  and  fired  a  gun.  It  was  soon  found  to  be  an 
illusion,  and  the  disappointment  had  such  an  effect  upon  the 
minds  of  the  crews,  that  the  agitation  was  still  greater  than  before. 
The  tumult  and  confusion  became  so  general,  that,  if  we  may 


FIRST   VOYAGE   OF    COLUMBUS.  41 

give  credit  to  one  historian,  Columbus  and  the  Pinzons,  on  the 
following  day,  found  themselves  so  embarrassed  and  pressed  on 
every  side,  as  to  be  obliged  to  enter  into  an  agreement  with  the 
crews,  that  if  land  should  not  be  discovered  in  three  days,  he 
would  return.  This  part  of  the  narrative,  however,  is  uncertain. 

On  the  morning  of  the  9th  October,  they  breathed  a  fresh  and 
odoriferous  air,  such  as  is  felt  at  Seville  in  April.  Every  moment 
exhibited  fresh  marks  of  the  neighborhood  of  land;  the  soundings, 
the  clouds,  the  varying  winds,  and  other  infallible  appearances, 
revived  their  drooping  spirits  every  moment.  On  the  evening  of 
the  llth  they  were  all  transported  with  joy,  when  they  discovered 
a  green  rush ;  a  kind  of  fish  that  is  usually  found  among  the 
rocks ;  a  small  plank ;  a  cane ;  a  stick  artificially  worked ;  a 
grassy  turf,  which  appeared  to  have  been  wafted  from  the  shore, 
and  a  thornbush,  bearing  red  berries.  When  the  night  approached, 
and  Columbus  was  persuaded  that  they  were  near  land,  he  assem- 
bled the  crew,  and  reminded  them  of  the  unspeakable  obligations 
they  were  under  to  Almighty  God,  who  had  granted  them  such 
favorable  weather,  and  who,  notwithstanding  their  murmurs,  had 
not  deserted  them  till  he  had  conducted  them  to  the  great  object 
of  their  adventurous  voyage.  He  also  recalled  to  their  recollection 
the  first  article  of  instruction  which  he  had  given  them  in  the 
Canaries,  that  when  they  had  sailed  about  seven  hundred  leagues 
from  those  isles,  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  sail  after  midnight; 
and  as  he  was  certain  that  they  would  soon  be  blest  with  the  sight 
of  some  shore,  it  was  necessary  to  warn  them  to  be  watchful. 
He  offered  a  silk  waistcoat  to  the  first  that  discovered  land,  in 
addition  to  the  royal  pension  of  thirty  dollars.  About  ten  o'clock 
at  night,  as  he  was  making  observations  with  his  usual  attention, 
on  the  quarter-deck,  he  saw  a  light,  somewhat  like  a  torch,  carried 
from  one  place  to  another.  At  first,  he  called  Pedro  Gutierrez, 
a  royal  page,  and  afterwards  the  superintendent,  Rodrigo  Sanchez, 
who  saw  it  likewise.  It  was  remarked  that  this  light  rose,  sunk, 
vanished,  and  instantly  appeared  again;  it  was  concluded,  there- 
fore, that  it  was  carried  by  hand. 

Near  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  land  was  descried  by  the 
Pinta,  at  about  two  leagues  distance.  The  first  who  had  the  good 
fortune  to  announce  this  welcome  intelligence  was  a  mariner  by 
the  name  of  Rodrigo,  of  Triana.  The  captain  of  the  Pinta  com- 
municated the  joyful  news  by  the  discharge  of  guns.  The  ships 
came  together,  and  as  soon  as  it  was  broad  daylight,  a  flat  and 
pleasant  island  appeared  in  view,  full  of  limpid  rivulets,  and 
abundance  of  green  bushes.  The  crews  were  filled  with  the 
liveliest  transports  of  joy ;  the  admiral  lifted  up  his  heart  and 
4*  F 


42 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 


eyes  to  heaven,  and  poured  forth  ejaculations  of  thanks  and  praise 
to  God.  The  whole  crew  joined  in  the  psalm,  Te  Deum  Lauda- 
mus,  which  he  began  to  sing ;  and  as  soon  as  they  had  paid  their 
early  vows  to  the  Divine  Author  of  all  blessings,  they  gave 
themselves  up  to  sport  and  pleasantry.  Columbus,  who  had 
hitherto  been  considered  as  a  vain,  fantastic  projector,  was  now 
changed  by  success  into  a  hero  in  their  eyes.  The  crew  of  his 
ship  crowded  around  him  as  their  guardian  angel,  and  every  oiie 
did  him  homage. 


Landing  of  Columbus. 

In  the  mean  time,  as  the  vessels  approached  the  shore,  the  nov- 
elty of  the  spectacle  brought  together  a  number  of  the  astonished 
natives.  The  admiral  and  captains  went  on  shore,  accompanied 
by  armed  men.  The  royal  colors,  flying  in  the  air,  were  carried 
before  the  former,  and  the  latter  were  preceded  by  the  standard 
of  the  enterprise,  on  which  a  green  crucifix  with  the  initial  letters 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  painted.  As  soon  as  they  had 
reached  the  wished-for  shore,  they  fell  on  the  ground,  kissed  it, 
bedewed  it  with  tears  of  joy,  and  repeated  their  thanks  to  the 
Supreme  Being,  on  their  knees.  Columbus  then  rose,  and  pro- 
nounced the  word  Salvador,  with  a  loud  voice,  as  the  name  of  the 
island,  and  as  a  testimony  that  he  dedicated  the  first  of  his  dis- 
coveries to  our  Savior.  He  then  took  solemn  possession  of  it,  in 
the  name  of  the  Castilian  crown.  The  Spaniards  instantly  hailed 
the  illustrious  discoverer  as  admiral  and  viceroy  of  the  is&nd, 


COLUMBUS   IN   THE   NEW   WORLD.  43 

and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him  as  such ;  many,  at  the  same 
time,  entreated  his  forgiveness  for  the  sorrow  and  distress  they 
had  caused  him. 

The  natives,  who  were  present  at  all  these  scenes,  were  aston- 
ished and  perplexed  at  the  novelty  of  the  ships,  the  men,  their 
color,  dress,  arms,  and  ceremonies.  The  Spaniards  were  nearly  as 
much  surprised.  The  islanders  differed  from  them  in  almost  every 
respect.  Their  features  were  regular,  except  the  forehead,  which 
was  uncommonly  broad ;  their  skin  was  of  an  olive  color,  like 
that  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  islands ;  their  hair  was  thick, 
black,  and  erect,  mostly  cut  off  above  the  ears,  hanging  down  the 
shoulders  of  some,  or  tied  up  with  a  string  around  their  heads. 
They  went  quite  naked,  and  were  painted,  or  rather  speckled  with 
different  colors.  They  appeared  to  be  very  mild-tempered,  but 
extremely  stupid ;  so  ignorant  and  destitute  of  any  kind  of  know- 
ledge, that  they  were  incapable  of  forming  any  conception  of  the 
new  objects  around  them.  The  first  impression  seemed  to  raise  in 
their  minds  an  idea  of  a  superior  order  of  beings,  in  consequence 
of  which  they  ran  away  with  the  utmost  precipitation ;  but  when 
they  saw  that  no  one  pursued  them,  they  returned  with  marks  of 
the  deepest  humility.  Some  threw  themselves  prostrate  on  the 
earth,  and  others  raised  their  eyes  and  hands  to  heaven,  endeavor- 
ing to  express,  by  such  gesticulations,  that  they  considered  the 
Spaniards  as  descended  from  heaven.* 

Columbus  distributed  several  glass  beads,  little  bells,  and  other 
trifles  amongst  them,  which  they  preferred  to  gold  and  diamonds. 
Those  who  had  not  received  any  of  these  presents  offered  what- 
ever they  possessed  for  them.  As  the  Spaniards  were  on  their 
return  to  the  ships,  several  of  the  natives  followed  them,  and 
those  who  could  not  get  into  canoes,  swam,  and  when  they  got 
a  few  glass  beads  and  broken  bits  of  glass,  they  returned  quite 
contented. 

*  The  belief  that  the  Spaniards  were  immortal  beings  continued  a  long  time  among 
the  natives  of  the  New  World.  The  Indians  of  Porto  Rico  gave  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  persuasion.  Some  time  after  the  •  Spaniards  had  settled  among  them 
they  were  desirous  of  making  an  experiment,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  Span- 
iards were  mortal  like  themselves.  One  of  their  caciques  prevailed  upon  a  young 
Spaniard,  by  many  entreaties,  to  pay  him  a  visit.  He  was  carried  over  a  river,  and 
when  at  the  middle  of  the  stream,  the  Indians  dropped  him  into  the  water  and  held 
him  under  till  he  was  drowned.  They  then  carried  him  to  the  shore  and  called  upon 
him  to  arise.  No  signs  of  life  appeared,  yet  they  could  not  be  persuaded  to  believe 
him  dead,  and  remained  three  days  by  him,  expecting  him  every  moment  to  return  to 
life.  Finding  that  the  body  began  to  putrefy,  they  reported  the  fact  to  the  cacique,  who 
nevertheless  still  remained  distrustful.  But  after,  several  days  more  spent  in  watch- 
ing the  body,  with  no  signs  but  those  of  further  decay,  the  Indians  began  to  believe 
the  Spaniards  were  mortal  like  themselves.  The  consequence  was  a  general  insur 
rection  a  short  time  afterwards. 


44  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

The  first  and  second  day  passed  away  in  this  little  commercial 
intercourse.  The  rudeness  and  poverty  of  the  people  were  visible 
on  every  occasion.  The  only  articles  of  barter  which  they  produced 
were  spun  cotton,  parrots,  sticks  like  lances,  and  javelins  with 
points  hardened  in  the  fire,  and  sharp  bones  joined  to  them. 

These  were  the  only  arms  they  exhibited ;  there  were  no  un- 
common animals  to  be  seen,  nor  higher  marks  of  art.  Their  edge- 
tools  were  made  of  sharp  stones.  With  such  instruments,  and 
the  aid  perhaps  of  fire,  they  hollowed  trunks  of  trees  into  canoes, 
the  largest  of  which  would  carry  forty-five  men.  These  they 
rowed  with  oars  or  paddles,  and  if  they  were  overset  by  accident, 
they  were  such  expert  swimmers,  that  they  would  turn  their 
canoes  over  again,  and  bale  out  the  water  with  hollow  gourds. 
But  what  particularly  excited  the  attention  of  the  Spaniards  were 
little  pieces  of  gold,  which  some  of  the  natives  wore  suspended 
from  their  noses.  Being  asked  by  signs  where  they  obtained  this 
metal,  they  pointed  to  the  south,  where  they  said  it  was  to  be  had 
in  abundance.  They  also  represented  that  savage  and  warlike 
men  came  to  their  island  from  the  northwest,  to  plunder ;  and  that 
in  the  battles  which  took  place  they  had  received  many  wounds, 
the  scars  of  which  they  showed.  Thus  Columbus  became  con- 
vinced of  the  existence  of  a  continent,  or  rich  islands,  at  no  great 
distance  at  the  south  and  west. 

Having  passed  three  days  at  St.  Salvador,  which  the  natives 
called  Guanahani,  he  took  on  board  seven  of  the  inhabitants  and 
sailed  to  a  smaller  island,  about  seven  leagues  distant.  Without 
stopping  there,  he  shaped  his  course  to  another,  which  seemed  to 
be  larger  than  the  last,  and  about  ten  leagues  to  the  west.  He 
cast  anchor  here,  and  took  possession  of  it,  by  the  name  of -Santa 
Maria  de  la  Concepcion.  The  inhabitants  approached  with  the 
same  marks  of  astonishment  and  respect  as  those  of  St.  Salvador, 
whom  they  resembled  so  exactly  in  their  persons,  canoes,  artificial 
works,  and  the  fruits  of  the  island,  that  they  seemed  to  be  one 
nation.  From  this  island,  Columbus  sailed  eight  miles  farther  to 
the  west,  and  reached  a  still  greater  island,  level  like  the  rest, 
beautiful,  and  encircled  with  delightful  coasts.  In  all  probability 
it  was  that  which  is  called  Cat  Island  in  the  modern  charts;  Colum- 
bus called  it  Fernandina,  in  honor  of  king  Ferdinand.  He  immedi- 
ately despatched  a  native  of  St.  Salvador  with  some  trinkets,  as 
presents  to  the  inhabitants,  and  ordered  him  to  inform  them,  at  the 
same  time,  of  the  pacific  intentions  of  the  Spaniards ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  they'did  not  fly ;  but  they  were  not  less  amazed 
than  the  other  islanders,  and  evinced  the  same  high  opinion  of 
the  Spaniards.  As  some  of  the  seamen  went  ashore  to  procure 


COLUMBUS    PURSUES    HIS    DISCOVERIES.  45 

water,  the  natives  assisted  them  in  filling  and  carrying  it  to  the 
boats.  The  usual  barter  immediately  commenced,  by  which  it 
appeared  that  these  islanders  were  not  so  limited  in  their  ideas  as 
the  first,  and  that  they  were  somewhat  farther  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion, for  they  made  sharper  bargains  for  their  commodities.  They 
wore  mantles  of  cotton,  and  the  young  women  above  eighteen  years 
of  age,  wore  skirts  of  the  same  material.  Their  houses,  or  huts, 
resembled  tents,  but  were  entirely  destitute  of  ornaments,  or  any 
other  thing  worthy  of  attention,  except  swinging  beds,  which  they 
called  hammocks ;  these  were  nets  suspended  from  two  posts  by 
cotton  ropes.  As  to  other  matters,  they  differed  little,  or  not  at  all, 
from  the  other  islanders.  The  only  land  animals,  were  a  kind  of 
little  dog  which  did  not  bark ;  there  were  some  reptiles,  such  as 
lizards  and  serpents.  They  also  saw  fish  of  different  shapes 
and  very  lively  colors.  What  peculiarly  attracted  their  attention 
were  certain  trees,  with  branches  and  leaves  of  various  forms  on 
each  tree,  and  yet  as  different  from  each  other  as  those  of  the 
reed  and  the  mastic. 

When  they  sailed  farther  to  the  southwest,  they  came  to  an 
island,  which  surpassed  all  those  they  had  yet  discovered,  both 
in  size  and  beauty.  This  island  rose  higher  above  the  sea,  and 
the  interior  was  not  so  flat  and  uniform  as  the  rest,  but  exhibited 
a  variety  of  hills,  beautiful  meadows  and  groves,  and  was  well 
watered.  Allured  by  such  enchanting  scenes,  Columbus  went  on 
shore,  took  possession,  and  changed  its  old  name  of  Samoete  into 
that  of  Isabella,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  It  is  the  same  probably 
as  that  afterwards  called  Long  Island.  Columbus  penetrated  into 
it  till  he  found  a  village,  the  inhabitants  of  which  fled,  affrighted  at 
the  sight  of  the  foreigners.  They  took  courage,  however,  in  a 
short  time,  and  began  to  barter  like  the  rest.  Aloe  plants  were 
found,  a  vast  number  of  singing  birds,  and  a  species  of  lizards, 
which  are  now  known  under  the  name  of  iguanas. 


CHAPTER    V. 

Discovery  of  Cuba. — Beauty  of  the  country,  and  improvement  in  the  appearance  of 
the  inhabitants. — Columbus  imagines  it  the  realm  of  the  Great  Khan. — Sends  an 
exploring  expedition  into  the  interior. —  They  discover  tobacco , —  Columbus  directed 
southerly  by  the  natives  for  gold. — Desertion  of  Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon. — Mis- 
takes of  the  Spaniards. — Discovery  of  Espanola.  Description  of  the  country  and 
people. — Native  appellations  of  the  island. — The  Spaniards  obtain  much. gold. — 
They  are  visited  by  the  cacique  Guacanagari. — His  courtesy  towards  the  Span- 
iards.— The  admiral's  ship  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Espanola. — Humanity  and 
generosity  of  the  natives. — Columbus  builds  a  fort  on  the  island  at  Navidad. — 
He  leaves  a  colony  there. — Discovers  the  Carib  Indians. — Sails  for  Spain. — 
Escapes  the  tempests  and  the  Portuguese. — Arrives  at  Palos. 


Spaniards  discovering  tobacco. 

COLUMBUS  discovered  Cuba  at  sunset,  on  the  27th  of  October. 
The  next  morning  presented  him  a  noble  view  of  a  most  beautiful 
country,  diversified  with  gently  sloping  hills,  lofty  mountains,  and 
copious  streams  of  water.  The  fleet  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  in  full  view  of  the  most  enchanting  prospect.  The  shores 
»were  covered  with  green  trees,  some  in  vernal  bloom,  and  others 
weighed  down  with  fruit.  The  richness  of  the  grass  seemed  to 
vie  with  that  which  clothes  the  fresh  valleys  of  Andalusia  in  the 
month  of  May.  Columbus  was  so  charmed  with  the  view  that  he 
sprang  ashore,  took  possession  of  the  island  and  called  it  Juana, 


COLUMBUS   PURSUES   HIS   DISCOVERIES.  47 

after  Prince  Don  Juan.  Two  houses  were  found  here,  which  con- 
tained many  fire-places,  with  nets,  and  fishing-hooks  of  bone ;  they 
also  saw  a  little  clay,  but  none  of  the  inhabitants  appeared. 

The  natives  who  had  accompanied  the  Spaniards,  pointed  to  the 
villages  towards  the  west,  in  consequence  of  which  Columbus  on 
the  next  morning  crossed  the  river  and  proceeded  along  the  coast. 
In  the  course  of  a  mile,  he  discovered  another  river,  and  a  little  far- 
ther on,  a  large  one  called  Mares,  with  an  indifferent  harbor,  and 
a  number  of  habitations  along  the  shores.  The  fleet  entered  this 
haven,  and  Columbus,  anxious  to  know  the  country,  despatched 
some  men  in  boats  to  the  villages ;  but  the  inhabitants  ran  away 
at  their  approach  with  the  utmost  haste.  The  cottages  were  of 
the  same  simple  structure  as  the  former,  like  tents  covered  with 
palm  leaves,  but  larger,  and  somewhat  more  finely  decorated.  The 
nets,  hooks  and  fishing  utensils  were  also  proportionally  better. 
Several  tame  fowls  were  seen,  little  dogs  and  heads  of  figures 
carved  in  wood.  It  was  supposed  that  these  cots  belonged  to  fish- 
ermen, whom  the  Spaniards  hoped  to  find  by  advancing  into  the 
country. 


Columbus  communicating  with  natives  of  Cuba. 

Sailing  farther  along  the  coast,  they  met  inhabitants,  who  inform- 
ed them  that  by  travelling  four  days'  journey  into  the  interior  they 
would  reach  Cubanacan,  and  find  plenty  of  gold.  This  name 
signifies  the  centre  of  Cuba;  but  Columbus,  impressed  with  the 
notion  that  he  had  arrived  at  the  continent  of  India,  understood  it 
to  mean  the  dominions  of  the  Great  Khan,  a  Tartar  chief,  famous 
in  the  narrative  of  Marco  Polo.  In  this  belief  he  sent  four  men  on 


48  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

a  journey  into  the  interior ;  one  a  Spaniard,  another  a  converted 
Jew,  familiar  with  the  Hebrew,  Arabic  and  Chaldean  languages,  and 
the  other  two,  natives.  He  furnished  them  with  credentials  to  the 
Great  Khan  from  the  Spanish  monarch,  and  gave  them  six  days  to 
return.  These  men  journeyed  about  twelve  miles  into  the  country. 
but  discovered  neither  cities  nor  gold.  Villages  containing  a  thou- 
sand inhabitants  were  seen,  and  the  strangers  were  everywhere 
received  as  celestial  visitants.  A  certain  distinction  of  rank  was 
observable  in  the  people,  and  one  individual  appeared  to  be  the 
sovereign  or  magistrate.^  Large  quantities  of  cotton,  both  raw  and 
manufactured  into  cloth,  were  found  in  the  houses.  A  single  dwell-" 
ing  contained  above  twelve  thousand  pounds.  Here  the  Spaniards 
first  saw  potatoes,  also  yams  and  cassava.  A  discovery  of  no  less 
importance,  although  little  regarded  at  the  time,  was  also  made  dur- 
ing this  journey, — that  of  tobacco.  The  travellers  were  struck  with 
a  singular  custom  of  these  people,  who  went  about  with  fire  in  their 
hands,  lighting  the  leaves  of  a  certain  plant  rolled  up  into  tubes, 
and  inhaling  the  smoke  at  one  end.  These  tubes  they  called 
tabacos,  and  the  subsequent  adoption  of  this  practice  of  smoking  by  * 
the  Spaniards,  caused  them  to  transfer  the  name  of  tobacco  to  the 
herb,  which  has  since  become  so  important  an  article  of  commerce 
all  over  the  world. 

The  main  object  of  the  Spaniards  was  the  discovery  of  Indian 
countries  abounding  in  the  precious  metals,  pearls,  gums,  spices 
and  aromatics.  Cuba  offered  them  few  traces  of  these  desirable 
objects.  Whenever  they  made  inquiries  of  the  natives  for  such 
articles,  they  pointed  to  the  east,  and  repeated  with  animated  ges- 
tures the  words  Babeque  and  Bohio.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
natives  understood  the  questions  which  drew  forth  these  replies ; 
but  as  Columbus  supposed  himself  in  the  East  Indies,  it  was 
natural  enough  for  him  to  imagine  that  those  names  might  be  given 
to  some  islands  famous  for  their  treasures,  and  perhaps  Japan 
itself.  Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon,  the  commander  of  the  Pinta,  had 
some  of  the  natives  of  St.  Salvador  on  board,  and  six  others,  whom 
he  had  taken  with  him  from  the  port  of  Mares,  and  from  them  he 
had  received  particular  accounts  of  the  situation  and  size  of 
Babeque  and  Bohio.  In  order  to  secure  this  rich  discovery  for 
himself,  stimulated  by  self-conceit,  and  reckoning  upon  his  nautical 
skill  and  experience,  and  the  goodness  of  his  vessel,  he  deserted 
Columbus  on  the  night  of  the  22nd,  without  paying  attention  to 
the  signals  made  to  him.  The  ship  of  Columbus  was  a  dull  sailer, 
which,  with  the  contrary  winds,  prevented  him  from  following  the 
fugitive ;  nor  was  he  much  inclined  to  leave  a  country  which  held 
out  so  many  allurements,  till  he  had  examined  it  still  farther. 


COLUMBUS    PURSUES    HIS    DISCOVERIES.  49 

The  Spaniards,  at  every  step  of  their  progress,  fell  into  fresh 
errors,  because,  without  knowing  where  they  were,  and  without 
understanding  the  natives,  they  drew  hasty  inferences  from  uncer- 
tain and  vague  accounts.  The  hope  of  discovering  rich  countries 
to  wards  the  east  was  increased  by  every  novelty  they  saw.  Colum- 
bus left  Cuba  for  a  country  in  sight  to  the  east,  and  steered  with 
the  more  impatience  to  it,  in  proportion  as  the  islanders  he  had  on 
board,  particularly  those  of  Cuba,  strove  to  dissuade  him  from  it, 
by  the  repetition  of  the  word  "  Bohio,  Bohio,"  a  name  by  which 
they  had  often  signified  a  marvellous  island  abounding  in  gold, 
and  which  they  now  repeated  with  exaggerated  gestures ;  but  they 
described  the  inhabitants  as  hideous  monsters  and  man-eaters 
Columbus  understood  by  this  that  they  might  be  men  of  more 
bodily  strength  and  mental  civilization,  who  perhaps  waged  wai 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  isles.  This  opinion,  their  prodi- 
gious wealth,  and  the  supposition  that  their  country  was  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Indies,  induced  him  to  conclude  that  this  was  the  rich 
Cipango  or  Japan.  The  land,  which  rose  very  high  above  the 
water,  exhibited  verdant  grounds  betwixt  the  high  mountains 
mostly  cultivated  like  the  fields  of  Cordova  in  the  month  of  May. 
The  harbor  in  which  he  cast  anchor  seemed  to  excel  all  that  he 
had  met  with  in  his  voyage.  Many  canoes  appeared  in  view, 
some  of  them  like  galleys  or  barks,  of  seventeen  benches  for  rowers. 
The  shore  was  beautified  with  trees  weighed  down  with  fruits.  As 
they  advanced  a  little  into  the  country,  the  ground  became  pictur- 
esque and  charming,  watered  by  a  gentle  rivulet.  All  these 
delicious  views  promised  a  numerous  population,  though  one  house 
only  was  seen,  and  not  one  inhabitant.  The  harbor,  as  well  as 
the  cape,  was  called  St.  Nicholas,  after  the  natal  day  of  that  saint. 

Columbus  now  steered  eastward  along  the  coast,  till  he  came 
to  a  harbor,  with  an  island  in  the  front  of  it.  They  named  this 
island,  from  its  shape,  Tortuga,  (Tortoise;)  doubtless  it  was  the 
harbor  afterwards  called  Mosquitos.  Columbus  gave  it  the  name 
of  La  Concepcion  when  he  took  shelter  in  it  on  the  eighth  of 
December,  from  a  tempest,  which  compelled  him  to  remain  there 
for  several  days.  In  his  course  from  the  harbor  of  St.  Nicholas, 
he  perceived  trees  like  scarlet  oaks,  arid  several  fruit  trees  resem- 
bling those  of  Europe,  and  some  pines  and  myrtles.  The  cul- 
tivated fields  at  a  distance  looked  like  fields  of  wheat  and  barley. 
They  heard  the  notes  of  several  birds,  especially  one  that  resembled 
the  nightingale.  They  caught  several  groundlings,  pollards,  and 
other  fish,  frequent  in  Europe.  The  country  bore  such  a  resem- 
blance to  Spain  that  Columbus  called  this  island  Espanola,  that 
is,  Hispaniola — or  "  Little  Spain."  Subsequently  it  was  called  St. 
5  G 


50  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

Domingo,  from  the  city  of  that  name  built  there  by  the  Spaniards. 
Tiie  natives  of  the  neighboring  islands  gave  it  many  names: 
Hayti,  or  high  country,  on  account  of  its  mountains;  Quisqueza, 
or  the  whole,  on  account  of  its  extent;  Bohio,  or  the  house, 
which  perhaps  was  in  allusion  to  the  number,  size  and  architec- 
ture of  the  habitations.  The  common  dwellings  on  the  island  at 
this  day  are  called  bohios,  though  they  scarcely  rival  the  cottages 
of  peasants.  They  are  of  light  wood- work,  covered  with  branches 
and  shrubs  interwoven ;  others  are  called  boharqiies,  composed 
of  piles  of  wood  driven  into  the  earth,  and  joined  at  the  top  in  a 
conical  form,  or  the  shape  of  a  tent.  The  former  were  quite  nu- 
merous on  the  island.  It  is  very  natural  to  suppose  that  the 
names  of  them  should  be  frequently  heard  in  the  answers  of  the 
islanders ;  and  also  that  they  sounded,  to  the  ears  of  an  European, 
like  Babeque,  and  therefore  occasioned  the  Spaniards  to  take  it 
for  the  name  of  a  country.  In  like  manner,  the  words  Carib  and 
Caniba,  by  which  the  gentle  and  dismayed  inhabitants  of  the  first 
discovered  isles  signified  certain  islands  inhabited  by  a  warlike 
and  cruel  race,  were  mistaken  for  the  name  of  a  country,  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Great  Khan.  Thus  Columbus  raised  the  pile 
of  his  suppositions  higher  and  higher.  The  picture  which  his 
imagination  had  drawn  of  the  excellence  of  this  country,  was 
further  heightened  by  the  report  of  those  whom  he  had  sent  to 
explore  it.  They  described  it  as  a  happy  and  fertile  region,  the 
season  like  spring,  the  trees  in  the  full  bloom  of  summer,  and  the 
fruit  swelling  in  all  the  luxuriance  of  autumn ;  the  grass  rich  and 
fine,  enamelled  with  flowers  of  every  kind.  Some  cottages,  roads 
and  plantations  left  no  doubt  that  there  were  inhabitants  enough, 
but  none  of  them  were  yet  seen. 

On  the  12th  of  Decembef ,  after  a  crucifix  had  been  erected  on 
a  prominent  point,  as  usual,  three  of  the  crew,  in  passing  over  a 
mountain,  unexpectedly  espied  a  group  of  people,  who  hurried 
away  at  the  sight  of  them.  They  captured,  however,  a  young, 
well-shaped  woman,  who  wore  a  little  ring  of  gold  in  her  nose. 
Columbus  caused  her  to  be  dressed,  gave  her  glass  beads,  and 
brass  rings,  and  after  having  treated  her  kindly,  dismissed  her, 
well  pleased.  He  sent  with  her  three  of  the  islanders,  and  some 
Spaniards  to  visit  her  home,  which  she  pointed  out  in  the  south- 
east of  the  harbor.  The  messengers  came  back  late  at  night, 
without  having  reached  the  place,  on  account  of  its  distance. 

On  the  following  morning,  nine  armed  Spaniards,  with  an  isl- 
ander, were  despatched  on  an  expedition.  After  a  journey  of  nearly 
four  miles,  they  came  to  a  town  of  about  four  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, situated  in  a  spacious  and  fertile  valley.  At  the  appearance 


COLUMBUS    PURSUES   HIS    DISCOVERIES.  51 

of  the  Spaniards,  the  natives  all  ran  away.  The  islanders  called 
out  to  them  not  to  be  afraid,  as  these  strangers  came  from  heaven, 
and  instead  of  hurting  any  person,  they  would  give  those  who 
came  to  them  many  fine  things.  On  hearing  this,  they  began  to 
dismiss  their  fears,  and  by  degrees  they  approached  all  together, 
Their  fear  was  succeeded  by  admiration,  respect,  and  submission, 
and  each  of  them  freely  offered  whatever  he  possessed,  fruits, 
roots,  parrots,  and  fish.  A  troop  of  them  raised  the  young  woman 
that  had  been  dressed,  on  their  shoulders,  and  sounded  forth  her 
happiness,  as  it  were,  and  blessed  her  for  the  honor  she  had  re- 
ceived. They  were  so  pleased  with-  their  guests,  that  when  they 
saw  them  prepare  to  return,  sorrow  and  dejection  were  painted  in 
their  looks.  The  Spaniards  were  highly  pleased  with  the  kind- 
n^s,  simplicity,  and  open-heartedness  of  these  people.  They 
appeared  to  be  superior  to  any  yet  seen ;  they  were  of  a  fairer 
color  and  handsomer  shape,  particularly  two  females,  who  might 
have  been  mistaken  for  Spanish  women.  The  grounds  and  cul- 
tured fields  excelled,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Spaniards,  even  those 
of  Cordova.  They  saw  a  number  of  mastic  trees,  aloes,  planta- 
tions of  cotton  shrubs,  but  very  few  traces  of  gold. 

In  Tortuga,  they  found  a  greater  store  of  gold,  partly  in  grains, 
and  partly  worked  in  plates.  This  metal  the  natives  wore  in 
their  ears  and  noses,  as  ornaments,  and  yet  they  freely  parted 
with  it  for  any  trifle  whatever.  Some  of  them,  it  is  true,  were 
cunning  enough  to  drive  good  bargains ;  they  divided  a  leaf  of 
gold  as  broad  as  the  hand,  into  little  pieces,  and  bartered  each 
singly ;  but  most  of  them  offered  their  gold  without  accepting  any- 
thing for  it,  as  well  as  their  gourd  bottles,  filled  with  water  or 
food. 

An  ambassador  of  Guacanagari,  a  considerable  cacique,  or  pet- 
ty king  of  that  country,  visited  the  Spaniards  in  a  large  canoe, 
accompanied  with  a  number  of  attendants.  He  requested  the 
admiral  to  come  with  his  ships  to  his  shore,  and  he  would  give 
him  whatever  he  wanted.  He  presented  Columbus  with  a  girdle, 
four  fingers  in  breadth,  trimmed  with  white  bones,  like  pearls, 
interspersed  with  red  beads ;  and  a  mask,  with  the  ears,  tongue 
and  nose  of  gold.  Some  of  the  Spaniards,  therefore,  went  to  this 
place,  and  were  received  with  great  joy  and  cordiality;  men,  wo- 
men, and  children  assembling  in  crowds  to  see  and  admire  them. 
From  the  humblest  individual,  to  the  cacique  himself,  there  was 
a  visible  emulation  to  wait  upon  and  serve  their  heaven-descended 
guests,  with  the  best  things  their  houses  could  afford,  in  viands  as 
well  as  cotton  cloths,  parrots,  and  pieces  of  gold.  He  that  re- 
ceived a  trifle  in  return  placed  an  inestimable  value  upon  it. 


62  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

On  the  24th  of  December,  the  squadron  bent  their  sails  for  the 
east,  with  a  light  land  breeze ;  in  a  short  time,  they  were  entirely 
becalmed,  so  that  they  scarcely  advanced  three  leagues  the  whole 
day.  About  seven  o'clock  at  night,  as  the  vessels  were  veering 
off  a  point  of  land,  the  sea  being  perfectly  smooth,  the  admiral, 
who  had  not  slept  for  the  last  two  days,  threw  himself  down  on 
his  bed ;  the  crew  did  the  same,  as  well  as  the  steersman  at  the 
helm.  This  man,  contrary  to  an  express  order,  had  committed 
it  to  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  ship  boy.  In  the  course  of  an 
hour,  the  ship,  drifted  by  the  tide,  struck  on  a  sand  bank.  The 
cries  of  the  boy  awakened  Columbus,  who  speedily  ordered  an 
anchor  to  be  cast  astern.  The  ship's  master  and  a  number  of 
mariners,  instead  of  obeying  this  command,  sprang  into  the  long- 
boat, and  hastened  to  the  Nina,  which  was  half  a  league  distant. 
The  admiral  soon  found  that  the  ship  was  filling  with  water,  and 
so  forced  by  the  current  on  one  side,  that  all  hopes  of  saving  her 
were  given  over,  notwithstanding  her  being  lighted,  arid  her  mast 
cut  away.  Fortunately,  the  calm  continued,  and  Captain  Vincent 
Yanez,  acting  up  to  his  duty,  obliged  the  disobedient  hands  to 
return  immediately  to  the  aid  of  the  admiral,  and  at  the  same  time 
sent  him  his  own  boat,  so  that  Columbus  and  the  whole  crew 
were  saved. 

On  the  25th,  at  the  break  of  day,  the  crew  began  to  carry  every- 
thing on  shore  out  of  the  ship,  which  was  effected  with  admirable 
despatch;  a  number  of  the  natives,  at  the  command  of  Guacana- 
gari,  came  and  assisted  with  their  canoes.  The  generous  cacique, 
filled  with  grief  and  compassion  at  the  recital  of  this  misfortune, 
omitted  no  friendly  exertion  to  comfort  and  assist  the  Spaniards. 
Not  content  with  the  spontaneous  zeal  of  his  subjects,  he  person- 
ally attended  and  took  care  of  everything  conveyed  on  shore.  As 
soon  as  it  was  sufficiently  light,  he  ordered  all  the  goods  to  be  put 
in  a  proper  place  near  the  village,  and  entrusted  them  to  the  care 
of  an  armed  body  of  men,  who  were  to  watch  over  them  during  the 
night ;  after  which  they  were  placed  in  two  large  cottages,  made 
ready  for  that  purpose.  The  cacique  was  so  much  affected  by 
Columbus's  disaster,  that  he  shed  tears,  and  sent  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  his  vassals,  who  endeavored,  with  tears  in  his 
eyes,  to  console  the  admiral  with  liberal  presents,  and  the  sincer- 
est  demonstrations  of  friendship. 

On  the  following  day,  he  paid  Columbus  a  visit  himself,  and 
repeated  his  promises  and  friendly  offers  in  the  most  expressive 
manner.  At  the  same  time,  some  canoes,  filled  with  inhabitants 
from  other  places,  came  to  exchange  gold  dust  for  Spanish  com- 
modities. A  seaman  also  brought  advice  that  a  similar  commerce 


COLUMBUS   IN   HAYTI.  Orf 

had  taken  place  on  the  shore,  and  that  the  Spaniards  had  profited 
considerably  by  it.  Thife  intelligence  began  to  dissipate  the  gloom 
which  hung  over  the  face  of  the  admiral.  Guacanagari  perceived 
the  sudden  transition,  and  guessing  the  cause  of  it,  informed  him 
that  this  metal  was  found  in  abundance  at  Cibao,  which  lay  at  no 
great  distance ;  and  that  he  would  procure  him  plenty  of  it,  if  he 
would  accompany  him  to  his  habitation.  His  complaisant  and 
hospitable  reception  by  the  inhabitants  soon  effaced  the  impression 
of  all  the  hardships  and  dangers  which  he  had  experienced  at  sea, 
nay,  even  the  loss  of  his  ship  itself,  which  he  now  began  to  consider 
as  a  favorable  accident.  The  cacique  treated  him  with  venison, 
fish  and  other  food,  tarts  of  cassava,  and  several  roots  and  delicious 
fruits.  He  ate  very  sparingly  and  soberly,  himself,  and  after  he 
had  finished  his  repast,  washed  his  hands,  which  he  had  pre- 
viously rubbed  with  certain  herbs.  After  this  he  conducted  the 
admiral  through  a  series  of  winding  arbors  and  fragrant  groves. 
On  their  return  from  this  enchanting  promenade,  he  made  Colum- 
bus a  present  of  a  mask,  with  pieces  of  fine  gold  suspended  from 
the  ears,  eyes,  nose  and  other  parts.  The  neck  was  ornamented 
with  a  number  of  pieces  of  the  same  metal ;  he  also  distributed 
similar  precious  toys  amongst  the  Spaniards,  who  had  accompanied 
their  leader.  Columbus,  in  grateful  return,  presented  a  number  of 
European  trinkets,  which  the  islanders  valued  as  something  divine, 
and  which  they  eagerly  showed  their  friends,  repeating  in  a  kind 
of  transport  the  word  turey,  which  in  their  language  signifies 
heaven.  They  believed  themselves  capable  of  discerning  the  most 
pure  gold  from  the  inferior  kind  by  the  smell ;  the  base  gold  they 
called  guanin ;  and  when  they  received  some  pieces  of  brass,  silver, 
or  any  white  metal,  they  smelled,  and  declared  them  to  be  turey, 
of  inestimable  value,  and  gave  pieces  of  guanin  and  fine  gold  for 
them.  They  were  chiefly  captivated  with  bells,  for  which  they 
readily  gave  all  that  they  possessed.  They  danced  and  leaped  to 
the  sound  of  them  in  a  grotesque  manner.  A  small  buckle,  or  the 
head  of  a  nail,  were  valued  by  them  as  the  most  precious  of  gifts. 
The  cacique  was  not  less  rejoiced  and  transported  at  the  present 
of  a  shirt  and  a  pair  of  gloves. 

Columbus  now  informed  the  cacique  that  he  had  determined  to 
leave  a  part  of  his  men  on  the  island,  and  set  sail  for  Spain,  whence 
he  should  speedily  return  with  a  greater  force  and  abundance  of 
valuable  presents.  In  order  more  deeply  to  impress  the  minds  of 
the  natives  with  an  idea  of  the  superiority  of  their  visitors,  he 
caused  his  men  to  perform  sham-fights,  in  which  the  clashing  of 
the  swords,  the  shooting  of  the  cross-bows,  the  discharge  of  the 
musketry,  and  above  all,  the  thunder  of  the  cannon,  produced  a 
5* 


64  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

mighty  effect.  The  force  of  a  cannon  ball,  which  pierced  the  side 
of  the  stranded  vessel,  caused  the  simple  islanders  to  fall  upon  the 
ground  with  surprise  and  terror.  The  Spaniards  then  erected  a 
wooden  tower,  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  as  the  beginning  of  a  settle- 
ment, to  which  Columbus  gave  the  name  of  Navidad,  or  Christmas, 
from  the  day  of  the  shipwreck.  Feasts  and  entertainments  fol- 
lowed ;  in  one  of  which  the  cacique  appeared,  crowned  with  a 
golden  diadem  and  attended  by  five  inferior  caciques,  each  with  a 
golden  crown.  Much  conversation  was  carried  on  respecting  the 
country,  and  a  certain  province  was  spoken  of,  by  the  name  of 
Cibao,  which,  of  course,  Columbus  mistook  for  Cipango,  the 
ancient  name  of  Japan.  The  Spaniards  also  discovered  a  root 
which  they  imagined  to  be  rhubarb.  The  islanders  gave  them 
every  assistance  in  preparing  their  new  settlement,  and  furnished 
them  liberally  with  provisions. 

Columbus  left  thirty-nine  persons  at  Navidad,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Diego  de  Arana.  He  gave  them  directions  to  prosecute 
their  discoveries  along  the  coast,  to  cultivate  the  soil,  search  for 
gold,  and  conciliate  the  natives.  "W  ith  strong  injunctions  to  preserve 
discipline  and  good  order,  which  unfortunately  never  were  heeded, 
he  took  leave  of  the  colony  January  4th,  1493,  and  coasted  onward 
to  the  east.  The  second  day  he  discovered  the  Pinta  bearing 
down  for  him  before  the  wind.  The  two  commanders  met,  and 
Martin  Alonzo  attempted  to  excuse  his  desertion  by  pretending  he 
had  been  blown  off  by  contrary  winds.  Columbus  stifled  his 
resentment  at  his  treachery  and  falsehood,  and  listened  to  the 
detail  of  Pinzon' s  adventures.  He  had  made  no  discovery  of  impor- 
tance, but  he  had  obtained  a  considerable  quantity  of  gold,  one 
half  of  which  he  had  kept  to  himself,  and  distributed  the  rest 
among  his  crew.  He  had  seized  four  men  and  two  women  of  the 
natives,  whom  Columbus  afterwards  set  at  liberty. 

In  the  progress  of  Columbus  along  this  coast,  the  Spaniards 
discovered  red  pepper  and  pimento.  They  also  saw  another  nov- 
elty, in  the  shape  of  fishes  with  heads  like  human  beings.  Colum- 
bus called  them  sirens,  but  they  were  no  other  than  the  misshapen 
animal  now  known  as  the  manati,  or  sea-cow.  Toward  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Espanola,  they  met  with  inhabitants  of  a  new  aspect. 
Their  faces  were  black,  their  hair  long  and  tied  behind,  with 
plumes  of  parrot's  feathers  stuck  in  their  heads.  They  had  bows, 
arrows,  and  heavy  clubs,  and  made  demonstrations  of  hostility ; 
but  the  Spaniards  appearing  friendly,  they  were  induced  to  barter. 
One  of  them  went  on  board  the  ship,  and  was  regaled  with  presents. 
By  the  imperfect  help  of  the  Lucayari  interpreters,  they  learned 
that  in  some  parts  of  these  regions  the  metal  called  guanin  was 


RETURN    OF   COLUMBUS    TO    SPAIN.  55 

lound  in  lumps  as  big  as  the  stern  of  a  ship  ;  also  that  one  of  the 
islands  was  inhabited  solely  by  women,  who  lived  like  the  Amazons 
of  old.  An  occurrence  shortly  after  took  place  which  confirmed 
the  Spaniards  in  the  belief  that  the  warlike  natives  whom  they 
now  saw,  were  the  Caribs,  of  whom  they  had  received  such  terrify- 
ing accounts  from  the  harmless  and  timid  islanders  they  had  pre- 
viously visited.  A  number  of-the  Spaniards  having  gone  on  shore 
with  the  Indian  they  had  so  kindly  treated,  they  were  attacked  from 
an  ambush  by  upwards  of  fifty  men,  whom  they  repelled,  receiving 
however,  some  wounds.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  next  morning 
the  natives  came  down  to  the  shore  again  and  visited  the  ship  with 
every  demonstration  of  friendship.  Their  cacique  spoke  frequently 
of  the  neighboring  islands  of  Martlnico  and  Corib  ;  he  also  made 
Columbus  a  present  of  a  golden  crown.  During  the  two  following 
days  a  brisk  trade  was  carried  on  for  provisions,  but  the  natives 
always  went  armed.  Four  young  men  having  gone  on  board, 
who  appeared  remarkably  intelligent,  they  were  secured  for  trans- 
portation to  Spain;  and  with  these  and  six  or  seven  previously 
obtained  at  the  other  islands,  Columbus  left  the  New  World  and 
steered  for  home,  on  the  16th  of  January. 

His  voyage  was  prosperous  till  the  12th  of  February,  when,  be-' 
lieving  himself  not  far  from  the  Azores,  he  was  assailed  by  a  furi- 
ous storm,  which  separated  the  ships.  The  sailors  put  up  vows 
to  heaven,  but  the  tempest  waxed  fiercer  every  hour,  and  destruc- 
tion appeared  inevitable.  Columbus,  thinking  his  consort  had 
foundered,  and  doubting  whether  his  own  ship  would  survive, 
was  unwilling,  nevertheless,  that  the  world  should  lose  the  know- 
ledge of  the  great  discovery  he  had  made.  He  accordingly  wrote 
a  short  account  of  his  proceedings,  which  he  inclosed  in  cere-cloth 
covered  with  wax  and  placed  in  a  tight  water-proof  casket,  ac- 
companied with  a  notice,  offering  a  reward  of  a  thousand  ducats 
to  any  one  who  should  deliver  the  package,  unopened,  to  the 
Spanish  sovereigns.  This  he  threw  into  the  sea,  in  hopes  of  its 
being  picked  up  after  his  own  ship  had  gone  to  the  bottom.  But 
shortly  after  this,  the  gale  abated,  and  they  came  in  sight  of  the 
Azores.  The  Portuguese  received  Columbus  roughly,  and  impris- 
oned some  of  his  men.  Anothep  gale  drove  him  from  his  anchor- 
age, and  threatened  his  ship  with  destruction;  but  again  his 
benignant  star  prevailed.  He  obtained  the  release  of  his  men, 
and  soon  set  sail.  A  third  tempest  overtook  him  as  he  approach- 
ed the  coast  of  Spain,  and,  just  as  the  crew  had  given  themselves 
up  for  lost,  they  descried  the  promontory  of  Cintra,  and  made  an 
unexpected  escape  into  the  Tagus.  The  fame  of  the  discover} 
being  quickly  spread  abroad,  Columbus  was  invited  to  the  court 


56 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 


ol'  Lisbon,  where  he  excited  the  envy  and  jealousy  of  the  Portu- 
guese, by  his  narration  of  the  riches  and  wonders  of  the  new-found 
countries.  Leaving  Lisbon,  he  again  put  to  sea,  and  arrived,  on 
the  15th  of  March,  at  Palos,  from  whence  he  had  sailed  seven 
months  before. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Exultation  of  the  Spaniards  on  the  return  of  Columbus. — Honors  paid  htm  by  the 
court. — His  second  voyage  to  the  New  World. — He  finds  the  colony  at  Navi- 
dad  extirpated. — Builds  another  fortress. — Distress  of  the  colonists. — The  na- 
tives become  hostile. — Columbus  defeats  one  hundred  thousand  of  them  in  the  battle 
of  Vega  Peal. — Avarice  of  the  Spaniards. —  They  impose  tasks  upon  the  natives. 
— Attempts  of  the  islanders  to  starve  their  invaders. — Terrible  cruelty  of  the 
Spaniards. — Discords  among  the  colonists. —  Civil  war. — Return  of  Columbus 
to  Spain. — Jealousies  excited  against  him. — A  new  plan  of  government  projected 
for  the  colony. — Third  voyage  of  Columbus. — Discovery  of  Trinidad  and  the 
main  land  of  South  America. — III  success  of  the  scheme  of  settlement. — The 
Indians  reduced  to  slavery. — Intrigues  against  Columbus. — He  is  deposed  from 
his  authority  and  sent  to  Spain  in  fetters. —  Vile  ingratitude  of  the  Spanish 
court. — Fourth  voyage  of  Columbus. — His  treatment  by  Ovando. — Loss  of  the 
Spanish  homeward-bound  fleet. — Columbus  explores  the  coast  of  America. — At- 
tempts a  settlement  there. — His  disasters. — He  is  shipwrecked  at  Jamaica. — Re- 
turns to  Spain  and  dies. — The  continent  named  after  Amerigo  Vespucci. — . 
Greediness  of  the  Spaniards. — Sufferings  and  extirpation  of  the  natives. 


Columbus  before  the  king  and  queen  of  Spain. 


COLUMBUS,  on  landing,  proceeded  immediately  to  Barcelona, 
where  the  court  resided.  His  journey  was  a  continued  triumph. 
The  nobility  and  the  people  crowded  to  meet  him,  and  followed  him 
in  throngs  to  the  presence  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  He  pre- 


58  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

sented  to  them  the  natives  of  the  new-found  countries,  and  exhi- 
bited pieces  of  gold,  birds,  cotton,  and  many  curiosities,  which 
were  interesting  on  account  of  their  novelty.  Such  a  variety  of 
uncommon  objects,  exposed  to  the  view  of  a  people  whose  vanity, 
inflamed  by  imagination,  magnified  everything,  made  them  fancy 
that  they  saw  an  inexhaustible  source  of  riches  forever  flowing 
into  their  country.  The  enthusiasm  spread,  and  reached  even  to 
the  throne.  At  the  public  audience  the  sovereigns  gave  to  Co- 
lumbus, he  was  permitted  to  be  covered  in  the  royal  presence,  and 
to  sit  as  a  grandee  of  Spain.  Thus  he  related  his  voyages  to  them. 
They  loaded  him  with  caresses,  commendations  and  honors ;  and 
soon  after  he  re-embarked  with  seventeen  sail,  to  make  new  dis- 
coveries, and  to  establish  colonies. 

He  arrived  at  Hispaniola  in  1495,  with  fifteen  hundred  men,  sol- 
diers, artificers,  and  missionaries,  with  provisions  for  their  subsis- 
tence, with  the  seeds  of  all  the  plants  that  were  thought  likely  to 
thrive  in  this  hot  and  damp  climate,  and  with  the  domestic  animals 
of  the  old  hemisphere,  of  which  there  was  not  one  in  the  new. 
Columbus  found  nothing  but  ruins  and  carcasses  upon  the  spot 
where  he  had  left  fortifications  and  Spaniards.  These  plunderers 
had  occasioned  their  own  destruction,  by  their  haughty,  licentious, 
and  tyrannical  behavior.  Columbus  had  the  address  to  persuade 
his  men,  who  were  eager  to  glut  their  vengeance  upon  the  natives, 
that  it  was  good  policy  to  postpone  their  revenge  to  another  time.  A 
fort,  honored  with  the  name  of  Isabella,  was  now  constructed  on 
the  borders  of  the  ocean ;  and  that  of  St.  Thomas  was  erected  on 
the  mountains  of  Cibao,  where  the  islanders  gathered  from  the 
torrents  the  greatest  part  of  the  gold  they  used  for  their  orna- 
ments, and  where  the  conquerors  intended  to  open  mines. 

While  these  works  were  going  on,  the  provisions  that  had 
been  brought  from  Europe  had  been  either  consumed,  or  were 
spoilt.  The  colony  had  received  nothing  to  supply  the  deficien- 
cy ;  and  soldiers,  or  sailors,  had  neither  possessed  the  leisure, 
knowledge,  nor  inclination  to  produce  fresh  articles  of  subsistence. 
It  became  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  natives  of  the  country, 
who,  cultivating  but  little,  were  unable  to  maintain  strangers,  even 
though  they  were  the  most  moderate  persons  of  the  old  hemi- 
sphere, for  they  yet  consumed,  each  of  them,  as  much  as  would 
have  been  sufficient  for  several  Indians.  These  unfortunate  people 
gave  up  all  they  had,  and  still  more  was  required.  Such  contin- 
ued exactions  produced  an  alteration  in  their  character,  which  was 
naturally  timid ;  and  all  the  caciques,  except  Guacanagari,  who 
had  first  received  the  Spaniards  in  his  dominions,  resolved  to  unite 


SECOND   VISIT   OF   COLUMBUS,   1495.  69 

their  forces,  in  order  to  break  a  yoke  which  was  becoming  every 
day  more  intolerable. 

Columbus  desisted  from  pursuing  his  discoveries,  in  order  to 
prepare  against  this  unexpected  danger.  Although  two  thirds  of 
his  followers  had  been  hurried  to  the  grave  by  hardships,  by  the 
climate,  and  by  debauchery ;  although  sickness  prevented  many  of 
those  who  had  escaped  these  terrible  scourges,  from  joining  him ; 
and  althoug^i  he  could  not  muster  more  than  two  hundred  infan- 
try and  twenty  horse  to  face  the  enemy,  yet  this  extraordinary 
man  was  not  afraid  of  attacking  an  army,  assembled  in  the  plains 
of  Vega  Real,  which  historians  in  general  have  computed  at  one 
hundred  thousand  men.  The  chief  precaution  taken  was  to  fall 
upon  the  Indians  in  the  night  time. 

The  unhappy  islanders  were,  in  fact,  conquered  before  the  action 
began..  They  considered  the  Spaniards  as  beings  of  a  superior 
order ;  their  admiration,  respect,  and  fear  were  increased  by  the 
European  armor ;  and  the  sight  of  the  cavalry,  in  particular,  aston- 
ished them  beyond  measure.  Many  of  them  were  simple  enough 
to  believe  that  the  man  and  the  horse  were  but  one  animal,  or  a 
kind  of  deity.  Had  their  courage  even  been  proof  against  these 
impressions  of  terror,  they  could  have  made  but  a  faint  resistance. 
The  cannonading,  the  pikes,  and  a  discipline  to  which  they  were 
strangers,  must  have  easily  dispersed  them.  They  fled  on  all 
sides.  To  punish  them  for  their  rebellion,  as  it  was  called,  every 
Indian  above  fourteen  years  of  age,  was  subjected  to  a  tribute  in 
gold,  or  in  cotton,  according  to  the  district  in  which  he  lived. 

This  regulation,  which  required  assiduous  labor,  appeared  the 
greatest  of  evils  to  a  people  who  were  not  used  to  constant  em- 
ployment. The  desire  of  getting  rid  of  their  oppressors,  therefore, 
became  their  ruling  passion.  As  they  entertained  no  further  hope  of 
being  able  to  expel  them  by  force,  the  idea  occurred  to  them,  in  1496, 
of  reducing  them  by  famine.  In  this  view,  they  sowed  no  more 
maize,  they  pulled  up  the  cassava  roots  that  were  already  planted, 
and  fled  for  refuge  to  the  mountains. 

Desperate  resolutions  are  seldom  attended  with  success ;  accord- 
ingly, that  which  the  Indians  had  taken  proved  fatal  to  them. 
The  products  of  rude  and  uncultivated  nature  were  not  sufficient 
for  their  support,  as  they  had  inconsiderately  expected  they  would 
be ;  and  their  asylum,  however  difficult  of  access,  was  not  a  secu- 
rity from  the  pursuit  of  their  incensed  tyrants,  who,  during  this 
total  privation  of  local  resources,  accidentally  received  some  pro- 
visions from  the  mother  country.  The  rage  of  the  Spaniards  was 
excited  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  trained  up  dogs  to  hunt  and 
devour  these  unhappy  men ;  and  it  has  even  been  said  that  some 


60  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

of  the  Castilians  had  made  a  vow  to  massacre  twelve  Indians 
every  day  in  honor  of  the  twelve  apostles.  Before  this  event, 
the  island  was  reckoned  to  contain  a  million  of  inhabitants.  A 
third  part  of  this  considerable  population  perished  in  these  cam- 
paigns, by  fatigue,  hunger,  and  the  sword. 

Scarcely  had  the  remains  of  these  unfortunate  people,  who  had 
escaped  so  many  disasters,  returned  to  their  habitations,  where 
calamities  of  another  kind  were  preparing  for  them,  when  divisions 
arose  among  their  persecutors.  The  removal  of  the.  capital  of  the 
colony  from  the  north  to  the  south,  from  Isabella  to  San.  Domingo, 
might  possibly  furnish  a  pretence  for  some  complaints;  .but  the 
dissensions  had  their  chief  origin  in  indulged  passions,  raised  to  an 
uncommon  degree  of  fermentation  beneath  a  burning  sky,  and  not 
sufficiently  restrained  by  an  authority  imperfectly  established. 
When  the  business  was  to  dethrone  a  cacique,  to  plunder  a  district, 
or  exterminate  a  village,  the  commands  of  the  brother  of  Colum- 
bus, or  of  his  representative,  were  readily  obeyed.  After  shar- 
ing the  booty,  insubordination  followed;  and  mutual  jealousies 
and  animosities  became  their  sole  occupation.  The  Spaniards  at 
length  took  up  arms  against  each  other,  and  war  was  openly 
declared. 

During  the  course  of  these  divisions,  Columbus  was  in  Spain, 
whither  he  had  returned,  in  order  to  answer  the  accusations 
that  were  incessantly  renewed  against  him.  The  recital  of  the 
great  actions  he  had  performed,  and  the  exposition  of  the  use- 
ful plans  he  meant  to  carry  into  execution,  easily  regained  him 
the  confidence  of  Isabella.  Ferdinand  himself  began  to  be  a  little 
reconciled  to  the  idea  of  distant  voyages.  The  plan  of  a  regular 
form  of  government  was  traced,  which  was  first  to  be  tried  at 
San  Domingo,  and  afterwards  adopted,  with  such  alterations  as 
experience  might  show  to  be  necessary,  in  the  several  settlements, 
which  in  process  of  time  might  be  founded  in  the  other  hemi- 
sphere. Men  skilled  in  the  working  of  mines  were  carefully 
selected,  and  the  government  agreed  to  pay  and  maintain  them 
for  several  years. 

On  the  30th  of  May,  1498,  Columbus  sailed  on  his  third  voyage, 
with  six  ships.  He  touched  at  the  Canaries,  and  despatched  from 
thence  three  of  his  squadron  direct  to  Hispaniola.  With  the  other 
three  he  steered  toward  the  Cape  Verd  Islands.  Taking  his  de- 
parture from  this  point  he  held  a  southwesterly  course  till  he  came 
within  five  degrees  of  the  equator,  where  the  heat  of  the  air  burst 
the  wine-pipes  and  water-casks,  and  caused  the  crews  to  fear  that 
the  ships  would  be  burned.  After  eight  days  of  calm  weather  and 
intolerable  heat,  the  air  became  a  little  cooler,  and  on  the  31st  of 


THIRD   VOYAGE   OF    COLUMBUS,  1498.  61 

July  they  discovered  land,  which  proved  to  be  the  island  of  Trini- 
dad, at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  Proceeding  along  the  shore,  he 
obtained  a  sight  of  some  of  the  natives,  who  proved  very  hostile, 
and  discharged  showers  of  arrows  at  the  ships.  They  had  shields, 
the  first  defensive  armor  the  Spaniards  had  seen  in  the  New  World. 
Columbus  sailed  through  the  gulf  lying  between  Trinidad  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  struck  with  amazement  at  the  mountainous 
billows  which  that  great  stream  rolls  into  the  ocean.  On  the  coast 
of  Paria  they  saw  more  of  the  natives,  and  held  friendly  inter- 
course Avith  them.  They  offered  the  Spaniards  provisions  and  a 
sort  of  white  and  red  wine.  Considerable  gold  was  discovered, 
and  the  natives  directed  them  to  a  pearl  fishery.  From  this  coast 
they  steered  to  Hispaniola.  This  was  the  voyage  in  which  the 
Spaniards  first  saw  the  main  land  of  America.  The  continent  of 
North  America  had  been  discovered  in  June  of  the  preceding  year 
by  the  English  navigators,  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot. 

The  third  visit  of  Columbus  succeeded  no  better  than  the  pre- 
ceding in  securing  good  order  and  prosperity  in  the  colony. 
The  form  of  government  projected  in  Spain  had  not  the  desired 
effect — that  of  establishing  a  peaceable  community.  The  people 
thought  differently  from  their  sovereigns.  Time,  which  brings  on 
reflection  when  the  first  transports  of  enthusiasm  are  passed,  had 
abated  the  desire,  originally  so  ardent,  of  going  to  the  New  World. 
Its  gold  was  no  longer  an  object  of  irresistible  temptation.  On  the 
contrary,  the  livid  complexions  of  the  Spaniar/ds  who  returned 
home ;  the  accounts  of  the  insalubrity  of  the  climate ;  of  the  num- 
bers who  had  lost  their  lives,  and  the  hardships  they  had  under- 
gone from  the  scarcity  of  provisions ;  an  unwillingness  to  be  under 
the  command  of  a  foreigner,  the  severity  of  whose  discipline  was 
generally  censured ;  and  perhaps  the  jealousy  that  was  entertained 
of  his  growing  reputation ;  all  these  reasons  contributed  to  produce 
an  insuperable  prejudice  against  San  Domingo  in  the  subjects  of 
the  crown  of  Castile,  the  only  Spaniards  who,  till  the  year  1593, 
were  allowed  to  embark  for  that  island. 

The  malefactors  who  accompanied  Columbus,  in  conjunction 
with  the  plunderers  that  infested  St.  Domingo,  formed  one  of  the 
most  unnatural  kinds  of  society  that  had  ever  appeared  upon  the 
globe.  Their  mutual  coalition  enabled  them  to  set  all  authority 
at  defiance;  and  the  impossibility  of  subduing  them,  made  it 
necessary  to  resort  to  negotiation.  Many  attempts  were  made  in 
vain.  At  length,  in  1499,  it  was  proposed  that,  to  the  lands  which 
every  Spaniard  received,  a  certain  number  of  islanders  should  be 
annexed,  whose  time  and  labor  should  be  devoted  to  masters  desti- 
tute alike  of  humanity  and  prudence.  This  act  of  weakness  on  the 
6 


62  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

part  of  the  government  restored  apparent  tranquillity  to  the  colony, 
but  without  gaining  for  Columbus  the  affection  of  those  who 
profited  by  it.  The  complaints  made  against  him  grew  more 
loud  and  violent,  and  ere  long  proved  effectual. 

This  extraordinary  man  purchased  upon  very  hard  terms  the 
fame  which  his  genius  and  industry  had  procured  him.  His  life 
exhibited  a  perpetual  series  of  brilliant  successes  and  deep  misfor- 
tunes. He  was  continually  exposed  to  the  cabals,  calumnies,  and 
ingratitude  of  individuals ;  and  obliged  at  the  same  time  to  submit 
to  the  caprices  of  a  haughty  and  turbulent  court,  which  by  turns 
rewarded  or  punished — now  mortified  him  by  the  most  humili- 
ating disgrace,  and  now  restored  him  to  its  confidence. 

The  prejudice  entertained  by  the  Spanish  ministry  against  the 
author  of  the  greatest  discovery  the  world  had  yet  seen,  grew  to 
such  a  pitch,  that  an  arbitrator  was  sent  to  the  colonies  to  decide 
between  Columbus  and  his  soldiers.  Bovadilla,  the  most  ambi- 
tious, self-interested,  unjust,  and  violent  man  that  had  yet  visited 
the  New  World,  arrived  at  St.  Domingo  in  1500 ;  he  deprived  the 
admiral  of  his  property,  his  honors  and  his  command,  and  sent 
him  to  Spain  in  irons.  Surprise  and  indignation  were  everywhere 
excited  by  this  act  of  atrocious  ingratitude;  and  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  overwhelmed  with  shame  by  the  expression  of  the  pub- 
lic feelings,  ordered  the  fetters  *of  Columbus  to  be  immediately 
taken  off.  They  also  recalled,  with  real  or  feigned  resentment, 
the  wretch,  Bovadilla,  who  had  so  infamously  abused  his  author- 
ity. But  to  their  disgrace  it  must  be  added  that  this  was  all  the 
reparation  made  to  Columbus  for  so  atrocious  an  insult. 

To  crown  the  black  ingratitude  of  the  Spanish  court,  they  con- 
stantly resisted  the  petitions  and  applications  of  Columbus  to  be 
reinstated  in  his  office,  which  he  had  so  ably  filled. '  The  reason 
alleged  for  this  unkingly  breach  of  faith  was  the  great  value  and 
importance  of  the  discoveries  of  Columbus,  which  would  render 
the  reward  too  magnificent !  After  a  fruitless  attendance  at  court 
for  two  years,  he  gave  up  his  solicitations,  and  requested  merely 
to  be  sent  upon  a  fourth  voyage.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  eager 
to  get  rid  of  a  man  whose  presence  was  a  reproach  to  them, 
granted  his  request  with  alacrity.  Four  small  vessels  were  pro- 
vided for  him ;  and  the  discoverer  of  the  western  world,  broken 
down  by  age,  fatigues  and  mortification,  set  sail  once  more,  in 
May,  1502.  His  design  was  to  proceed  west,  beyond  the  newly- 
discovered  continent,  and  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  On 
reaching  Hispaniola  he  found  a  fleet  of  eighteen  ships  ready  to 
depart  for  Spain.  Columbus  was  refused  admission  into  the  har- 
bor of  St.  Domingo,  although  his  vessel  was  unseaworthy.  His 


COLUMBUS    ON    HIS   FOURTH   VOYAGE.  63 

knowledge  of  these  regions  enabled  him  to  perceive  signs  of  an 
approaching  hurricane.  Although  the  governor,  Ovando,  had 
refused  him  a  shelter  in  the  harbor,  Columbus  warned  him  of  the 
approaching  danger ;  but  his  warning  was  disregarded ;  the  fleet 
put  to  sea ;  and  the  ensuing  night  they  were  assailed  by  a  furious 
hurricane,  and  the  whole  fleet,  except  three  ships,  went  to  the  bot- 
tom. In  this  wreck  perished  the  malignant  Bovadilla,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  the  men  who  had  been  most  active  in 
persecuting  Columbus  and  oppressing  the  Indians.  The  treasure 
lost  in  the  ships  surpassed  the  value  of  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars. 

Columbus,  by  his  prudent  precautions,  escaped  the  danger,  and 
departed  for  the  continent.  He  proceeded  along  the  coast  from 
the  eastern  point  of  Honduras  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  searching 
in  vain  for  a  passage  to  the  South  Sea.  Attracted  by  the  appear- 
ance of  gold,  he  attempted  to  form  a  settlement  at  the  river  Belem, 
in  Veragua ;  but  the  natives,  a  more  hardy  and  warlike  race  than 
the  islanders,  killed  many  of  the  settlers  and  drove  the  remnant 
away.  This  unexpected  repulse  was  followed  by  a  long  train  of 
disasters.  Storms,  hurricanes,  terrible  thunder  and  lightning,  and 
all  the  calamities  that  can  befall  the  explorers  of  an  unknown  sea, 
kept  Columbus  in  a  continual  state  of  anxiety  and  suffering.  At 
last  he  was  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Jamaica.  No  settlement 
had  been  made  here,  and  Columbus  despatched  a  few  of  his  men 
in  Indian  canoes  to  Hispaniola  for  relief.  The  insolent  Ovando, 
from  a  mean  jealousy  of  the  great  discoverer,  refused  to  grant  him 
any  assistance.  Columbus  remained  in  Jamaica,  perpetually  ha- 
rassed by  the  mutinous  conduct  of  his  men.  The  natives,  tired  of 
the  long  stay  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  island,  intercepted  their 
supplies  of  provisions.  Columbus,  however,  intimidated  them  by 
an  artifice.  An  eclipse  was  at  hand :  he  assembled  the  chief  In- 
dians, and  informed  them  that  the  Great  Spirit  was  angry  at  their 
behavior  toward  their  visitors,  and  on  that  night  the  moon  would 
be  turned  blood-red.  They  listened  with  incredulity,  but  when 
the  moon  began  to  change  her  hue,  they  were  all  struck  with  ter- 
ror. They  loaded  themselves  with  provisions,  and  brought  them 
to  Columbus,  entreating  him  to  intercede  with  the  Deity  in  their 
behalf.  From  that  time  their  superstitious  apprehensions  kept 
them  in  implicit  obedience  to  the  Spaniards. 

After  about  a  year's  detention  on  the  island,  three  vessels  came 
to  their  relief,  and  the  crews  passed  over  to  Hispaniola,  where  the 
once  arrogant  Ovando  received  his  distinguished  visitor  with  fawn- 
ing sycophancy,  and  affected  to  treat  him  with  every  mark  of 
honor  and  esteem.  His  complaisance,  however,  went  no  farther 


G4  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

than  outward  show.  Columbus,  finding  no  means  of  prosecuting 
his  enterprise  in  this  part  of  the  world,  returned  to  Spain  in 
1504,  where  his  miseries  were  crowned  by  the  intelligence  of  the 
death  of  Isabella,  whose  favor  and  protection  he  had  always  consid- 
ered his  last  resource.  This  was  a  blow  from  which  he  never 
recovered.  Overwhelmed  with  calamities,  disgusted  with  the 
ingratitude  of  those  whom  he  had  faithfully  and  successfully 
served,  declining  in  age,  and  broken  in  health,  he  lingered  a  few 
years  longer  in  poverty  and  neglect,  making  from  time  to  time  a 
fruitless  appeal  to  the  honor  and  justice  of  those  who  had  given 
him  "  chains  for  a  crown,  a  prison  for  a  world ;"  and  finally  closed 
his  life  at  Valladolid,  May  20th,  1506,  in  the  59th  year  of  his  age. 

Such  was  the  end  of  this  remarkable  man,  who,  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  Europe,  added  a  fourth  part  to  the  earth,  or  rather  half 
a  world  to  this  globe,  which  had  been  so  long  desolate  and  so  little 
known.  It  might  reasonably  be  expected  that  public  gratitude 
would  have  given  the  name  of  this  intrepid  seaman  to  the  new 
hemisphere,  the  first  discovery  of  which  was  owing  to  his  enter- 
prising genius.  This  was  the  smallest  homage  of  respect  that 
could  be  paid  to  his  memory ;  but  either  through  envy,  inattention, 
or  the  caprice  of  fortune  even  in  the  distribution  of  fame,  this  honor 
was  reserved  for  a  Florentine  adventurer,  who  did  nothing  more 
than  follow  the  footsteps  of  a  man,  whose  name  ought  to  stand 
foremost  in  the  list  of  great  characters. 

Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  had  the  art  or  the  good  fortune  to  give 
his  name  to  the  western  continent,  made  a  voyage  to  the  coast  of 
Paria,  with  Ojeda,  a  Spanish  commander,  in  1499.  Some  years 
afterward  he  entered  the  Portuguese  service,  and  visited  the  coast 
of  Brazil.  His  narratives  of  these  voyages  attracted  much  atten- 
tion in  Europe.  Either  by  a  fraud  of  Vespucci  or  the  carelessness 
of  his  transcribers,  the  date  of  his  first  voyage  was  altered  from 
1499  to  1497,  and  he  passed  for  the  first  discoverer  of  the  main  land 
of  South  America,  which  was  seen  by  Columbus  the  previous  year. 

The  misfortunes  of  the  wretched  natives  began  with  the  discov- 
ery of  America.  Columbus,  notwithstanding  his  humanity  and  his 
talents,  increased  them  himself,  by  fixing  the  natives  upon  the  lands 
which  he  distributed  to  his  soldiers.  This  plan,  which  he  had 
adopted  merely  to  remove  the  embarrassments  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed from  an  almost  incessant  spirit  of  rebellion,  was  continued 
and  extended  by  Bovadilla,  in  the  view  of  gaining  the  affections  of 
•he  Spaniards.  Ovando,  who  succeeded  him,  broke  up  these  con- 
nections, as  he  had  been  ordered  by  the  court.  Rest  was  the  first 
enjoyment  of  these  feeble  beings,  who  had  been  condemned  by 
force  to  labors  which  were  neither  consistent  with  the  nature  oif 


OPPRESSION   OF   THE   INDIANS   IN   THE    WEST    INDIES.  65 

their  food,  their  constitutions,  nor  with  their  customs.  They 
then  wandered  about  as  vagabonds  and  did  nothing.  The  conse- 
quence of  this  indolence  was  a  famine,  which  was  fatal  both  to 
them  and  to  their  oppressors.  It  might  have  been  possible  to  bring 
about  some  fortunate  alteration  in  their  state,  with  mildness, 
prudent  regulations,  and  a  great  share  of  patience.  But  these  slow 
and  moderate  measures  were  not  suited  to  conquerors,  who  were 
eager  to  acquire  and  earnest  to  enjoy.  They  demanded  that  all 
the  Indians  should  be  distributed  among  them,  in  order  to  be 
employed  in  working  the  mines,  in  the  cultivation  of  corn,  or  in 
any  other  kind  of  labor,  of  which  they  might  be  thought  capable. 
Religion  and  political  views  were  the  two  pretences  made  use  of 
to  palliate  this  dreadful  system  of  oppression.  It  was  urged  that 
so  long  as  these  savages  were  tolerated  in  their  superstitions,  they 
would  never  embrace  Christianity ;  and  would  always  remain  in  a 
condition  to  revolt,  unless  their  dispersion  should  put  it  out  of  their 
power  to  make  any  such  attempt.  The  court,  after  several  dis- 
cussions, resolved  to  adopt  an  arrangement  so  contrary  to  every 
sound  principle  of  justice  and  policy.  The  whole  island  of  His- 
paniola  was  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  districts,  and  granted 
to  the  Spanish  adventurers,  in  proportion  to  their  rank,  interest, 
or  birth.  The  Indians  attached  to  these  precarious  possessions, 
were  slaves,  whom,  indeed,  the  law  was  always  bound  to  protect ; 
but  it  never  did  this  effectually  either  in  Hispaniola  or  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  new  world,  where  the  same  system  of  slavery  was  af- 
terwards established.  Some  commotions  were  the  immediate  con- 
sequence of  this  arrangement,  but  they  were  checked  by  treachery, 
or  by  the  effusion  of  blood.  When  slavery  was  completely  estab- 
lished, the  produce  of  the  mines  became  more  certain.  At  first, 
one  half  belonged  to  the  crown.  This  claim  Avas  afterwards 
reduced  to  one  third,  and  at  length  limited  to  a  fifth  part. 

The  treasures  brought  from  Hispaniola  excited  the  avarice  even 
of  those  who  would  not  venture  to  cross  the  seas.  The  grandees, 
the  favorites,  and  those  who  had  employments  in  the  state, 
obtained  some  of  this  property,  which  procured  them  riches  without 
care,  without  expense,  and  without  anxiety.  They  committed 
the  care  of  them  to  agents,  who  were  to  make  their  own  fortunes, 
while  they  increased  those  of  their  principals.  In  less  than  six 
years'  time,  sixty  thousand  Indian  families  were  reduced  to 
fourteen  thousand;  and  the  continent  and  the  adjacent  islands 
were  ransacked  for  other  natives  to  supply  their  place.  • 

These,  when  taken,  were  chained  together  like  beasts.     Such 
as  sank  under  their  burdens,  were  compelled  to  rise  by  severe 
blows.     No  intercourse  passed  between  the  sexes  except  by  stealth. 
6*  i 


66 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND   CONQUESTS. 


The  men  perished  in  the  mines,  and  the  women  in  the  fields 
which  they  cultivated  with  their  feeble  hands.  Their  constitutions, 
already  exhausted  with  excessive  labor,  were  still  farther  impaired 
by  an  unwholesome  and  scanty  diet.  The  fathers  either  swal- 
lowed poison  or  hanged  themselves  on  the  trees  under  which  they 
had  just  before  seen  their  wives  or  their  children  expire.  Thus 
wasted  away,  the  whole  nation  became  extinct,  and  in  a  few  short 
years  the  unfortunate  islanders  of  the  West  Indies  were  swept  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  scarcely  leaving  a  trace  of  their  existence 
behind  them. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

Discovery  of  Yucatan  and  Campeachy. — Expedition  of  Grijalva. — Discovery  of 
the  empire  of  Mexico. — Scheme  of  Velasquez  for  the  conquest  of  this  country. — 
Fernando  Cortez. — His  expedition  to  Mexico. — Intelligence  of  his  invasion 
reaches  Montezuma. —  Character  and  behavior  of  that  monarch. — He  attempts  to 
dissuade  Cortez  from  his  undertaking. — Resolute  behavior  of  Cortez. — He  burns 
his  ships  and  throws  off  his  dependence  on  Narvaez. -^-Arrives  at  Tlascala. — 
Forms  an  alliance  with  the  Tlascalans  and  advances  upon  Mexico. — Indecision 
of  Montezuma. — The  Spaniards  reach  Mexico. — Magnificence  of  the  city. — Re- 
ception of  Cortez  by  Montezuma. — Pusillanimity  and  treachery  of  that  monarch. — 
Cortez  takes  the  emperor  prisoner . — Arrival  of  Narvaez  in  Mexico,  and  peril  of 
Cortez. — Triumph  of  Cortez  over  his  rival. — Insurrection  of  the  Mexican* 
against  the  Spaniards. — Bloody  battles  in  Mexico. — Death  of  Montezuma. 


The  Spaniards  burning  their  ships  before  their  march  to  Mexico. 


BEFORE  these  acts  of  horror  had  completed  the  ruin  of  the 
unhappy  islanders  of  Hispaniola,  settlements  had  been  made  by 
the  Spaniards  in  Jamaica,  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba.  Diego  Velas- 
quez, who  founded  the  last  of  these  establishments,  undertook  to 
prosecute  further  discoveries.  The  spirit  of  adventure,  and  the 
bold  and  insatiable  avarice  of  the  adventurers  who  flocked  to  his 
colony,  afforded  him  ample  means  for  carrying  his  designs  into 
effect.  An  expedition,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  ten  persona, 


68  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

embarked  in  three  small  vessels,  at  St.  Jago  de  Cuba,  on  the  8th 
February,  1517,  sailed  to  the  west,  and  landed  successively  on 
the  shores  of  Yucatan  and  Campeachy.  They  were  received  as 
enemies  upon  both  these  coasts ;  many  of  them  perished  in  the 
contests  they  were  engaged  in,  and  the  rest  regained,  in  the  utmost 
confusion,  the  port  whence  they  had  set  out  a  few  months  before 
with  such  flattering  expectations.  '  Their  return  was  marked  by 
the  death  of  Cordova,  the  commander  of  the  expedition,  who  ex- 
pired of  his  wounds. 

Till  this  period,  the  new  hemisphere  had  presented  little  to  the 
Spaniards  but  naked  and  wandering  savages,  without  settled  oc- 
cupations or  forms  of  government.  They  had  now  for  the  first 
time  seen  a  people  dwelling  in  houses,  clothed,  formed  into  a  na- 
tional body,  and  sufficiently  advanced  in  the  arts  to  convert  pre- 
cious metals  into  vases. 

This  discovery,  while  it  excited  apprehensions  of  new  dangers, 
presented,  at  the  same  time,  the  alluring  prospect  of  a  rich  booty ; 
two  hundred  and  forty  Spaniards,  therefore,  went  on  board  of  four 
ships,  fitted  out  by  the  chief  of  the  colony  at  his  own  expense. 
They  began  by  verifying  the  reports  brought  by  the  preceding 
adventurers ;  they  then  continued  their  voyage  as  far  as  the  river 
Panuco,  and  thought  they  perceived  in  all  parts  still  more  evident 
marks  of  civilization.  They  often  landed.  Sometimes  they  were 
very  warmly  attacked,  and  sometimes  they  were  received  with  a 
degree  of  respect  bordering  upon  adoration.  They  found  one  or 
two  opportunities  of  exchanging  some  trifles  of  the  old  hemisphere 
for  the  gold  of  the  new  one.  The  most  enterprising  of  the  Span- 
iards were  of  opinion  that  a  settlement  should  be  formed  in  these 
beautiful  regions ;  but  their  commander,  Grijalva,  though  active 
and  intrepid,  did  not  think  his  forces  sufficient  for  so  important  an 
undertaking.  He  returned  to  Cuba,  where  he  gave  an  account, 
somewhat  exaggerated,  of  all  he  had  seen,  and  of  all  he  had  been 
able  to  learn,  concerning  the  empire  of  Mexico. 

The  conquest  of  this  immense  and  opulent  region  was  imme- 
diately resolved  upon  by  Velasquez ;  but  he  took  some  time  in 
deliberating  upon  the  choice  of  the  agent  he  meant  to  employ  on 
this  occasion.  He  was  apprehensive  of  entrusting  the  business 
to  a  man  destitute  of  the  qualities  necessary  to  ensure  its  success, 
or  to  one  possessing  too  much  ambition  to  bestow  the  honor  of  the 
achievement  on  him.  His  advisers,  at  length,  determined  his 
choice  in  favor  of  Fernando  Cortez,  the  man  among  his  lieuten- 
ants whom  his  talents  pointed  out  as  the  fittest  person  to  execute 
the  project,  but  at  the  same  time,  the  most  unfit  to  answer  his  own 
personal  views.  The  activity,  elevation  of  mind,  and  boldness, 


CORTEZ    SETS   OUT   FOR    MEXICO.  69 

displayed  by  the  new  commander,  in  preparing  for  an  expedition, 
the  difficulties  of  which  he  foresaw  and  wished  to  remove,  awak- 
ened all  the  anxiety  of  a  mind  naturally  suspicious.  Velasquez  was 
observed  to  be  employed,  first  in  private  and  afterward  openly,  in 
suggesting  a  plan  for  the  withdrawing  of  the  important  commis- 
sion, which  he  reproached  himself  with  having  inconsiderately 
given.  But  this  regret  was  too  late.  Before  the  arrangements, 
contrived  to  keep  back  the  fleet,  composed  of  eleven  small  vessels, 
could  be  completed,  Cortez  had  set  sail  on  the  10th  of  February, 
1519,  with  nine  hundred  sailors,  five  hundred  and  eight  soldiers, 
sixteen  horse,  thirteen  muskets,  thirty-two  cross-bows,  a  great 
number  of  swords,  pikes,  four  falconets,  and  ten  field-pieces. 

These  preparations  for  invasion,  however  insufficient  they 
may  seem,  had  not  even  been  furnished  by  the  crown,  which  at 
that  time  only  lent  its  name  to  the  new  discoveries  and  settle- 
ments. The  plans  of  aggrandizement  were  formed  by  private 
persons,  who  carried  them  into  execution  at  their  own  expense. 
The  thirst  of  gold  and  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  which  still  subsisted, 
were  the  two  chief  motives  that  stimulated  such  enterprises. 
These  two  powerful  incentives  hurried  at  once  into  the  New 
World  men  of  the  highest  and  lowest  class  in  society ;  robbers, 
intent  on  nothing  but  plunder;  and  men  of  lofty  minds,  who  im- 
agined they  were  pursuing  the  road  to  glory.  This  is  the  reason 
why  the  steps  of  these  first  conquerors  were  marked  by  so  many 
crimes,  and  by  so  many  extraordinary  actions ;  why  their  cupidity 
was  so  atrocious,  and  their  bravery  so  astonishing. 

Cortez  seemed  to  be  animated  with  the  two  passions  of  avarice 
and  glory.  In  proceeding  to  the  place  of  his  destination,  he  attacked 
the  Indians  of  Tobasco,  beat  their  troops  several  times,  compelled 
them  to  sue  for  peace,  received  homage  from  them,  and  obliged 
them  to  give  him  provisions,  some  pieces  of  cotton,  and  twenty 
women,  among  whom  one,  named  by  the  Spaniards  Donna  Marina. 
rendered  the  most  important  services  to  Cortez  as  an  interpreter. 

Montezuma  was  sovereign  of  the  empire  of  Mexico  when  the 
Spaniards  landed  there.  The  monarch  was  soon  informed  of  the 
arrival  of  these  strangers.  Throughout  the.  vast  extent  of  his 
kingdom,  couriers  were  placed  at  different  distances,  who  speedily 
acquainted  the  court  with  everything  that  happened  in  the  most 
distant  provinces.  Their  despatches  were  composed  of  pieces  of 
cotton,  upon  which  were  represented,  in  pictures,  the  several  cir- 
cumstances of  the  affairs  that  required  the  attention  of  government. 
The  figures  were  intermixed  with  hieroglyphic  characters,  which 
supplied  what  the  art  of  the  painter  had  not  been  able  to  express. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  a  prince,  who  had  been  raised  to  the 


70  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

throne  by  his  valor ;  who  had  extended  his  empire  by  conquest, 
who  was  in  possession  of  numerous  and  disciplined  armies,  would 
have  despatched  troops  immediately  to  disperse  a  handful  of  ad- 
venturers, who  dared  to  infest  and  plunder  his  dominions.  But 
this  step  was  neglected ;  and  the  Spaniards,  who  had  always  an 
irresistible  turn  for  the  marvellous,  endeavored  to  explain  the  cir- 
cumstance by  miracle ; — particularly  as  the  conduct  of  Montezuma 
was  so  opposite  to  the  character  of  the  monarch,  and  so  incompati- 
ble with  his  situation.  The  writers  of  this  superstitious  nation, 
have  not  scrupled  to  declare  to  the  whole  world,  that  a  short  time 
before  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  it  had  been  foretold  to  the 
Mexicans,  that  an  invincible  people  from  the  east  would  soon 
come  among  them,  who  would  in  a  terrible  manner  avenge  the 
gods,  irritated  by  their  horrid  crimes. 

Though  Montezuma,  as  well  .as  many  other  persons,  might 
possibly  be  affected  with  superstition,  there  is  no  circumstance 
which  can  authorize  us  to  impute  this  prevailing  weakness  to  him. 
His  political  conduct,  however,  was  not  the  wiser  on  this  account. 
Since  this  prince  had  been  upon  the  throne,  he  had  no  longer  dis- 
played any  of  the  talents  which  placed  him  upon  it.  Sunk  into 
a  state  of  effeminacy  and  indolence,  he  despised  his  subjects  and 
oppressed  his  tributaries.  His  mind  was  so  debased  and  corrupted, 
that  even  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  could  not  rouse  him  into 
action.  He  wasted  in  negotiation  the  time  he  should  have  em- 
ployed in  combat,  and  wished  to  send  away,  laden  with  presents, 
the  enemies  he  ought  to  have  destroyed.  Cortez,  to  whom  this 
supineness  was  very  convenient,  omitted  nothing  that  might  con- 
tribute to  encourage  it,  and  always  treated  with  him  on  the  most 
friendly  terms.  He  declared  that  he  was  sent  merely  with  orders 
to  hold  a  conference  with  the  powerful  emperor  of  Mexico,  on  the 
part  of  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  East.  Whenever  he  was 
pressed  to  re-embark,  he  always  represented,  that  no  ambassador 
had  ever  been  dismissed  without  being  admitted  to  an  audience 
with  the  sovereign.  At  length  the  deputies,  finding  him  inflexible, 
were  obliged,  according  to  their  instructions,  to  resort  to  menaces. 
They  began  to  discourse  in  high  terms  of  the  opulence  and 
strength  of  their  country.  Cortez  then,  turning  to  his  followers, 
declared :  This  is  exactly  what  we  wished  to  meet  tcith, — great 
danger  and  great  wealth.  He  had  then  completed  all  his  prepar- 
ations, and  gained  every  information  that  was  necessary.  Re- 
solved, therefore,  to  conquer  or  to  perish,  he  set  fire  to  all  his 
ships,  that  the  impossibility  of  retreat  might  stimulate  his  sol- 
diers to  greater  courage.  Then,  resolving  .to  throw  off  his  de- 
pendence on  Velasquez,  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  caused  a 


CORTEZ    IN    MEXICO.  71 

council  of  the  Spaniards  to  be  convened,  who  organized  the  whole 
expedition  into  a  new  body  politic,  and  elected  Cortez  for  their 
captain-general  and  chief  magistrate,  both  civil  and  military. 
Armed  with  this  new  authority,  Cortez  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
settlement  at  Vera  Cruz,  where  he  left  a  small  portion  of  his  army 
and  with  the  remainder  pushed  boldly  for  the  capital  of  the 
Mexican  empire. 

In  the  progress  of  this  march,  he  arrived  at  the  republic  of 
Tlascala,  which  had  ever  been  at  enmity  with  the  Mexicans,  the 
latter  having  attempted  to  reduce  it  under  their  dominion.  Cortez, 
not  doubting  but  that  they  would  favor  his  projects,  demanded  per- 
mission to  pass  through  their  country,  and  proposed  an  alliance. 
A  people,  who  had  prohibited  themselves  from  holding  any  kind 
of  intercourse  with  their  neighbors,  and  whom  this  unsocial  princi- 
ple had  accustomed  to  a  general  mistrust  of  other  men,  could  not  be 
favorably  inclined  to  strangers,  whose  manner  was  imperious,  and 
who  had  signalized  their  arrival  by  insults  offered  to  the  gods  of  the 
country.  Accordingly,  the  Tlascalans  rejected,  without  hesita- 
tion, the  proposals  of  Cortez.  The  surprising  accounts  given  of 
the  Spaniards,  astonished  the  inhabitants  of  Tlascala,  but  did  not 
dismay  them.  They  fought  four  or  five  battles,  in  one  of  which 
the  Spanish  troops  were  defeated.  Cortez  was  obliged  to  intrench 
himself;  and  the  Indians,  who  wanted  nothing  but  the  powerful 
arms  of  the  Spaniards  to  make  them  victorious,  rushed  to  death 
upon  his  breastworks.  But  the  result  of  all  this  was  an  alliance 
with  the  Tlascalans,  who  furnished  the  Spaniards  with  six  thou- 
sand troops  to  conduct  their  march,  and  assist  them  in  their  enter- 
prise. 

With  this  reinforcement,  Cortez  advanced  towards  Mexico, 
through  a  fertile  country,  well  watered,  and  covered  with  woods, 
cultivated  fields,  villages,  and  gardens.  The  soil  produced  a  va- 
riety of  plants  unknown  in  Europe.  Birds  of  the  brightest  pin- 
mage,  and  animals  of  new  species,  appeared  in  great  abundance. 
Nature  differed  from  herself  only  in  assuming  a  more  agreeable, 
and  richer  dress.  The  temperature  of  the  air,  and  the  continual, 
though  moderate  heat,  preserved  the  earth  in  a  constant  verdure 
and  fertility.  On  the  same  spot  were  seen  trees  covered  with  blos- 
soms, and  others  with  delicious  fruits ;  and  the  same  kind  of  corn 
that  was  sown  in  one  field  was  ready  to  be  reaped  in  another. 

The  Spaniards  seemed  to  be  insensible  to  the  beauties  of  so 
novel  and  enchanting  a  scene.  They  saw  that  gold  was  the  com- 
mon ornament  of  the  houses  and  temples ;  that  the  arms,  furniture 
and  persons  of  the  Mexicans,  were  adorned  with  the  same  metal. 
This  alone  attracted  their  notice.  They  resembled  Mammon. 


72  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

whom  Milton  describes  as  forgetting  the  Divinity  in  Heaven  itself, 
having  his  eyes  always  fixed  upon  its  golden  porches. 

Montezuma's  wavering  disposition,  and.  perhaps,  the  fear  of 
staining  his  former  glory,  prevented  him  from  marching  against 
the  Spaniards,  at  their  arrival;  from  joining  the  Tlascalans, 
who  had  behaved  with  greater  courage  than  he  had  done ;  arid 
lastly,  from  attacking  conquerors  who  were  fatigued  with  their 
own  victories.  He  had  contented  himself  with  endeavoring  to 
divert  Cortez  from  his  design  of  visiting  his  capital,  but  resolved, 
at  last,  to  introduce  him  into  it  himself.  Thirty  kings  or  princes 
were  subject  to  his  dominion,  many  of  whom  were  able  to  bring  a 
numerous  army  into  the  field.  He  possessed  considerable  riches, 
and  his  power  was  absolute.  It  appears  that  his  subjects  were 
intelligent  and  industrious.  They  were,  also,  a  warlike  people, 
and  had  high  notions  of  honor.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  Cortez 
and  his  intrepid  band  fought  their  way  through  all  obstacles : 
army  after  army  of  the  Mexicans  fled  before  the  invaders,  who 
advanced  victoriously  toward  the  capital. 

The  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  Spaniards  at  the  scene  which 
burst  upon  their  view,  as  they  approached  the  lake  of  Mexico,  is 
strikingly  depicted  in  the  simple  and  homely  narrative  of  Bernal 
Diaz,  a  soldier  in  the  army  of  Cortez.  "When  we  beheld  the 
number  of  populous  towns  upon  the  water  and  main  land,  the 
broad  causeway  which  ran  straight  and  level  over  the  water  to 
the  city,  and  the  great  towers  and  temples  of  stone,  which  seemed 
to  rise  out  of  the  water,  we  could  compare  it  to  nothing  but  the 
enchanted  scenes  we  read  of  in  Amadis  de  Gaul.  To  many  of 
us,  it  appeared  doubtful  whether  we  were  asleep  or  awake.  Nor 
is  the  manner  in  which  I  express  myself  to  be  wondered  at,  for  it 
must  be  considered  that  never  yet  did  man  see,  hear,  or  dream  of 
anything  equal  to  the  spectacle  which  appeared  to  our  eyes  that 
day.  I  thought  within  myself  that  this  was  the  garden  of  the 
world.  When  we  came  near  certain  towers,  close  to  the  city, 
Montezuma,  who  was  there,  quitted  his  palanquin,  and  was  borne 
in  the  arms  of  the  princes,  under  a  canopy  of  the  richest  materials, 
ornamented  with  green  feathers,  gold,  and  precious  stones,  that 
hung  down  in  the  manner  of  fringe.  He  was  most  richly  dressed, 
and  wore  buskins  of  pure  gold,  studded  with  jewels.  The  people 
spread  mantles  on  the  ground,  lest  his  feet  should  touch  it,  and 
all  who  attended ,  him,  except  the  four  princes,  kept  their  eyes 
fixed  on  the  earth,*not  daring  to  look  him  in  the  face.  Who  could 
count  the  multitudes  of  men,  women  and  children  that  thronged 
the  streets,  the  canals,  the  terraces,  and  the  house-tops  that  day? 
We  were  astonished  at  the  number  ot  canoes  passing  to  and  from 


CORTEZ   TN   MEXICO.  73 

the  main  land,  loaded  with  provisions  and  merchandise  ;  and  we 
could  now  perceive  that  in  this  great  city,  and  all  the  others  of  the 
neighborhood  that  were  built  in  the  water,  the  houses  stood  separ- 
ate from  each  other,  communicating  by  draw-bridges  and  boats, 
and  that  they  were  built  with  terraced  roofs.  We  saw,  also,  tho 
temples  and  oratories  of  the  adjacent  cities,  built  in  the  form  of 
towers  and  castles,  and  others  on  the  causeway,  all  painted  white, 
and  wonderfully  brilliant.  The  noise  and  bustle  of  the  market- 
place could  be  heard  almost  a  league  off;  and  those  of  us  who  had 
been  at  Rome  and  Constantinople,  said,  that  for  convenience,  reg- 
ularity and  population,  they  had  never  seen  the  like." 

Montezuma  received  the  Spaniards  with  every  outward  token 
of  friendship  and  respect;  commodious  quarters  were  assigned 
them  in  the  city.  Cortez  demanded  of  him  to  submit  his  domin- 
ions to  the  crown  of  Castile.  Had  Montezuma  possessed  the  tal- 
ents or  the  courage  to  avail  himself  of  the  immense  advantage 
which  he  possessed  over  his  enemy,  he  might  have  annihilated 
him  at  a  single  blow,  and  the  ancient  empire  of  Mexico  might 
perhaps  have  existed  to  the  present  day.  But  this  feeble  and 
pusillanimous  monarch  shewed  neither  ability  nor  resolution.  Yet 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  perfidy  to  destroy  his  visitors. 
While  he  was  loading  Cortez  with  presents,  caresses  and  honors 
in  his  capital,  he  privately  despatched  orders  to  attack  the  Span- 
iards at  Vera  Cruz.  Cortez,  indignant  at  this  treachery,  or  eagerly 
grasping  at  a  pretext  for  violent  measures,  seized  this  occasion, 
and  thus  addressed  his  soldiers  : — "  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
surprise  these  barbarians  with  some  extraordinary  exploit.  I  am 
resolved  to  seize  the  emperor,  and  make  myself  master  of  his  per- 
son." This  design  being  approved,  Cortez  instantly  inarched  with 
his  officers  to  Montezuma's  palace,  and  told  him  that  he  must 
either  follow  him  or  die.  The  prince,  whose  pusillanimity  could 
only  be  equalled  by  the  boldness  of  his  enemies,  resigned  him- 
self into  their  hands.  He  was  obliged  to  consent  to  the  punish- 
ment of  his  generals,  who  had  acted  only  in  obedience  to  his 
orders ;  and  completed  his  disgrace  by  submitting  to  do  homage 
to  the  king  of  Spain. 

In  the  midst  of  these  successes,  intelligence  was  received  that 
Pamphilio  de  Narvaez  had  just  arrived  from  Cuba,  with  eight 
hundred  infantry,  fourscore  cavalry,  and  twelve  pieces  of  crmnon, 
in  order  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  and  to  punish  the  re- 
fractory. These  forces  had  been  sent  by  Velasquez,  who  was 
dissatisfied  that  a  few  adventurers,  sent  out  under  his  auspices, 
should  have  neglected  all  intercourse  with  him,  declared  them- 
selves independent  of  his  authority,  and  sent  deputies  into  Europe, 
7  j 


74  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  those  powers  they  had  arrogated  to 
themselves.  Cortez,  with  no  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  immediately  marched  against  his  rival,  engaged  and  took 
him  prisoner.  He  obliged  the  vanquished  to  lay  down  their  arms, 
but  afterwards  restored  them,  and  proposed  that  they  should  follow 
him.  He  gained  their  affections  by  his  confidence  and  magna- 
nimity ;  and  these  soldiers  enlisted  under  his  standard.  He  in- 
stantly marched  back  with  them  to  Mexico,  where  he  had  not 
been  able  to  leave  more  than  fifty  Spaniards,  who,  with  the  Tlas- 
'  calans,  closely  guarded  the  emperor. 

Commotions  were  excited  among  the  nobility  of  Mexico,  whose 
indignation  was  raised  at  the  captivity  of  their  prince :  and  the 
indiscreet  zeal  of  the  Spaniards  having  prompted  them  to  disturb 
a  public  festival,  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  deities  of  the  country, 
by  destroying  their  altars,  and  making  a  massacre  of  the  wor- 
shippers and  priests,  the  people  were  provoked  to  take  up  arms. 

On  his  return  to  Mexico,  Cortez  found  the  Spaniards  besieged 
on  the  spot  where  he  had  left  them.  It  was  a  space  of  sufficient 
extent  to  contain  the  Spaniards  and  their  allies,  and  was  surrounded 
by  a  thick  wall,  upon  which  were  placed  towers  at  different  dis- 
tances. The  artillery  had  been  disposed  in  the  best  manner  pos- 
sible ;  and  the  service  had  been  always  executed  with  as  much 
regularity  and  vigilance  as  in  a  besieged  place,  or  in  the  most 
exposed  camp.  The  general  was  not  able  to  make  his  way  into 
this  kind  of  fortress,  until  he  had  encountered  many  difficul- 
ties ;  and  when  he  at  length  entered  it,  the  dangers  still  continued. 
Such  was  the  obstinate  fury  of  the  Mexicans,  that  they  croAvded 
themselves  through  the  port-holes  of  the  cannon,  from  which  they 
were  repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter. 

The  Spaniards  made  frequent  sallies,  which  were  successful,  yet 
failed  to  raise  the  siege.  The  Mexicans  gave  proofs  of  extraordi- 
nary courage.  They  cheerfully  devoted  themselves  to  certain 
death.  Naked  and  ill  armed,  they  were  seen  to  throw  themselves 
into  the  ranks  of  the  Spaniards,  with  a  view  of  making  their  arms 
useless,  or  wresting  them  out  of  their  hands.  They  were  all  pre- 
pared to  perish  in  order  to  rescue  their  country  from  the  yoke  of 
these  foreign  usurpers. 

The  prisoners  taken  by  the  Mexicans  were  carried  off  to  the 
great  temple,  and  sacrificed  to  the  god  of  war.  The  Spaniards, 
from  the  quarters  they  occupied,  could  behold  the  preparations 
making  for  the  immolation  of  their  companions,  and  their  ears 
were  appalled  by  the  sound  of  the  great  drum,  which  announced 
iheir  bloody  orgies:  a  sound  which  a  narrator  who  witnessed 
these  terrible  scenes  assures  us  could  be  heard  for  three  leagues. 


CORTEZ    IN   MEXICO.  75 

The  most  bloody  engagement  was  fought  upon  an  eminence, 
from  which  the  Mexicans  overwhelmed  all  that  approached  them 
with  showers  of  arrows.  The  party  charged  with  dislodging 
them,  was  three  times  repulsed.  Cortez  was  irritated  by  their 
resistance,  and  though  seriously  wounded,  resolved  to  take  the 
attack  upon  himself.  Scarce  had  he  got  possession  of  this  impor- 
tant post,  when  two  young  Mexicans  threw  down  their  arms,  and 
came  over  to  him  as  deserters.  Placing  one  knee  on  the  ground 
in  a  suppliant  posture,  they  sprang  upon  him  with  extreme  quick- 
ness, and  seized  him,  with  a  design  of  dashing  him  in  pieces,  by 
hurling  him  down  the  precipice.  Cortez,  by  his  strength  and 
dexterity,  disengaged  himself;  and  the  two  Mexicans  died  the 
victims  of  their  daring  but  fruitless  enterprise. 

This  and  many  other  exploits,  which  showed  equal  courage, 
made  the  Spaniards  desirous  of  coming  to  terms  of  accommoda- 
tion. At  length  Montezuma,  still  a  prisoner,  consented  to  become 
the  agent  in  reducing  his  people  to  slavery.  In  all  the  pomp  of 
the  throne,  he  made  his  appearance  upon  the  wall,  to  persuade 
his  subjects  to  discontinue  hostilities.  Their  resentment  convinced 
him  that  his  reign  was  at  an  end,  and  he  was  mortally  wounded 
by  the  shower  of  arrows  the  Mexicans  discharged  at  him. 


Montezuma. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

Effects  of  the  death  of  Montezuma  on  the  Mexicans. — They  attempt  to  reduce  the 
Spaniards' by  famine. — The  Spaniards  retreat  from  the  city. — Errors  committed 
by  the  Mexicans. — Battle  of  Otumba. — Heroism  of  Cortez. — He  advances  again 
upon  Mexico. — Obstacles  in  his  way. — He  builds  ships  on  the  lake. — The  emperor 
Guatimozin  makes  a  brave  defence. — Attack  on  Mexico. — Capture  of  Guatimozin. 
— He  is  put  to  the  torture. — His  fortitude,  and  calamitous  end. —  Conquest  of 
Mexico. — Description  of  the  city. — Fate  of  the  Mexicans. — Disappointment  of  the 
schemes  of  Cortez. — He  returns  to  Spain. — His  death. — Destruction  of  the  Mex- 
ican cities. — Their  ancient  splendor. — Bigoted  vandalism  of  the  Spaniards.—' 
Conquest  of  Guatimala  by  Alvarado. — Foundation  of  the  city  of  Guatimala 


Cortez  building  ships  in  the  Jake. 

THE  death  of  Montezuma  struck  the  Mexicans  with  a  momentary 
surprise  and  terror,  but  caused  no  permanent  intimidation  or 
discouragement.  They  saw  that  their  plans  of  attack  and  defence 
were  equally  defective.  Unable  to  cope  with  their  enemies,  man 
to  man,  they  changed  their  mode  of  warfare,  and  resolved  to  do 
nothing  more  than  intercept  the  provisions,  and  reduce  by  famine 
an  enemy  whom  superiority  of  discipline  and  arms  rendered  other- 
wise invincible.  The  Spaniards  soon  had  intimation  of  this  design. 
Troops  of  Mexicans  collected  round  the  palace  at  a  safe  distance, 
so  as  to  keep  it  in  a  state  of  blockade.  Fortifications  were  erected 
on  the  canal,  and  a  body  of  men  were  despatched  to  the  lake  to 


CORTEZ    IN   MEXICO.  77 

break  down  the  bridges  of  the  causeway  and  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  Spaniards  in  that  quarter. 

Cortez  now  perceived  that  nothing  could  save  his  army  but  an 
instant  retreat  from  the  city.  A  council  of  war  was  held,  and  it 
was  resolved  to  march  out  of  Mexico  that  very  night,  before  the 
works  of  the  enemy  could  be  completed,  and  render  their  retreat 
impracticable.  This  measure  required  incredible  despatch  and 
activity  in  the  preparation.  The  bridge  on  the  causeway  was 
already  broken  down.  Cortez  ordered  a  portable  bridge  of  planks 
to  be  made,  which  might  be  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  forty  men, 
and  of  a  strength  sufficient  to  sustain  the  artillery  and  horses.  He 
endeavored  to  conceal  his  design,  by  making  new  overtures  for  a 
negotiation ;  and  in  the  meantime  improved  every  moment  of  the 
day  in  arranging  the  march  of  his  troops.  The  men  loaded  them- 
selves with  as  much  gold  as  they  could  carry,  but  were  obliged  to 
leave  behind  them  the  value  of  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
for  want  of  the  means  of  transportation.  Cortez  endeavored  to 
strengthen  the  resolution  of  his  troops  by  addressing  them  in  an 
energetic  speech;  and  at  midnight  the  whole  army  abandoned 
their  quarters  and  marched  in  perfect  order  and  profound  silence 
along  the  causeway  that  led  to  Tacuba. 

But  the  Mexicans  had  not  been  ignorant  of  this  proceeding. 
The  design  of  Cortez  had  been  suspected  from  the  first,  and  the 
movements  of  the  Spaniards  were  cios>ely  watched.  Favored  by 
the  darkness  of  the  night,  they  collected  an  immense  fleet  of  canoes 
on  both  sides  of  the  causeway,  completely  covering  that  quarter 
of  the  lake,  and  lay  silently  in  wait  for  the  retreating  army.  The 
Spaniards  reached  the  first  breach  in  the  causeway  without  any 
suspicion  of  their  danger ;  but  in  the  moment  when  the  cavalry 
and  artillery  entered  upon  the  bridge  they  had  laid  over  it,  they 
were  astounded  with  the  tremendous  roar  of  martial  instruments, 
and  the  shouts  of  innumerable  multitudes  of  enemies.  Clouds  of 
arrows  rained  upon  them  in  an  instant,  and  the  Mexicans  rushed 
to  the  onset  with  the  most  fearless  impetuosity,  as  if  that  moment 
were  to  offer  them  a  rich  revenge  for  all  their  wrongs.  The  Span- 
iards, however,  undismayed  by  this  sudden  and  terrific  assault, 
passed  the  bridge,  but  on  attempting  to  remove  it,  they  found  it  so 
firmly  wedged  among  the  stones  and  mud,  by  the  weight  of  the 
horses  and  cannon,  that  it  was  impossible  again  to  raise  it.  Struck 
into  a  panic  at  this  disaster,  they  rushed  with  precipitation  toward 
the  second  breach,  where  they  would  have  been  cut  off  to  a  man, 
had  the  Mexicans  continued  the  attack  with  the  same  regularity 
as  at  first.  The  Spaniards  were  obliged  to  wade  through  the  mud 
and  water,  laden  with  baggage  and  encumbered  with  their  arms 
7* 


78  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

in  darkness,  confusion  and  terror.  But  the  Mexicans,  yielding  to 
their  natural  impetuosity  and  fury,  pressed  to  the  attack  in  tumult 
and  disorder;  the  canoes  crowded  upon  each  other,  and  were 
dashed  in  pieces  against  the  causeway.  Numbers  of  them,  whose 
canoes  could  not  get  forward  to  engage,  impatient  of  the  delay, 
had  thrown  themselves  into  the  water,  and  scrambling  up  the 
causeway  where  the  Spaniards  were  to  pass,  formed  in  a  body 
and  obliged  Cortez  to  present  a  double  front  and  renew  the  engage- 
ment. Actuated  by  despair,  or  animated  by  the  example  of  their 
general,  the  Spaniards  now  fought  with  such  fearless  impetuosity 
that  the  Mexicans  in  front,  unable  to  sustain  the  shock,  instantly 
gave  way,  and  were  pursued  with  dreadful  slaughter  to  the  breach, 
where  thousands  threw  themselves  into  the  water  or  were  tram- 
pled to  death  by  the  cavalry.  The  carnage  was  so  great  that  the 
chasm  in  the  causeway  was  completely  filled  up  with  the  dead 
bodies,  over  which,  by  the  assistance  of  a  beam  left  by  the  Mex- 
icans, Cortez  and  a  part  of  his  army  passed  and  continued  their 
march  to  the  third  breach.  This,  fortunately  for  the  Spaniards, 
their  enemies  had  neglected  to  occupy,  so  that  the  retreating  troops, 
aided  by  the  shallowness  of  the  water,  reached  the  main  land. 

But  this  which  had  escaped  was  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
army.  Cortez,  having  saved  his  advanced  guard,  returned  with 
several  of  his  officers  to  the  relief  of  the  main  body.  He  found 
them  overwhelmed  by  enormous  multitudes,  who  pressed  on  them 
with  irresistible  violence.  All  Mexico  was  now  in  arms ;  and  as 
fresh  warriors  every  moment  supplied  the  place  of  those  who  fell, 
the  Spaniards  began  to  sink  under  the  weight  of  the  torrent  that 
poured  in  upon  them  from  every  side.  Nothing  but  confusion  and 
terror  prevailed.  Horse  and  foot,  officers  and  soldiers,  enemies 
and  friends  were  mingled  together,  and  many  fell  without  knowing 
from  what  hand  the  blow  came.  The  Spaniards,  laden  with  gold 
and  treasure,  sunk  in  the  waters  under  the  weight  of  burthens 
which  avarice  could  not  induce  them  to  cast  away.  Alvarado, 
the  commander  of  this  division,  signalized  himself  by  the  most 
daring  and  intrepid  actions,  and  exhorted  his  men  to  a  heroic 
defence ;  but  his  exertions  were  of  no  avail.  The  number  of  the 
Mexicans  increased,  as  did  their  fury,  shouts  and  rage.  Torrents 
of  rain  fell,  and  the  darkness  of  the  night  was  rendered  more 
appalling  by  the  cries  for  help  and  exclamations  of  despair  uttered 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  words  "kill!  kill!"  fiercely  shouted 
by  the  Mexicans.  In  this  desperate  extremity,  Cortez  made  a 
charge  upon  the  enemy  with  five  horse,  and  made  a  path  for  his 
troops,  while  Alvarado,  who  was  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  breach 
and  in  the  most  imminent  danger,  saved  his  life  by  an  astonishing 


.      THE   NIGHT    OF    BLOOD.  79 

•  *'?•*'}  PfUNK 

feat  of  agility.  Poising  himself  on  the  shaft  of  his  spear,  he  vaulted 
over  and  entirely  cleared  the  pass,  which  to  this  day  is  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Aharado's  Leap.  Many  endeavored  to 
follow  him,  but  not  one  reached  the  other  side.  The  greater  part 
of  the  rearguard  were  killed,  drowned,  or  taken  prisoners. 

Such  is  the  event  known  in  Mexican  history  as  the  Noche  triste, 
or  "  doleful  night."  Between  five  and  six  hundred  Spaniards 
were  killed,  with  two  thousand  Tlascalans.  Most  of  the  artillery, 
ammunition,  baggage,  and  most  of  the  treasure  were  lost.  The 
survivors,  reduced  to  less  than  half  their  number,  were  covered 
with  wounds,  dispirited  and  overwhelmed  with  fatigue.  Their 
leader,  as  he  reviewed  the  shattered  remains  of  his  army,  was 
observed  to  shed  tears  for  the  loss  of  so  many  brave  companions. 
The  Mexicans,  fighting  in  defence  of  their  homes,  had  shown 
equal  bravery,  and  lay  dead  by  thousands — but  who  had  any  tears 
for  them?  The  Spaniards  were  now  completely  in  their  power, 
and  a  single  decisive  blow  would  have  utterly  crushed  the  invaders; 
but  the  fatality  which  hung  over  this  unhappy  race,  withheld 
their  arms  from  striking  at  the  decisive  moment. 

No  sooner  had  the  morning  dawned  and  exposed  to  the  view 
of  the  Mexicans  the  field  of  battle,  of  which  they  were  masters, 
than  they  perceived,  among  the  slain,  a  son  and  two  daughters  of 
Montezuma,  whom  the  Spaniards  had  attempted  to  carry  off  among 
their  prisoners.  This  sight  chilled  them  with  horror.  The 
thought  of  having  murdered  the  children  of  their  sovereign,  after 
sacrificing  the  father,  was  too  shocking  for  men  whose  minds 
were  fettered  and  enervated  by  superstition  and  habits  of  blind 
obedience.  They  were  afraid  of  adding  impiety  to  regicide ;  and 
employed  in  idle  funeral  rites,  the  time  they  owed  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  country.  During  this  interval,  the  defeated  Spaniards, 
who  had  scarce  a  soldier  remaining  that  had  not  been  wounded, 
had  time  to  take  breath,  recover  order  and  pursue  their  march. 
The  Mexicans  soon  followed,  harassed,  and  at  length  surrounded 
them  in  the  valley  of  Otumba.  The  cannonade  and  musketry, 
the  pikes  and  swords,  did  not  prevent  the  Indians,  all  naked  as 
they  were,  from  advancing  and  charging  their  enemies  with  great 
fury.  Courage  was  just  upon  the  point  of  yielding  to  numbers, 
when  Cortez  himself  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day.  He  had 
been  informed,  that  with  these  natives  of  the  New  World  the  fate  of 
the  battle  depended  upon  the  royal  standard.  Their  colors,  the 
form  of  which  was  remarkable,  and  which  were  never  brought 
into  the  field  but  on  the  most  important  occasions,  were  at  no  great 
distance  from  him.  He  immediately  rushed  forward  with  the 
bravest  of  his  companions.  One  of  them  seized  the  standards  and 


80  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

carried  them  into  the  Spanish  ranks.  The  Mexicans  immediately 
lost  all  courage;  and  throwing  down  their  arms,  betook  them- 
selves to  flight.  The  Spaniards  pursued  their  march,  and  arrived 
in  the  country  of  Tlascala,  without  farther  opposition. 

Cortez  did  not  relinquish  either  the  design  or  the  hopes  of  sub- 
duing the  empire  of  Mexico;  but  he  adopted  a  new  plan,  and 
proposed  to  make  one  part  of  the  inhabitants  assist  him  in  the 
reduction  of  the  other.  The  form  of  the  Mexican  government, 
the  disposition  of  the  people,  and  the  situation  of  the  city,  favored 
his  project. 

Among  the  great  numbers  of  vassals  in  Mexico,  Cortez  con- 
cluded there  might  be  some  who  would  be  ready  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  and  join  the  Spaniards.  He  had  remarked  that  the  Mexi- 
cans were  held  in  great  detestation  by  the  petty  states  that  were 
tributary  to  the  empire,  and  that  the  emperors  exercised  their 
authority  with  extreme  severity.  He  had  likewise  observed  that 
the  provinces  in  general  disliked  the  religion  of  the  metropolis,  and 
that  even  in  Mexico,  the  nobility  and  persons  of  fortune,  whose 
intercourse  with  society  had  abated  the  force  of  their  prejudices 
and  softened  their  manners,  had  lost  their  attachment  to  this  mode 
of  religion;  and  that  many  of  the  nobility  were  disgusted  at  the 
services  exacted  from  them  by  their  masters. 

After  Cortez  had  been  silently  deliberating  upon  his  projects, 
and  bringing  them  to  maturity,  during  six  months,  he  marched 
out  of  his  retreat,  attended  by  five  hundred  and  ninety  Spaniards, 
ten  thousand  Tlascalans,  and  some  other  Indians,  with  forty 
cavalry,  and  eight  or  nine  field-pieces.  His  march  towards  the 
centre  of  the  Mexican  dominions  was  easy  and  rapid.  The  petty 
nations  which  might  have  retarded  or  embarrassed  it,  were  all 
easily  subdued,  or  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  invaders.  Cortez 
hastened  to  the  attack  of  Mexico,  the  grand  object  of  his  ambition, 
and  the  ultimate  end  of  the  hopes  of  the  army.  The  project  was 
attended  with  great  difficulty. 

Mountains,  which  for  the  most  part  were  a  thousand  feet  high, 
surrounded  a  plain  of  about  forty  leagues.  The  greater  part  of 
this  immense  space  was  occupied  by  lakes  which  communicated 
with  each  other.  At  the  northern  extremity  of  the  greatest  of 
these,  in  the  midst  of  a  few  small  islands,  had  been  built  the  largest 
city  in  the  New  World.  Three  cause  ways  of  different  lengths,  but 
all  of  them  broad  and  constructed  with  solidity,  led  up  to  it. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  shores,  too  distant  from  these  great  roads, 
were  accustomed  to  resort  to  the  city  in  their  canoes. 

Cortez  made  himself  master  of  the  lake,  by  means  of  some 
sma.ll  vessels,  the  materials  of  which  had  been  prepared  at  Tlas- 


GUATIMOZIN.  81 

cala ;  and  he  ordered  the  dykes  to  be  attacked  by  Sandoval,  by 
Alvarado,  and  by  Olid,  to  each  of  whom  he  distributed  an  equal 
number  of  guns,  of  Spanish  troops,  and  of  Indian  auxiliaries. 

Everything  had  been  disposed  for  a  long  time,  on  the  part  of  the 
Mexicans,  for  an  obstinate  resistance.  The  means  of  defence 
had  been  prepared  by  Quetlavaca,  who  had  succeeded  his  brother 
Montezuma;  but  who  had  perished  by  the  small-pox,  a  disease 
first  brought  into  these  regions  by  a  slave  belonging  to  Narvaez. 
The  empire  was  now  governed  by  Guatimozin. 

The  actions  of  this  young  prince  were  heroic  and  prudent. 
The  fire  of  his  look,  the  loftiness  of  his  language,  and  his  brilliant 
courage,  produced  every  impression  he  wished  upon  his  people. 
He  disputed  the  ground  with  the  invaders  foot  by  foot,  and  never 
abandoned  a  single  spot  till  it  was  strewed  with  the  carcasses  of 
his  soldiers,  and  stained  with  the  blood  of  his  enemies.  Fifty  thou- 
sand men,  who  had  hastened  from  all  parts  of  the  empire  to  defend 
their  master  and  their  gods,  had  perished  by  the  sword  or  by  fire. 
Famine  daily  occasioned  the  most  frightful  ravages.  To  these 
numerous  calamities,  contagious  diseases  had  been  added,  and  yet 
all  these  circumstances  had  not  been  capable  of  shakingthe  firmness 
of  his  soul,  even  for  an  instant.  The  besiegers,  after  a  number  of 
destructive  battles,  at  length  reached  the  centre  of  the  city,  which, 
however,  Guatimozin  did  not  yet  think  of  giving  up.  He  was  at 
last  prevailed  upon  to  quit  these  ruins,  which  could  no  longer  be 
defended,  and  repair  to  the  provinces,  and  carry  on  the  war  there. 
In  the  view  of  facilitating  this  retreat,  some  overtures  of  peace 
were  made  to  Cortez;  but  this  artifice  had  not  the  desired  suc- 
cess ;  and  the  canoe,  in  which  this  gallant  and  unfortunate  mon- 
arch had  embarked,  was  captured  on  the  lake. 

An  officer  of  the  Spanish  revenue  ordered  Guatimozin  to  be 
stretched  upon  red-hot  coals,  to  extort  a  confession  of  the  spot 
where  he  had  thrown  his  treasures  into  the  lake.  The  favorite 
of  the  emperor,  who  underwent  the  same  torture,  complaining  to 
him  of  his  sufferings,  the  emperor  replied,  "Am  /  upon  a  bed  of 
roses?" — an  expression  equal  to  any  of  those  famous  sayings 
which  history  has  recorded  as  worthy  the  admiration  of  mankind  ! 
— an  expression  which  Mexicans  would  repeat  to  their  children  as 
household  words,  if  ever  the  period  should  arrive  when  they  resume 
the  dominion  of  the  country.  These  people  have,  perhaps,  pre- 
served the  actions  of  their  martyrs  and  the  history  of  their  perse- 
cutions. In  these  it  must  be  recorded,  that  Guatimozin  was  drag- 
ged half  dead  from  the  flames ;  and  that  three  years  after,  he  was 
publicly  hanged,  under  pretence  of  having  conspired  against  his 
tyrants  and  executioners ! 

I 


82  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

The  Spaniards,  in  their  attacks  on  the  city,  were  aided  by  up- 
wards of  two  hundred  thousand  Indian  allies,  without  whose 
assistance  the  empire  would  never  have  been  subdued.  Thus  did 
the  unforfunate  Mexicans  aid  in  shedding  the  blood  of  their  country- 
men and  riveting  the  chains  of  slavery  upon  themselves  and  their 
posterity.  Cortez  continued  to  advance  day  by  day,  destroying  the 
city  as  he  proceeded,  till,  on  the  13th  day  of  August,  1521,  Mexico 
surrendered.  The  siege,  like  that  of  Jerusalem,  lasted  seventy 
days,  and  cost  the  lives  of  two  hundred  thousand  men. 

Mexico  suffered  a  worse  fate  from  Cortez,  than  Moscow  from 
Napoleon.  The  whole  place  was  a  heap  of  ruins.  Before  the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  it  was  a  most  noble  and  opulent  city. 
The  magnificent  descriptions  of  the  Spanish  writers  are  fully 
confirmed  by  the  ruins  of  inferior  cities,  which  remain  to  the 
present  day  at  Palenque,  Uxmal,  and  other  places.  Mexico  con- 
tained thirty  thousand  houses,  an  immense  number  of  inhabitants, 
and  superb  edifices  within  its  walls.  The  emperor's  palace,  built 
of  marble  and  jasper,  was  of  prodigious  extent.  It  was  orna- 
mented with  baths,  statues,  and  fountains ;  and  was  full  of  pic- 
tures, which,  though  made  only  of  feathers,  were  finely  colored, 
brilliant  and  natural. 

Most  of  the  nobles,  as  well  as  the  emperor,  had  menageries  filled 
with  the  various  animals  of  the  new  continent.  Their  gardens 
were  spread  with  plants  of  every  species.  Every  production  of 
the  soil  a^id  climate  that  was  scarce  and  brilliant,  was  an  object 
of  luxury  to  an  opulent  nation,  where  nature  was  beautiful  and 
the  arts  imperfect.  The  temples  were  numerous,  and  in  general 
magnificent ;  but  they  were  stained  with  blood,  and  adorned  with 
the  heads  of  the  unhappy  victims  that  had  been  sacrificed  in  them. 

One  of  the  greatest  beauties  of  this  superb  city,  was  a  square, 
which  was  usually  filled  with  a  hundred  thousand  persons,  over- 
spread with  tents  and  shops,  where  the  merchants  displayed  all 
the  riches  of  the  country,  and  all  the  works  of  industry  wrought 
by  the  Mexicans.  Birds  of  all  colors,  brilliant  shells,  a  profusion 
of  flowers,  and  various  pieces  of  workmanship  in  gold  and  ena- 
mel, gave  these  markets  a  more  beautiful  and  splendid  appearance 
to  the  eye,  than  it  is  possible  to  meet  with  in  the  richest  fairs  of 
Europe.  One  hundred  thousand  canoes  were  constantly  passing 
and  repassing  between  the  city  and  the  borders  of  the  lakes; 
which  were  ornamented  with  fifty  cities,  and  with  a  multitude  of 
towns  and  villages. 

The  rest  of  the  empire,  as  far  as  the  respective  situations  would 
allow,  offered  the  same  spectacle ;  but  with  the  difference  that  is 
always  observable  between  the  capital  and  the  provinces.  This 


DISAPPOINTMENT    AND   DEATH    OF    CORTEZ.  83 

nation, — the  antiquity  of  which  was  not  very  remote ;  which  had 
no  communication  with  enlightened  people;  which  knew  not  the 
use  of  iron,  and  possessed  only  an  imperfect  species  of  writing, 
and  which  was  situated  in  a  climate  where  the  faculties  of  man, 
are  not  called  forth  by  want  and  rigorous  necessity, — this  nation, 
we  are  told,  had  risen  to  this  degree  of  eminence  by  the  genius  of 
the  people  alone. 

As  soon  as  the  Castilians  had  conquered  Mexico,  they  divided 
the  best  lands  among  themselves ;  they  reduced  to  slavery  the 
people  who  had  cleared  them,  and  condemned  them  to  labors  in- 
compatible with  their  constitutions  and  repugnant  to  their  habits. 
This  system  of  oppression  excited  general  insurrections.  These 
arose  without  a  concurrence  of  measures,  without  a  chief  to  direct 
them,  and  without  a  plan ;  they  were  the  effect  of  despair  alone ; 
and  ended  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  unfortunate  Mexicans.  An 
irritated  conqueror,  with  fire  and  sword  in  hand,  passed  with  ex- 
treme rapidity  from  one  extremity  of  the  empire  to  the  other,  and 
left  in  all  parts  memorable  traces  of  vengeance,  the  details  of 
which  would  make  the  firmest  heart  shudder.  There  was  a  bar- 
barous emulation  between  the  officer  and  the  soldier,  which  should 
sacrifice  most  victims ;  and  even  the  great  leader  himself,  perhaps, 
surpassed  his  troops  and  lieutenants  in  ferocity. 

Cortez,  however,  did  not  reap  the  advantages  he  expected  from 
so  many  acts  of  inhumanity.  It  became  a  maxim  of  policy  in  the 
court  of  Madrid,  not  to  leave  such  of  their  subjects  as  had  effected 
important  discoveries,  time  enough  to  settle  themselves  in  their 
authority.  They  were  in  perpetual  fear  that  the  conquerors  might 
think  of  rendering  themselves  independent  of  the  crown.  If  the 
conqueror  of  Mexico  did  not  give  an  excuse  for  adopting  such  a 
system,  he  was  at  least,  one  of  the  first  victims  of  it.  The  unlim- 
ited powers  he  had  at  first  enjoyed,  were  daily  curtailed;  and  in 
process  of  time  they  were  so  exceedingly  restrained,  that  he  pre- 
ferred a  private  situation  to  the  vain  appearance  of  an  authority 
accompanied  with  the  greatest  mortification.  He  was,  even  on 
the  point  of  being  seized  and  sent  to  Spain  in  irons,  precisely  as 
Columbus  had  been  served ;  but  the  sudden  death  of  Ponce  de 
Leon,  the  officer  ordered  upon  this  service,  saved  the  conqueror 
of  Mexico  from  the  indignity  which  had  been  cast  on  the  discov- 
erer of  the  New  World.  Disgusted  and  indignant  at  this  pre- 
meditated insult,  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  received 
with  outward  respect  and  honors,  but  not  allowed  to  resume  his 
authority  in  America.  He  closed  his  life  in  chagrin  and  disap- 
pointment, December  2,  1547.  The  events  described  in  this  his- 
tory, speak  his  character.  Intrepid,  enterprising,  and  prompt  at 


84  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

expedients,  he  was  nevertheless,  sanguinary  and  remorseless.  He 
is  said  to  have  shown  symptoms  of  compunction  for  the  murder 
of  Guatimozin,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  slaughter  of  half  a 
million  of  men,  sacrificed  to  his  insatiate  ambition,  ever  gave  him 
an  uneasy  thought. 

The  city  of  Mexico  was  rebuilt  by  the  Spaniards,  but  hardly  a 
relic  of  the  ancient  city  is  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day.  The 
destruction  which  fell  upen  the  capital,  was  also  shared  by  the 
inferior  cities  of  the  empire.  The  blind  and  fanatic  zeal  of  the 
conquerors  was  directed  with  especial  fury  against  the  monuments 
of  Mexican  history  and  religion.  The  ravages  of  war  levelled 
the  cities  to  the  ground,  and  monkish  bigotry  continued  the  devas- 
tation by  overthrowing  the  temples,  statues  and  monuments,  which 
abounded  throughout  the  country.  The  researches  of  modern 
travellers  have  discovered  tracts  of  territory  strewed  with  the 
remains  of  noble  palaces  and  enormous  structures  of  various 
descriptions.  These  gigantic  relics,  covered  with  sculpture,  paint- 
ings and  hieroglyphics,  attest  the>  ancient  magnificence  of  the 
Mexican  cities,  and  exhibit  the  most  interesting  testimonials  of  the 
progress  of  the  arts  among  this  singular  people.  They  appear 
not  to  have  known  the  use  of  iron,  yet  their  statues  and  other 
monuments  of  sculptured  stone,  exhibit  a  surprising  degree  of 
delicacy  and  finish.  Destitute  of  the  mechanical  helps  which  give 
such  enormous  power  to  modern  machinery,  they  were  able,  nev- 
ertheless, to  rear  colossal  structures,  the  remains  of  which,  at  the 
present  day,  strike  us  with  wonder.  The  Mexicans,  also,  were 
familiar  with  astronomical  science ;  and  their  hieroglyphical  writ- 
ing, so  far  as  we  .can  judge  from  the  imperfect  relics  within  our 
reach,  appears  to  have  made  an  approach,  like  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, to  a  phonetic  character,  and  to  have  become  an  incipient 
alphabet.  The  Spaniards  destroyed,  with  indiscriminate  fury, 
everything  that  could  remind  the  conquered  people  of  their  ancient 
national  existence,  or  their  ancient  religion.  The  hieroglyphical 
writings,  which  contained  the  history  and  mythology  of  this  peo- 
ple, were  committed  to  the  flames,  and  thus  immense  piles  of 
manuscripts  were  irretrievably  lost,  which  were  of  inestimable 
value  as  affording  the  means  of  elucidating  the  origin,  antiquities, 
institutions  and  manners,  of  the  most  powerful  and  civilized  people 
of  the  Western  World. 

GUATEMALA  appears  never  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the  empire 
of  Mexico.  At  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  it  contained  many 
distinct  kingdoms  or  principalities.  The  subjugation  of  Mexico 
by  Cortez,  struck  a  terror  into  the  people  of  Guatemala,  and  some 
of  the  chiefs  sent  embassies  to  the  conqueror,  offering  to  submit  to 


CONQUEST    OF    GUATEMALA. 


86 


him,  and  acknowledge  themselves  vassals  of  the  king  of  Spain. 
Cortez  sent  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  one  of  his  officers,  who  had  been 
most  active  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  to  take  possession  of  the 
country.  Alvarado  marched  from  Mexico  in  November,  1523, 
with  three  hundred  Spaniards  and  a  large  auxiliary  force  of  Mexi- 
cans. He  met,  however,  with  much  opposition  in  his  progress. 
The  Indians  were  defeated  in  Teguantepec,  Soconusco  and  To- 
nala,  and  the  Spaniards  remained  masters  of  those  provinces. 
They  next  entered  the  kingdom  of  Quiche,  where  they  met  with 
a  more  serious  resistance.  The  invaders,  however,  on  the  14th 
of  May,  1524,  gained  the  victory  in  a  great  battle.  Alvarado 
continued  his  march  to  the  capital  of  the  king  of  Kachiquel,  who 
had  sent  his  submission  to  Cortez.  This  prince  received  the 
Spaniards  cordially,  and  on  the  29th  of  July,  1524,  the  conquer- 
ors laid  the  foundation  of  the  ancient  city  of  Guatemala.  The 
conquest  of  the  remaining  provinces  followed  shortly  after,  al- 
though many  wild  districts  have  remained  to  the  present  day,  very 
little  explored  or  known  by  the  conquerors. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

Search  of  Columbus  for  the  South  Sea. — Expedition  of  Ojeda  and  Nicuessa. — 
Nunez  de  Balboa  penetrates  into  the  country  of  Darien. — Discovers  the  Pacific 
Ocean. — Expedition  of  Pedrarias. — Foundation  of  Panama. — The  invasion  of 
Peru  projected  by  Pizarro  and  Almagro. — Arrival  of  the  Spaniards  at  Tumbez. 
— State  of  the  empire  of  Peru  on  the  arrival  of  the  invaders. — Interview  of  the 
Inca  Atahualpa  with  the  Spaniards. — Massacre  of  the  Peruvians. — Enormous 
ransom  paid  by  the  Inca. — Amount  of  spoil  shared  by  the  soldiers. — Atahualpa 
put  to  death. — Capture  of  Cuzco. — Conquest  and  devastation  of  the  whole  empire 
of  Peru. 


Balboa  discovering  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

COLUMBUS  rightly  conjectured  that,  beyond  the  continent  he  had 
discovered,  was  another  ocean,  which  terminated  at  the  East  Indies, 
and  that  these  two  seas  might  have  a  communication  with  each 
other.  In  order  to  discover  this,  he  sailed,  in  1502,  as  close  along 
the  coast  of  America  as  possible.  He  touched  at  all  places  that 
were  accessible,  and,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  other  navigators, 
who  behaved,  in  the  countries  they  visited,  as  if  they  were  never 
to  return  to  them,  he  treated  the  inhabitants  with  a  degree  of 
kindness  that  gained  their  good  will.  The  Gulf  of  Darien  partic- 
ularly engaged  his  attention.  He  thought  that  the  rivers  which 
ran  into  it  might  afford  the  communication  he  had  sought  through 
so  many  dangers  and  fatigues.  Disappointed  in  these  expectations, 
he  wished  to  leave  a  small  colony  upon  the  river  Belem,  in  the 


EVENTS  LEADING  TO  THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU.         87 

country  of  Veragua.  The  avidity,  the  pride,  and  the  barbarism 
of  his  countrymen  prevented  him  from  having  the  satisfaction  of 
forming  the  first  European  establishment  upon  the  continent  of 
ihe  new  hemisphere.  Some  years  elapsed  after  this,  and  still  the 
Spaniards  had  not  fixed  themselves  upon  the  spot. 

As  the  Spanish  adventurers  only  received  from  government  the 
permission  of  making'  discoveries,  it  seldom  entered  their  minds 
to  employ  themselves  in  agriculture  or  commerce.  The  prospect 
of  distant  fortunes,  that  might  have  been  made  by  these  prudent 
means,  was  far  beyond  the  prejudices  of  these  barbarous  times. 
Nothing  but  the  allurement  of  immediate  gain  could  stimulate 
men  to  enterprises  so  bold  as  those  for  which  this  century  was 
distinguished.  Gold,  alone,  attracted  them  to  the  continent  of 
America,  and  made  them  brave  dangers,  diseases  and  death.  By 
a  terrible  vengeance,  the  cruelty  of  the  Europeans,  instigated  by 
their  lust  of  mineral  treasures,  exhausted  at  once  the  two  hemi- 
spheres of  their  inhabitants,  and  destruction  fell  equally  upon  the 
plunderers  and  the  plundered. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  1509,  that  Ojeda  and  Nicuessa  formed, 
though  separately,  the  design  of  making  solid  and  lasting  conquests. 
To  encourage  them  in  their  resolution,  Ferdinand  gave  to  the 
first  the  government  of  the  countries  that  begin  at  Cape  de  la  Vela 
and  terminate  at  the  Gulf  of  Darien ;  and  to  the  second,  that  of 
all  the  space  extending  from  this  gulf  to  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios. 
Both  these  adventurers  were  instructed  to  announce  to  the  natives 
at  their  landing,  the  tenets  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  to  inform 
them  of  the  gift  which  the  Roman  pontiff  had  made  of  their 
country  to  the  king  of  Spain.  If  the  savages  were  unwilling  to 
submit  quietly  to  a  double  yoke,  the  Spaniards  were  authorized  to 
pursue  them  with  fire  and  sword,  and  to  reduce  the  nations  to 
bondage. 

But  it  was  more  easy  to  grant  by  commission  these  absurd  and 
atrocious  privileges,  than  to  put  the  barbarous  and  superstitious 
adventurers  who  solicited  such  rights  in  actual  possession  of  them. 
The  Indians  rejected  every  kind  of  intercourse  with  a  set  of  rapa- 
cious intruders,  who  threatened  equally  their  life  and  liberty. 
Arms  were  not  more  favorable  to  the  Spaniards  than  their  perfid- 
ious caresses.  The  people  of  the  continent,  accustomed  to  carry 
on  war  with  each  other,  received  them  with  a  boldness  unexperi- 
enced in  the  islands  that  had  been  so  easily  subdued.  Poisoned 
arrows  were  showered  upon  them  from  all  quarters,  and  not  one 
of  those  who  were  wounded  escaped  death.  To  the  arrows  of  the 
enemy,  other  causes  of  destruction  were  soon  joined ;  shipwrecks, 
unavoidable  in  these  unknown  latitudes;  an  almost  continual 


88  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

want  of  subsistence,  in  countries  wholly  uncultivated,  and  diseases 
peculiar  to  the  climate,  which  in  many  parts  was  found  to  be 
peculiarly  unwholesome.  The  few  Spaniards  who  had  escaped 
so  many  calamities,  and  who  could  not  return  to  San  Domingo, 
collected  themselves  at  St.  Mary's,  in  the  province  of  Darien. 

Here  they  lived  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  when  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa  appeared  among  them.  This  man,  who  was  honored  by 
the  companions  of  his  crimes  with  the  surname  of  Hercules,  had 
a  robust  constitution,  intrepid  courage  and  popular  eloquence. 
These  qualities  induced  the  soldiers  to  choose  him  for  their  chief, 
and  all  his  actions  proved  that  he  was  worthy  to  command  the 
remorseless  crew  whose  suffrages  he  had  obtained.  Judging  that 
more  gold  would  be  found  in  the  inland  parts  than  upon  the  coast, 
he  marched  with  his  band  into  the  mountainous  country  of  the 
isthmus.  He  found  at  first,  it  is  said,  a  race  of  Albinoes,  which 
are  described  as  being  covered  with  a  down  of  glistening  white ; 
having  no  hair,  and  with  red  eyes.  They  could  see  well  only 
in  the  night.  They  were  feeble  in  body,  and  their  faculties 
appeared  to  be  more  circumscribed  than  those  of  other  natives. 
These  savages,  if  it  be  true  they  existed,  were  few  in  number ; 
but  others  were  presently  found,  of  a  different  race,  brave  and 
hardy  enough  to  defend  their  rights.  These  were  distinguished 
by  a  very  extraordinary  custom,  which  was,  that  the  husbands 
on  the  death  of  their  wives,  and  the  wives  on  the  death  of  their 
husbands,  cut  off  the  end  of  a  finger ;  so  that  merely  by  looking 
at  their  hands,  one  might  see  whether  they  were  widowers  or 
widows,  and  how  often  they  had  been  so. 

Notwithstanding  the  ferocity  of  these  people,  Balboa,  supported 
oy  the  obstinacy  of  his  disposition,  and  spurred  on  by  the  insatia- 
ole  cupidity  of  his  soldiers ;  assisted  too  by  packs  of  those  blood- 
nounds,  which  had  been  of  such  service  to  the  Spaniards  in  all 
their  conquests;  at  length  succeeded  in  destroying  most  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Darien,  and  in  dispersing  or  subduing  the  remainder. 

One  day,  as  the  conquerors  were  disputing  together  about  gold, 
with  a  degree  of  warmth  that  seemed  to  threaten  some  act  of 
violence,  a  young  cacique  overturned  the  scales  in  which  they 
were  weighing  it.  "  Why,"  said  he  to  them,  with  an  air  of  disdain, 
"  why  do  you  quarrel  for  such  a  trifle  ?  If  it  be  for  this  useless 
metal  that  you  quit  your  country,  and  massacre  so  many  people, 
I  will  conduct  you  into  a  region  where  it  is  so  common  that  it  is 
employed  for  the  meanest  purposes."  Being  urged  to  explain 
himself  more  clearly,  he  assured  them,  that  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  ocean  which  washed  the  country  of  Darien,  there  was 
another  ocean  which  led  to  this  rich  country.  The  Spaniards 


BALBOA'S  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN.  89 

Immediately  conjectured  that  this  was  the  sea  which  Columbus 
had  so  earnestly  sought  after.  An  expedition  thither  was  imme- 
diately planned,  and  on  the  first  of  September,  1513,  one  hundred 
and  ninety  Spaniards,  attended  by  a  thousand  Indians,  who  were 
to  serve  them  as  guides,  and  to  carry  their  provisions  and  baggage, 
set  out  with  Balboa  at  their  head. 

From  the  place  whence  this  troop  began  their  march,  to  the  point 
they  aimed  at,  the  distance  was  only  sixty  miles;  but  it  was 
necessary  to  climb  steep  mountains,  to  pass  wide  rivers,  to  trav- 
erse deep  morasses,  to  penetrate  thick  forests,  and  to  disperse, 
persuade  or  destroy  so  many  tribes  of  fierce  natives,  that  it  was 
not  till  after  a  march  of  twenty-five  days,  that  this  band,  accus- 
tomed to  dangers,  fatigues  and  privations,  arrived  in  sight  of  the 
South  Sea,  which  now  for  the  first  time  lay  disclosed  to  the  view 
of  the  Europeans.  Without  a  moment's  delay,  Balboa,  armed  at 
all  points,  in  the  manner  of  the  ancient  chivalry,  rushed  into  the 
ocean.  "Spectators  of  both  hemispheres"  exclaimed  this  haughty 
leader,  "/  call  you  to  witness  that  I  take  possession  of  this  part  of 
the  universe  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  My  sword  shall  defend 
what  my  arm  hath  given  to  it"  The  cross  was  planted  upon  the 
shore  of  the  continent,  and  the  name  of  Ferdinand  was  inscribed 
on  the  bark  of  some  of  the  trees. 

Ceremonies  like  these  were  understood  by  the  Europeans  in  those 
days  to  confer  a  lawful  claim  of  dominion ;  and  accordingly  the 
Spaniards  believed  they  had  a  right  to  exact  from  the  neighboring 
people  a  tribute  in  pearls,  metals  and  provisions.  Every  testi- 
mony united  in  confirming  what  had  been  at  first  said  of  the 
riches  of  the  empire  thus  discovered,  which  was  called  Peru;  and 
the  adventurers  who  now  meditated  the  conquest  of  it.  returned 
to  Darien,  where  they  were  to  collect  the  forces  necessary  for  so 
difficult  an  enterprise. 

Balboa  expected  that  he  should  be  employed  to  conduct  this 
great  design.  His  companions  had  placed  their  confidence  in  him, 
and  he  had  thrown  into  the  public  treasury  more  wealth  than 
any  other  of  these  adventurers.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Spaniards 
the  discovery  he  had  just  made  had  put  him  on  a  level  with  Colum- 
bus. But,  by  an  instance  of  that  injustice  and  ingratitude  so 
common  in  courts,  where  merit  cannot  prevail  against  favor; 
where  a  great  commander  is  superseded  in  the  midst  of  his  tri- 
umphs by  some  upstart  or  pretender;  Balboa  was  overlooked, 
and  Pedrarias  was  chosen  in  his  stead.  The  new  commander, 
as  jealous  as  he  was  cruel,  imprisoned  his  predecessor,  brought 
him  to  trial,  and  caused  him  to  be  beheaded.  His  subalterns,  by 
his  orders,  or  with  his  consent,  pillaged,  burnt  and  massacred  on 
8*  L 


90  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

all  sides,  without  any  distinction  between  allies  or  enemies ;  and 
it  was  not  till  after  they  had  destroyed  to  the  extent  of  three 
hundred  leagues  of  the  country,  that,  in  1518,  he  transferred  the 
colony  of  St.  Mary,  on  the  borders  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  a 
place  that  received  the  name  of  Panama.  Some  years  passed 
away,  and  this  establishment  had  not  been  able  to  fulfil  the  im- 
portant purposes  for  which  it  was  designed.  At  length,  three 
men,  of  obscure  birth,  undertook  at  their  own  expense  to  subvert 
the  empire  of  Peru, — an  empire  that  had  subsisted,  with  barbarian 
splendor,  for  ages. 

Francisco  Pizarro,  who  is  the  most  celebrated  of  this  triumvirate, 
was  the  natural  son  of  a  gentleman  of  Eslramadura.  His  educa- 
tion had  been  so  neglected  that  he  could  not  read.  The  tending 
of  flocks,  which  was  his  first  employment,  not  being  suitable  to 
his  character,  he  embarked  for  the  New  World.  His  avarice  and 
ambition  inspired  him  with  inconceivable  activity.  He  joined  in 
every  expedition,  and  signalized  himself  in  most  of  them.  Thus 
he  acquired,  in  the  several  situations  in  which  he  was  employed, 
that  knowledge  of  men  and  business  which  was  then  necessary 
to  advancement,  especially  to  those  who,  by  their  obscure  birth, 
had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with.  The  use  he  had  hitherto 
made  of  his  natural  and  acquired  abilities,  persuaded  him  that 
nothing  was  above  his  talents;  and  he  therefore  formed  the 
gigantic  plan  of  invading  Peru.  He  took  for  an  associate,  Diego 
de  Almagro,  whose  birth  was  equivocal,  but  whose  courage  was 
notorious.  He  had  ever  been  found  temperate,  patient  and  inde- 
fatigable in  those  wars  and  expeditions  in  which  he  had  grown 
old.  In  this  school  he  had  acquired  a  fiankness,  which  is  more 
frequently  learnt  amid  scenes  of  danger  and  daring,  than  in  other 
situations ;  as  well  as  that  obduracy  and  cruelty  which  were  but 
too  common  in  those  days. 

The  fortune  of  the  two  soldiers,  though  considerable,  being  found 
insufficient  for  the  conquest  they  meditated,  they  admitted  into 
their  partnership  Fernando  de  Luques,  a  mercenary  priest,  who 
had  amassed  prodigious  wealth.  As  the  basis  of  their  association, 
the  confederates  agreed  that  each  should  engage  the  whole  of  his 
property  in  this  enterprise;  that  the  wealth  accruing  from  it 
should  be  equally  shared,  and  that  they  should  reciprocally  ob- 
serve an  inviolable  fidelity.  The  parts  that  each  of  them  were 
to  take  in  this  great  enterprise,  were  distributed  as  they  deemed 
the  good  of  the  common  cause  to  require.  Pizarro  was  to  com- 
mand the  troops,  Almagro  to  conduct  the  supplies  of  provisions 
and  stores,  and  Luques  provided  the  funds.  This  plan  of  ambi- 
tion, avarice  and  ferocity,  was  coupled  with  fanaticism.  Luques 


PIZARRO' S    FIRST   EXPEDITION   TO   PERU. 


91 


publicly  consecrated  a  host,  part  of  which  he  ate,  and  divided  the 
rest  between  his  two  associates ;  all  three  swearing  by  the  blood 
of  God,  that,  to  enrich  themselves,  they  would  not  spare  the  blood 
of  man. 


Pizarro  tracing  the  route  to  Peru. 

The  expedition,  commenced  under  these  horrible  auspices,  set 
forward  in  November,  1524.  It  consisted  of  one  vessel  containing 
one  hundred  and  twelve  men  and  four  horses.  They  sailed  from 
Panama  and  steered  southerly  along  the  coast,  but  it  was  seldom 
that  they  were  able  to  land  ;  and  in  the  few  places  where  it  was 
possible  for  the  Spaniards  to  get  on  shore,  they  met  with  nothing 
but  plains  deluged  with  water,  impenetrable  forests,  with  occa- 
sional bands  of  savages  little  disposed  to  treat  with  them.  Al- 
magro,  who  followed  and  brought  a  reinforcement  of  seventy 
men,  did  not  meet  with  more  encouraging  adventures ;  and,  in  a 
very  sharp  engagement  with  the  Indians,  had  even  the  misfortune 
to  lose  one  of  his  eyes.  More  than  one  half  of  these  intrepid 
Spaniards  had  perished  by  hunger,  by  the  sword,  or  by  the  climate; 
when  Los  Rios,  who  had  succeeded  to  Pedrarias,  sent  orders  to 
those  who  had  escaped  so  many  calamities,  to  return  to  the  colony 
without  delay.  They  all  obeyed  except  thirteen,  who,  faithful  to 
their  chief,  Pizarro,  resolved  to  follow  his  fortunes  to  the  end. 

They  found  it  still  more  unpromising  as  they  proceeded,  and 
were  finally  obliged  to  pass  six  months  on  the  island  of  Gorgona, 
one  of  the  most  unwholesome  and  barren  spots  on  the  face  of  the 
globe.  But  at  length  their  fortunes  changed.  With  a  small  vessel, 
which  had  been  sent  them  merely  from  motives  of  compassion,  to 
remove  them  from  this  place  of  desolation,  they  continued  theii 


92  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

voyage,  and  landed  at  Tumbez,  no  inconsiderable  village  of  the 
empire  which  they  proposed  one  day  to  invade.  From  this  place, 
where  everything  bore  the  marks  of  civilization,  Pizarro  returned 
to  Panama,  where  he  arrived  at  the  latter  end  of  the  year  1527, 
with  some  gold  dust,  several  vases  of  that  precious  metal,  some 
vicunas,  and  three  Peruvians  destined  to  serve  as  interpreters. 

Far  from  being  discouraged  by  the  misfortunes  that  had  been 
experienced,  the  three  associates  were  inflamed  with  a  more  ardent 
passion  for  treasures  which  were  now  better  known  to  them.  But 
they  were  in  want  of  soldiers  and  provisions,  and  the  colony 
refused  them  both  these  succors.  In  this  emergency,  Pizarro  made 
a  voyage  to  Spain,  to  solicit  assistance  from  the  court.  They  lent 
a  favorable  ear  to  his  project,  and  authorized,  without  reserve,  the 
levying  of  troops,  and  the  purchase  of  provisions ;  and  added  to 
this  indefinite  liberty  every  favor  which  drew  nothing  from  the 
treasury. 

Nevertheless,  the  associates,  by  combining  all  their  means, 
could  not  equip  more  than  three  small  vessels,  nor  collect  more 
than  one  hundred  and  forty-four  infantry,  with  thirty-six  horse. 
This  was  a  feeble  equipment  for  the  great  views  that  were  to  be 
fulfilled;  but  in  the  New  World  the  Spaniards  expected  every- 
thing from  their  arms  and  their  courage;  and  Pizarro  did  not 
hesitate  to  embark  again  from  Panama,  in  February,  1531.  The 
knowledge  he  had  acquired  of  these  seas,  enabled  him  to  escape 
the  calamities  that  had  thwarted  his  first  expedition;  and  he  met 
with  no  other  misfortune  than  that  of  being  obliged,  by  contrary 
winds,  to  land  about  a  hundred  leagues  from  the  harbor  of  Tum- 
bez, where  he  had  intended  to  disembark.  The  Spaniards  were 
in  consequence  forced  to  march  by  land.  They  followed  the  coast 
with  great  difficulty,  compelling  the  inhabitants  on  their  march 
to  furnish  them  with  provisions,  plundering  them  of  the  gold  they 
possessed,  and  giving  themselves  up  to  that  spirit  of  rapine  and 
cruelty  which  distinguished  the  manners  of  those  barbarous  times. 
The  island  of  Puna,  in  the  bay  of  Guayaquil,  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  the  troops  entered  victorious  into  Tumbez,  where  a  variety 
of  evils  combined  to  detain  them  for  three  whole  months.  The 
arrival  of  two  reinforcements,  that  came  from  Nicaragua,  afforded 
them  some  consolation  for  the  anxiety  they  felt  on  account  of  this 
delay.  These  reinforcements,  indeed,  consisted  only  of  thirty 
men  each ;  but  they  were  commanded  by  Sebastian  Benalcazar, 
and  by  Fernando  de  Soto,  who  had  both  of  them  acquired  a  bril- 
liant reputation. 

The  Spaniards  met  with  little  resistance  in  their  first  conquests. 
It  is  proper  to  glance  at  the  explanation  of  so  singular  a  fact, 


RECENT   HISTORY   OF   THE    EMPIRE   OF    PERU.  93 

which  is  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  the  country  they  had  inva- 
ded. The  empire  of  Peru,  which,  like  most  other  kingdoms,  was 
in  its  origin  of  small  extent,  had  been  successively  enlarged.  It 
had  in  particular  received  a  considerable  aggrandizement  from  the 
eleventh  emperor,  Huyana  Capac,  who  had  possessed  himself  by 
force  of  the  vast  territory  of  Quito,  and  who,  to  legalize  as  much 
as  possible  his  usurpation,  had  married  the  sole  heiress  of  the 
dethroned  monarch.  From  this  union,  reprobated  equally  by  the 
laws  and  by  prejudice,  Atahualpa  was  born,  who,  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  claimed  the  inheritance  of  his  mother.  This  suc- 
cession was  contested  by  his  elder  brother,  Huascar,  upon  whose 
birth  there  was  no  stain.  Two  such  powerful  interests  induced 
the  competitors  to  take  up  arms.  One  of  them  had  the  people  in 
his  favor  and  the  long-established  custom  of  the  empire ;  but  the 
other  had  previously  secured  the  best  troops.  Atahualpa,  who 
had  the  army  on  his  side,  was  the  conqueror,  put  his  rival  in  chains, 
and  becoming  more  powerful  even  than  he  had  expected,  was 
master  of  all  the  provinces. 

These  troubles,  which  for  the  first  time  had  agitated  Peru,  were 
not  entirely  appeased  when  the  Spaniards  appeared  there.  In  the 
confusion  in  which  the  whole  kingdom  was  still  involved,  no  one 
thought  of  molesting  them  on  their  march,  and  they  arrived  with- 
out the  least  obstruction  at  Caxamalca.  Atahualpa,  whom  par- 
ticular circumstances  had  conducted  into  the  neighborhood  of  the 
imperial  palace,  immediately  sent  them  some  fruits,  corn,  emeralds, 
and  several  vases  of  gold  or  silver.  He  did  not  however  conceal 
from  their  interpreter  his  desire  that  they  should  quit  his  territories ; 
and  he  declared  that  he  would  go  the  next  morning  to  concert 
with  their  chiefs  the  proper  measures  for  this  retreat.  To  put 
himself  in  readiness  for  an  engagement,  without  suffering  the  least 
preparation  of  war  to  be  perceived,  was  the  only  arrangement  that 
Pizarro  made  for  the  reception  of  the  prince.  He  planted  his 
cavalry  in  the  gardens  of  the  palace,  where  they  could  not  be  seen ; 
the  infantry  was  in  the  court ;  and  his  artillery  was  pointed  towards 
the  gate  where  the  emperor  was  to  enter. 

Atahualpa  came  without  suspicion  to  the  place  appointed,  being 
attended  by  some  fifteen  thousand  men.  He  was  carried  on  a 
throne  of  gold,  and  the  same  brilliant  metal  glistened  in  the  arms 
of  nis  troops.  He  turned  to  his  principal  officers,  and  said  to  them : 
"These  strangers  are  the  messengers  of  the  gods ;  be  careful  of 
offending  them."  The  procession  was  now  drawing  near  the  palace, 
which  was  occupied  by  Pizarro,  when  a  Dominican  friar,  named 
Vincent  de  Valverde,  with  a  crucifix  in  one  hand  and  his  breviary 
m  the  other,  advanced  to  the  emperor,  stopped  him  in  his  march. 


94 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 


and  made  him  a  long  speech,  in  which  he  expounded  to  him  the 
Christian  religion,  pressed  him  to  embrace  that  form  of  worship, 
and  proposed  to  him  to  submit  to  the  king  of  Spain,  to  whom  the 
pope  had  given  Peru. 


Valverde  addressing  the  inca. 

The  emperor,  who  heard  him  with  a  great  deal  of  patience, 
replied,  "  lam  very  willing  to  be  the  friend  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
but  not  his  vassal ;  the  pope  must  surely  be  a  very  extraordinary 
man,  to  give  so  liberally  what  does  not  belong  to  him,.  I  shall  not 
change  my  religion  for  another,  and  if  the  Christians  adore  a  God 
who  died  upon  a  cross,  I  worship  the  sun,  who  never  dies."  He 
then  asked  Vincent  where  he  had  learned  all  that  he  had  said  of 
God  and  the  creation.  "  In  this  book,"  replied  the  monk,  present- 
ing at  the  same  time  his  breviary  to  the  emperor.  Atahualpa  took 


Atahualpa  holding  the  Bible  to  his  ear. 

the  book,  examined  it  on  all  sides,  put  it  to  his  ear,  burst  into  a 


MASSACRE    OF   PERUVIANS.  95 

9 

laugh,  and,  throwing  away  the  breviary,  added,  "  This  book  tells 
me  nothing  about  the  matter"  Valverde  then  turned  towards  the 
Spaniards,  crying  out  in  a  loud  voice,  "  Vengeance!  my  friends, 
vengeance  !  Christians,  do  you  not  see  how  he  despises  the  gospel  7 
Kill  these  dogs  who  trample  under  foot  the  law  of  God!  " 

The  Spaniards,  who  probably  had  with  difficulty  restrained 
that  fury  and  thirst  of  blood,  with  which  the  sight  of  the  gold 
and  of  the  unbelieving  Peruvians  had  inspired  them,  instantly 
obeyed  the  sanguinary  call.  Let  the  reader  judge  ot  the  impres- 
sion that  must  have  been  made  on  the  Peruvians  by  the  sight  of 
the  horses  who  trampled  upon  them,  and  by  the  noise  and  effect 
of  the  cannon,  and  musketry  which  beat  them  down.  They  fled 
with  such  precipitation,  that  they  fell  one  upon  another.  A  dread- 
ful massacre  ensued.  Pizarro  himself  advanced  towards  the  em- 
peror, ordered  his  infantry  to  put  to  the  sword  all  that  surrounded 
his  throne,  took  the  monarch  prisoner,  and  the  rest  of  the  day 
pursued  those  who  had  fled.  A  multitude  of  princes^  of  the  race 
of  the  incas,  the  ministers,  the  flower  of  the  nobility,  all  that  com- 
posed the  court  of  Atahualpa,  were  massacred.  Even  the  crowd 
of  women,  old  men  and  children,  who  were  assembled  from  all 
parts  to  see  their  emperor,  were  not  spared.  While  this  carnage 
continued,  Valverde  ceased  not  to  animate  the  murderers,  who  were 
tired  with  slaughter,  exhorting  them  to  use  not  the  edge. but  the 
point  of  their  swords,  in  order  to  inflict  deeper  wounds.  When 
the  Spaniards  returned  from  this  horrible  massacre,  they  passed 
the  night  in  drunkenness,  dancing,  and  all  the  excesses  of 
debauchery. 

The  emperor,  though  closely  guarded,  soon  discovered  the  ex- 
treme passion  of  his  enemies  for  gold.  This  circumstance  deter- 
mined him  to  offer  them  for  his  ransom  as  much  of  this  metal  as 
his  prison,  which  was  twenty-two  feet  in  length  and  sixteen  in 
breadth,  could  contain,  heaped  up  to  as  great  a  height  as  the  arm  of 
a  man  could  reach.  His  proposal  was  accepted.  But  while  those  of 
his  ministers  in  whom  he  had  most  confidence,  were  employed  in 
collecting  gold,  he  was  informed  that  Huascar  had  promised  three 
times  as  much  to  some  Spaniards,  who  had  found  an  opportunity 
of  conversing  with  him,  if  they  would  consent  to  reinstate  him 
upon  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  He  was  alarmed  at  this  nego- 
tiation ;  and  his  apprehensions  made  him  resolve  to  put  to  death  a 
rival  who  appeared  so  dangerous. 

In  order  to  dissipate  the  suspicions  which  such  an  action  must 
necessarily  excite  in  his  keepers,  Atahualpa  urged  with  fresh  zeal 
the  collecting  of  the  metals  stipulated  for  the  recovery  of  his  lib- 
erty. They  were  brought  in  from  all  sides,  as  fast  as  was  possible . 


96  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

amid  the  confusion  which  prevailed.  These  heaps  of  gold,  inces- 
santly exposed  to  the  greedy  eyes  of  the  conquerors,  so  inflamed 
their  cupidity,  that  it  was  impossible  to  delay  any  longer  the 
distribution  of  it.  The  fifth  part  of  the  whole,  which  the  govern- 
ment had  reserved  to  itself,  was  delivered  to  the  agents  of  the 
treasury.  A  hundred  thousand  dollars  were  set  apart  for  the  body 
of  troops  which  Almagro  had  just  brought  into  the  country,  and 
which  were  still  upon  the  coasts.  Each  of  Pizarro's  cavalry 
received  eight  thousand  dollars,  and  each  of  his  infantry  four  thou- 
sand. The  general  and  the  officers  had  sums  proportioned  to 
their  rank  in  the  army. 

These  fortunes,  the  most  extraordinary  that  have  ever  been 
recorded  in  history,  did  not  mitigate  the  barbarity  of  the  Spaniards. 
Atahualpa  had  given  his  gold,  and  his  name  had  served  to  keep 
the  people  in  subjection ;  it  was  now  time,  therefore,  to  put  an  end 
to  his  life.  Valverde  pronounced  him  a  hardened  despot,  who 
ought  to  be  treated  like  Pharaoh.  The  interpreter,  Philippillo,  who 
had  a  criminal  intercourse  with  one  of  his  women,  seconded  the 
design.  Almagro  was  apprehensive,  that,  while  he  was  suffered 
to  live,  the  army  of  his  colleague  might  be  desirous  of  appropri- 
ating all  the  booty  to  itself  as  a  part  of  the  emperor's  ransom. 
Pizarro  was  instigated  to  the  same  bloody  purpose  by  malice ;  for 
the  emperor  had  spoken  of  him  with  some  contempt  for  not  being 
able  to  read — which  his  common  soldiers  were  accustomed  to  do. 
These  circumstances,  more  perhaps  than  political  reasons,  occa- 
sioned the  emperor's  death  to  be  determined  upon.  The  Span- 
iards had  the  effrontery  to  bring  him  to  a  formal  trial,  as  an 
usurper.  He  was  condemned  and  strangled  at  the  stake. 

Having  murdered  the  inca,  the  Spaniards  set  off  to  plunder  his 
capital,  the  noble  city  of  Cuzco.  The  Indians  were  in  great  alarm 
when  they  found  the  Spaniards  were  advancing  upon  that  place ; 
for  it  was  an  anciently  received  opinion  among  them  that  whoever 
held  the  city  of  Cuzco,  would  become  master  of  the  whole  empire. 
They  attempted  to  appease  their  deities  with  sacrifices ;  and  in 
order  to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  Spaniards,  they  took  post  at  a 
narrow  pass  in  a  valley  approaching  the  city.  Pizarro,  learning 
this  design,  ordered  Almagro,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  cavalry, 
to  hasten  forward  and  attack  the  enemy,  while  he  made  disposi- 
tions to  follow  with  the  rest  of  the  forces.  Almagro  advanced 
and  engaged  in  many  skirmishes  with  the  Indians,  in  which  the 
latter  suffered  great  losses.  Manco  Inca  Yupanguy,  who  had  the 
strongest  claims  to  the  crown  of  Peru,  left  Cuzco  to  join  his  army. 
Perceiving  it  impossible  to  succeed  in  his  design,  or  to  hinder  the 
advance  of  the  Spaniards  to  Cuzco,  he  joined  Pizarro,  who  received 


ENTRANCE    OF    THE    SPANIARDS    INTO    CUZCO. 


97 


him  joyfully,  and  bestowed  marks  of  great  honor  upon  him.  Th«» 
Indians  were  astounded  at  this  intelligence,  and,  in  their  despera- 
tion, resolved  to  burn  Cuzco  and  carry  away  the  treasures  of  the 
city.  Pizarro,  being  apprized  of  this  intention,  despatched  Ferdi- 
nand de  Soto,  and  Juan  Pizarro  to  prevent  it;  but  though  theso 
commanders  exercised  the  greatest  diligence,  they  found  the  Indi- 
ans had  plundered  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  which  was  full  of  riches. 
They  carried  away  all  this  enormous  wealth,  together  with  the 
consecrated  virgins,  set  fire  to  several  parts  of  the  city,  and  fear- 
ing that  the  Spaniards  were  at  their  heels,  they  decamped  with  all 
the  young  people,  men  and  women,  leaving  only  the  old  and 
disabled.  The  Spaniards,  however,  with  great  exertions  were 
enabled  to  extinguish  the  lire. 


1'izuiiu  in  Cuzco. 

Pizarro  entered  the  great  city  of  Cuzco  in  October,  1534,  and 
the  soldiers  immediately  began,  without  opposition,  to  plunder  the 
houses,  where  they  found  immense  quantities  of  gold  and  silver, 
both  in  bars  and  wrought  into  vessels,  ornaments,  &c.  They  also 
found  abundance  of  clothing  and  a  great  quantity  of  beads,  called 
chaguira,  much  valued  by  the  Indians;  together  with  a  large 
amount  of  articles  manufactured  of  feathers.  Pizarro  gave  or- 
ders that  all  the  plunder  should  be  thrown  into  a  common  stock, 
the  king's  fifth  subtracted,  and  the  remainder  equally  divided. 
The  confederate  Indians  stole  a  great  variety  of  articles ;  for  the 
Spaniards,  finding  such  abundance  of  treasure,  disregarded  almost 
9  M 


98  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

/ 

eve»  yihing  but  gold.  It  is  said  much  more  remained  hidden  than 
was  found;  the  cloth  aJone  was  valued  at  two  millions  of  dollars. 
Pizarro  then  distributed  the  treasure,  which,  after  deducting  the 
king's  fifth  was  divided  into  four  hundred  and  eighty  parts,  each 
of  which  amounted  to  four  thousand  dollars.  No  notice  was 
taken  of  the  precious  stones ;  every  man  took  what  he  wished, 
and  few  regarded  the  silver. 

Cuzco  was  built  on  an  uneven  ground,  surrounded  by  hills.  On 
the  north  side  stood,  on  an  eminence,  that  mighty  fabric  of  the  incas 
which  the  Spaniards  call  a  fortress.  The  streets  were  long  but 
narrow ;  the  houses  of  stone,  wonderfully  jointed  without  mortar. 
There  were  several  royal  palaces ;  the  chief  temples  of  the  sun 
were  very  magnificent,  besides  which  there  were  four  hundred 
others.  There  were  a  great  number  of  silversmiths  and  other 
artificers  always  at  work  here,  for  the  gold  and  silver  brought 
into  Cuzco  never  went  out  again.  Some  of  the  houses  were  gilt, 
and  some  plated  with  gold. 

Having  sacked  the  capital,  the  Spaniards  ravaged  the  whole 
country,  displaying  everywhere  the  same  thirst  of  blood  and 
plunder  which  had  directed  their  actions  from  the  beginning. 
Had  they  shown  any  degree  of  moderation  and  humanity,  they 
would  probably  have  made  themselves  masters  of  the  empire  with- 
out farther  bloodshed.  A  people  naturally  mild,  accustomed  for  a 
long  time  past  to  the  most  blind  submission,  ever  faithful  to  the 
masters  it  had  pleased  Heaven  to  give  them,  and  astonished  at 
the  terrible  spectacle  they  had  just  been  beholding, — such  a  nation 
would  have  submitted  to  the  yoke  without  much  reluctance.  The 
plundering  of  their  houses,  the  outrages  done  to  their  wives  and 
daughters, — cruelties  of  all  kinds  succeeding  each  other  without 
interruption, — such  a  variety  of  calamities  stirred  up  the  people  to 
revenge,  and  they  found  commanders  to  guide  their  resentment. 

Numerous  armies  at  first  obtained  some  advantages  over  the 
invaders,  but  even  these  trifling  successes  were  not  durable.  Sev- 
eral of  the  adventurers  who  had  enriched  themselves  by  the  ran- 
som of  Atahualpa,  had  quitted  their  standards  and  returned  to 
Spain,  that  they  might  enjoy,  in  a  more  peaceable  manner,  the 
wealth  so  rapidly  acquired.  Their  fortune  inflamed  the  minds 
of  men,  in  the  old  and  in  the  new  world,  and  multitudes  hastened 
from  all  quarters  to  this  land  of  gold.  The  Spaniards,  in  conse- 
quence, multiplied  faster  in  Peru  than  in  the  other  colonies. 
They  soon  amounted  to  five  or  six  thousand ;  and  then  all  resis- 
tance was  at  an  end.  Those  of  the  Indians  who  were  the  most 
attached  to  their  liberty,  to  their  government,  and  to  their  religion, 
took  refuge  at  a  distance,  among  inaccessible  mountains.  Most  of 
them,  however,  submitted  to  the  conquerors. 


CHAPTER    X. 

Historical  sketch  of  the  Peruvian  empire. — Manco  Capac. —  Conjectures  as  to  his 
origin. — Civilization  of  the  Peruvians. — State  of  manners,  arts  and  govern- 
ment in  Peru. — Dissensions  among  the  Spanish  conquerors.— Rupture  between 
Pizarro  and  Almagro. — Defeat  and  death  of  Almagro. — Persecution  of  his  ad- 
herents.— Pizarro  assassinated. — Massacres  at  Lima. —  Usurpation  and  cruelties 
of  young  Almagro. —  Vaca  de  Castro  arrives  in  Peru. — Defeat  of  Almagro' s 
party  at  Chupas. — The  viceroy,  Blasco  Nunez. — Second  insurrection. —  Gonzalez 
Pizarro  heads  the  rebels. — He  enters  Lima  in  triumph. — His  arrogance  and 
tyranny. — Gasca  arrives  in  Peru. — Defeat  and  death  of  Gonzalez  Pizarro. — 
Atrocities  of  Carvajal. — End  of  the  civil  wars. — Death  of  the  last  of  the  Peru- 
vian incas. 


Manco  Capac  and  his  rvife  fast  appearing  to  the  Peruvians. 

THE  empire  of  Peru,  according  to  the  Spanish  historians,  had 
flourished  for  four  centuries  immediately  previous  to  the  con- 
quests of  Pizarro.  According  to  the  tradition  of  the  country,  it 
was  founded  by  Manco  Capac,  and  by  his  wife.  Mama  Ocllo,  who 
appeared  among  the  people  about  the  year  1100,  and  claimed  to 
be  children  of  the  sun.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  these  two 
persons  might  be  the  descendants  of  certain  navigators  of  Europe, 
or  the  Canaries,  who  had  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coasts  of  Bra- 
zil. To  support  this  conjecture,  it  has  been  said,  that  the  Peru- 
vians divided  the  year,  as  we  do,  into  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 


100  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

days,  and  that  they  had  some  notions  of  astronomy,  and  certain 
monuments  to  mark  the  different  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  which  the  Spaniards,  however,  destroyed  as  being  instru- 
ments of  Indian  idolatry.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  race  of 
the  incas,  or  lords  of  Peru,  as  the  descendants  of  Manco  'Capac 
were  called,  were  whiter  than  the  natives  of  the  country,  and 
that  several  of  the  royal  family  had  beards ;  and  it  is  a  known 
fact,  that  there  are  certain  peculiar  features,  either  ill-formed  or 
regular,  that  are  perpetuated  and  hereditary  in  some  families  of 
the  royal  line,  though  they  do  not  constantly  pass  from  one  gen- 
eration to  another.  Lastly,  it  has  been  said,  that  it  was  a  tradi- 
tion generally  diffused  throughout  Peru,  and  transmitted  from  age 
to  age,  that  there  would  one  day  arrive,  by  sea,  men  with  beards, 
and  of  such  superiority  in  arms,  that  nothing  could  resist  them. 

Manco  taught  his  new  subjects  to  cultivate  the  earth,  to  sow 
corn  and  pulse,  to  wear  clothes,  and  to  build  houses.  Mama* 
Ocllo  showed  the  Indian  women  how  to  spin,  to  weave  cotton 
and  wool ;  and  instructed  them  in  all  the  occupations  suitable  to 
their  sex,  and  in  all  the  arts  of  domestic  economy. 

The  sun  was  the  god  of  the  Peruvians — the  most  natural  jf 
all  idolatry ;  for  what  inanimate  object  is  more  likely  t6  excite 
the  homage  of  the  ignorant,  who  are  dazzled  with  its  splendor,  or 
of  the  grateful,  on  whom  its  benefits  are  lavished  ?  The  worship 
of  the  sun  was  instituted  and  sustained  with  great  splendor. 
Temples  were  erected  to  their  deity,  and  a  variety  of  imposing 
ceremonies  were  established  and  observed.  The  descendants  of 
Manco  and  his  wife, were  the  only  priests  of  the  nation. 

There  was  among  the  people  no  indulgence  for  idleness,  which 
was  considered,  with  reason,  as  the  source  of  all  crimes.  Those, 
who,  from  age  and  infirmities,  were  rendered  unfit  for  labor,  were 
maintained  at  the  public  charge,  but  on  condition  that  they  should 
defend  the  cultivated  lands  from  the  birds.  The  citizens  were 
severally  'obliged  to  make  their  own  clothes,  to  erect  their  own 
dwellings,  and  to  fabricate  their  own  instruments  of  agriculture. 
Every  separate  family  was  accustomed  to  supply  its  own  wants. 

The  Peruvians  were  enjoined  to  love  one  another,  and  many 
circumstances  were  calculated  to  cultivate  this  sentiment.  They 
had  common  labors,  always  enlivened  by  agreeable  songs,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  assist  every  one  who  had  occasion  for  suc- 
cor ;  and  the  young  women  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  sun, 
were  required  to  make  clothes,  to  be  distributed  by  the  emperor's 
officers  to  the  poor,  to  the  aged,  and  to  orphans.  They  had  also 
a  custom  of  regarding  each  other  as  members  of  one  single  family, 
and  that  family  the  whole  empire.  All  these  circumstances 


POLITICAL   AND   CIVIL   CONDITION    OF    THE   EMPIRE   OF    PERU.       101 

united,  maintained  among  the  Peruvians  concord,  benevolence, 
patriotism  and  public  spirit;  and  contributed  to  substitute  the 
sublime  and  amiable  virtues,  in  lieu  of  personal  interest,  the  spirit 
of  property,  and  the  usual  incentives  employed  by  other  legisla- 
tors. 

These  virtues  were  rewarded  with  marks  of  distinction,  as 
much  as  if  they  had  been  services  rendered  to  the  country.  Those 
who  had  signalized  themselves  by  any  exemplary  conduct,  or  by 
any  distinguished  actions  of  advantage  to  the  public  good,  wore, 
as  a  mark  of  distinction,  clothes  made  by  the  family  of  the  incas. 
It  is  very  probable  that  those  statues,  which  the  Spaniards  pre- 
tended that  they  found  in  the  temples  of  the  sun,  and  which  they 
took  for  idols,  were  the  statues  of  men,  who,  by  the  greatness  of 
their  talents,  or  by  a  life  replete  with  illustrious  actions,  had  mer- 
ited the  homage  or  love  of  their  fellow-citizens. 

It  appears  certain  that  the  great  men  of  the  country  were  usu- 
ally the  subjects  of  poems,  composed  by  the  family  of  the  incas 
for  the  instruction  of  the  people.  There  was  another  species  of 
poetry  conducive  to  morality.  At  Cuzco,  and  in  all  the  other 
towns  of  Peru,  tragedies  and  comedies  were  performed.  The  first 
were  lessons  of  duty  to  the  priests,  warriors,  judges,  and  persons 
of  distinction,  and  presented  to  them  models  of  public  virtue. 
Comedies  served  for  instruction  to  persons  of  inferior  rank,  and 
taught  them  the  exercise  of  private  virtues,  and  domestic  economy. 

The  Peruvians  were  entirely  unacquainted  with  the  art  of  writ- 
ing, for  their  qmpos,  or  knotted  cords,  so  much  celebrated  by 
certain  authors  who  were  fond  of  the  marvellous,  appear  to  have 
been  no  more  than  a  device  for  rendering  calculation  more  expedi- 
tious. These  cords  were  of  different  colors ;  each  color  represented 
a  different  object,  and  each  knot  a  number.  But  as  these  knots, 
however  varied  or  combined,  could  represent  no  moral  or  abstract 
idea,  nor  operation  or  quality  of  the  mind,  they  could  render  no 
service  as  an  instrument  of  language. 

The  lands  of  the  kingdom  that  were  susceptible  of  cultivation 
were  divided  into  three  parts ;  one  appropriated  to  the  sun,  another 
to  the  inca,  and  a  third  to  the  people.  The  first  were  cultivated 
in  common,  as  were  likewise  the  lands  of  orphans,  of  widows,  of 
old  men,  of  the  infirm,  and  of  the  soldiers.  These  were  cultivated 
immediately  after  the  lands  appropriated  to  the  sun,  and  before  those 
of  the  emperor.  The  season  of  this  labor  was  announced  by  festi- 
vals ;  it  was  begun  and  continued  with  the  sound  of  musical  instru- 
ments and  the  chanting  of  hymns.  The  emperor  levied  no  tribute 
and  exacted  nothing  from  his  subjects,  but  that  they  should  cultivate 
his  lands ;  the  whole  produce  of  which,  being  deposited  in  public 


102  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

magazines,  was  sufficient  to  defray  all  the  expenses  of  the  em- 
pire. 

The  Peruvians,  though  at  the  very  source  of  gold  and  silver,  knew 
not  the  use  of  coin.  They  had  not,  properly  speaking,  any  kind 
of  commerce ;  and  numerous  arts,  which  owe  their  existence  to 
the  immediate  wants  of  social  life,  were  in  a  very  imperfect  state 
of  advancement  among  them.  All  their  science  consisted  in  mem- 
ory ;  all  their  industry  was  propagated  by  example. 

The  Peruvians  had  arrived  at  the  art  of  fusing  gold  and  silver, 
and  of  working  them.  With  these  metals  they  made  ornaments, 
most  of  which  were  very  thin,  for  the  arms,  for  the  neck,  for  the 
nose,  and  for  the  ears ;  and  also  hollow  statues,  all  of  one  piece, 
and  carved  or  cast  in  moulds.  Vases  were  seldom  made  of  these 
rich  materials.  The  ordinary  vases  were  of  very  fine  clay,  easily 
wrought.  The  art  of  weighing  was  not  unknown  amongst  them, 
and  scales  are  discovered  from  time  to  time,  the  basins  of  which 
are  of  silver,  and  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone.  Two  kinds 
of  stone  were  used  for  mirrors ;  the  one  was  soft,  the  other  hard ; 
one  was  entirely  opaque,  the  other  had  a  small  degree  of  transpa- 
rency; one  was  black,  the  other  of  a  lead  color.  Wool,  cotton  and 
the  bark  of  trees  were  woven  by  these  people  into  a  cloth,  which 
was  used  for  wearing  apparel.  These  stuffs  were  dyed  black. 
blue  and  red,  by  the  arnotto  and  other  plants.  The  Peruvian  em- 
eralds were  of  all  shapes.  Those  that  have  been,  in  later  days, 
taken  out  of  the  tombs, — most  of  which  are  in  lofty  situations, 
where  citizens  of  distinction  were  buried  with  their  jewels, — prove 
that  these  precious  stones  were  more  perfect  here,  than  they  have 
been  found  elsewhere.  Pieces  of  workmanship  have  been  some- 
times discovered  in  red  and  yellow  copper,  and  others  which  par- 
take of  both  colors.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Peruvians 
were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  mixing  metals,  for  their  wrought 
copper  never  rusts,  and  never  collects  verdigris;  which  seems 
to  prove  that  the  Indians  mingled  something  Avith  it,  as  a  preser- 
vative from  oxidation.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  useful  art  of 
tempering  it  in  this  manner  has  been  lost,  either  from  want  of 
encouraging  the  natives  of  the  country,  or  from  the  contempt 
with  which  the  conquerors  regarded  everything  that  had  no  con- 
cern with  their  passion  for  riches. 

It  was,  perhaps,  with  hatchets  of  copper  or  flint,  and  by  inces- 
sant friction,  that  they  contrived  to  cut  stones,  to  square  them,  and 
to  join  them  without  cement.  Unfortunately,  these  instruments 
had  not  the  same  effect  on  wood  as  upon  stone,  for  the  artisans 
who  shaped  the  granite  and  drilled  the  emerald,  never  knew 
how  to  join  timber  by  mortices,  tenons  and  pins,  and  in  the 


ASSASSINATION    OF    PIZARRO.  103 

buildings  it  was  only  fastened  to  the  walls  by  rushes.  The  most 
remarkable  edifices  had  only  a  covering  of  thatch,  supported  by 
•poles,  like  the  tents  of  armies.  They  had  but  one  floor,  and  no 
light,  except  by  the  entrances ;  the  interior  consisted  of  detached 
apartments,  having  no  communication  with  each  other. 

But  whatever  were  the  arts  which  the  Spaniards  found  in  the 
country  of  Peru,  the  barbarians  were  no  sooner  masters  of  this  vast 
empire  than  they  disputed  over  its  spoils  with  all  the  rage  which 
their  first  exploits  announced.  The  seeds  of  these  divisions  had 
been  sown  by  Pizarro  himself,  who,  on  his  return  to  Europe  to 
prepare  for  a  second  expedition  into  the  South  Seas,  had  prevailed 
upon  the  ministry  to  give  him  a  superiority  in  rank  over  Almagro 
This  procedure,  however,  incensed  Almagro  to  such  a  degree  that 
Pizarro  was  compelled  to  waive  it,  in  order  to  avoid  an  immediate 
rupture  with  his  colleague.  They  were  reconciled  for  a  time,  but 
the  division  of  Atahualpa's  ransom  irritated  again  these  two 
haughty  and  rapacious  robbers.  A  dispute  which  arose  concerning 
the  limits  of  their  respective  governments,  completed  their  animos- 
ity;  and  this  extreme  hatred  led  to  the  most  sanguinary  proceedings. 

After  some  negotiations,  dishonest  at  least  on  one  part,  and 
consequently  useless,  recourse  was  had  to  the  sword,  in  order  to 
determine  which  of  the  two  competitors  should  govern  the  whole 
of  Peru.  On  the  6th  of  April,  1538,  in  the  plains  of  Salinas,  not 
far  from  Cuzco,  in  a  severe  battle  between  the  armies  of  the  two 
leaders,  fate  decided  against  Almagro,  who  was  taken  prisoner 
and  beheaded.  Those  of  his  partisans  who  had  escaped  the  car- 
nage would  willingly  have  reconciled  themselves  with  the  con- 
quering party.  But  whether  Pizarro  did  not  choose  to  trust  the 
soldiers  of  his  rival,  or  whether  he  could  not  overcome  a  resent- 
ment that  was  too  deeply  rooted,  it  is  certain  that  he  always 
showed  a  remarkable  aversion  to  them.  They  were  not  only 
excluded  from  all  the  favors  that  were  profusely  lavished  upon 
the  others,  but  they  were  stripped  of  the  rewards  formerly  granted 
for  their  services,  and  were  also  persecuted  and  exposed  to  con- 
tinual mortifications. 

This  treatment  brought  a  great  number  of  them  to  Lima. 
There,  in  the  house  of  the  son  of  Almagro,  they  concerted  in 
secret  the  destruction  of  their  oppressor.  On  the  26th  of  June,  1541, 
nineteen  of  the  most  intrepid  went  out,  sword  in  hand,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  which,  in  that  hot  country,  is  the  time  devoted  to 
rest.  They  penetrated  without  opposition  into  the  palace  of  Pizarro, 
and  the  conqueror  of  so  many  kingdoms  was  massacred  in  the 
centre  of  the  town  that  he  had  founded,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
which  were  composed  of  his  own  soldiers  and  adherents.  Thus 


104 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 


fell  by  a  violent  death  both  the  bloody  wretches  who  led  their 
bands  of  murderers  into  this  once  peaceful  and  happy  country. 


Assassination  of  Pizarro. 

Those  of  the  judges  most  likely  to  revenge  the  death  of  Pizarro 
were  also  murdered ;  the  fury  of  the  assassins  extended  itself  on 
every  side,  and  all  who  ventured  to  appear  in  the  streets  or  in  the 
squares,  were  regarded  as  enemies  and  put  to  the  sword.  The 
houses  and  temples  were  filled  with  slaughter.  The  spirit  of 
avarice,  which  induced  the  revellers  to  consider  the  rich  merely  as 
partisans  of  the  old  government,  was  still  more  furions  than  that 
of  hatred,  and  rendered  them  more  active  and  more  implacable. 
The  picture  of  a  place  taken  by  assault  by  a  barbarous  nation, 
would  convey  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  that  spectacle  of  horror 
which  those  ruffians  now  exhibited,  who  wrested  from  their 
accomplices  the  booty  of  which  they  had  been  robbed. 

This  terrible  massacre  was  followed  by  enormities  of  another 
kind.  The  soul  of  young  Almagro  seems  to  have  been  formed 
for  tyranny.  Every  one  who  had  been  in  employment  under 
Pizarro,  was  inhumanly  proscribed.  The  ancient  magistrates 
were  deposed.  The  troops  were  put  under  the  command  of  new 
officers.  •  The  royal  treasury,  and  the  wealth  of  those  who  perished 
or  were  absent,  were  seized  upon  by  the  usurper.  His  accom- 
plices, attached  to  his  fortune  by  partaking  in  his  crimes,  were 
forced  to  give  their  support  to  measures  which  filled  them  with 
horror.  Those  among  them  who  suffered  their  weariness  at  these 
proceedings  to  become  known,  were  either  put  to  death  in  private 
or  perished  on  a  scaffold.  During  the  confusion  in  which  a  rev- 
olution so  unexpected  had  plunged  Peru,  several  provinces  sub- 


TROUBLES   IN   PERU.  105 

muted  to  this  monster.  Accordingly  he  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed governor  in  the  capital,  and  marched  into  the  heart  of 
the  empire,  to  complete  the  reduction  of  every  place  that  opposed 
or  hesitated  to  acknowledge  him. 

A  multitude  of  ruffians  joined  him  on  his  march.  His  army 
breathed  nothing  but  vengeance  and  plunder;  everything  gave 
way  before  it.  If  the  military  talents  of  Almagro  had  equalled 
the  ardor  of  his  troops,  the  war  had  ended  here;  but  he  had  lost 
his  conductor,  John  de  Herrada ;  and  his  own  inexperience  left  him 
to  fall  into  the  snares  that  were  laid  for  him  by  Pedro  Alvarez, 
who  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposite  party.  In  at- 
tempting to  unravel  the  plots  of  his  rivals,  he  lost  that  time  which 
he  ought  to  have  employed  in  fighting.  In  these  circumstances, 
an  event,  which  no  one  could  have  foreseen,  changed  the  whole 
face  of  affairs. 

The  licentiate,  Vasco  de  Castro,  who  had  been  sent  from  Eu- 
rope to  try  the  murderers  of  old  Almagro,  arrived  in  Peru.  As 
he  was  appointed  to  assume  the  government  in  case  of  Pizarro's 
death,  all  who  had  not  sold  themselves  to  the  tyrant,  hastened  to 
acknowledge  him.  Uncertainty  and  jealousy,  which  had  for  a 
long  time  kept  them  dispersed,  were  no  longer  an  obstacle  to  their 
reunion.  Castro,  who  was  as  resolute  as  if  he  had  grown  old  in 
the  service,  did  not  suffer  their  impatience  to  languish,  but  in- 
stantly led  them  against  the  enemy.  The  two  armies  engaged  at 
Chupas,  on  the  16th  of  September,  1542,  and  fought  with  inex- 
pressible obstinacy.  Victory,  after  having  wavered  for  a  long 
time,  at  the  close  of  the  day  decided  in  favor  of  the  government 
party.  Those  among  the  rebels  who  were  most  guilty,  dreading 
to  languish  under  disgraceful  tortures,  provoked  the  conquerors 
to  murder  them,  crying  out  like  men  in  despair,  ult  ^vas  I  who 
killed  Pizarro"  Their  chief  was  taken  prisoner  and  died  on  the 
scaffold. 

These  scenes  of  horror  were  just  concluded,  when  Blasco 
Nunez  Vela  arrived,  in  1544,  in  Peru,  with  the  title  and  powers  of 
viceroy ;  the  court  had  thought  fit  to  invest  their  representative 
with  a  solemn  dignity,  and  with  very  extensive  authority,  in 
order  that  the  decrees  he  was  commissioned  to  establish  should 
meet  with  less  opposition.  These  decrees  were  intended  to 
diminish  the  oppression  under  which  the  Indians  were  crushed, 
and  more  particularly  to  render  these  immense  conquests  useful 
to  the  Spanish  crown.  Among  the  ordinances  now  established,  it 
was  decreed  that  a  portion  of  the  Peruvians  should  be  free  from 
that  moment,  and  the  rest  at  the  death  of  their  oppressors ;  that 
for  the  future  they  should  not  be  compelled  to  labor  in  the  mines ; 

N 


106  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

and  that  no  kind  of  work  should  be  exacted  from  them  without 
payment ;  that  their  public  labor  and  tributes  should  be  subjected 
to  regulation ;  that  the  Spaniards  who  travelled  through  the  prov- 
inces on  foot  should  no  longer  demand  that  three  of  these  wretched 
people  should  carry  their  baggage,  nor  five  when  they  went  on 
horseback ;  and  that  the  caciques  should  be  freed  from  the  obliga- 
tions of  providing  the  traveller  and  his  suite  with  food. 

By  the  same  regulations,  all  the  departments  or  commanderies 
of  the  governors,  of  the  officers  of  justice,  of  the  agents  of  the 
treasury,  of  the  bishops,  of  the  monasteries,  of  the  hospitals,  and 
of  all  persons  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  public  troubles, 
were  to  be  annexed  to  the  domains  of  the  state.  The  few  lands 
that  might  belong  to  other  proprietors,  were  to  be  subject  to  the 
same  law  after  the  actual  possessors  had  ended  their  days,  and 
their  heirs,  their  wives,  or  their  children,  were  to  have  no  claim 
upon  any  part  of  them. 

Such  was  the  disposition  of  the  Spaniards  in  Peru,  that  when 
Nunez  attempted  to  carry  into  execution  the  orders  he  had  receiv- 
ed from  the  old  hemisphere,  an  insurrection  was  the  immediate 
consequence.  Nunez  was  deposed,  put  in  irons,  and  banished 
to  a  desert  island,  where  he  was  to  remain  till  he  was  conveyed 
to  the  mother  country. 

Gonzalez  Pizarro,  the  brother  of  Francisco,  had  then  just 
returned  from  a  hazardous  expedition,  which  had  carried  him  as 
far  as  the  river  Amazon,  and  had  employed  him  long  enough  to 
prevent  him  from  taking  a  part  in  the  revolutions  which  had  so 
rapidly  succeeded  each  other.  The  anarchy  he  found  prevailing 
at  his  return,  inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  seizing  the  supreme 
authority.  His  fame  and  his  forces  enabled  him  to  accomplish 
this  design ;  but  his  usurpation  was  marked  with  so  many  enor- 
mities, that  even  the  government  of  Nunez  was  regretted.  He 
was  consequently  recalled  from  exile,  and  soon  collected  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  forces  to  enable  him  to  take  the  field  against 
Pizarro.  Civil  commotions  were  then  renewed  with  extreme  fury 
by  both  parties.  No  quarter  was  asked  or  given  on  either  side. 
The  Indians  were  forced  to  take  part  in  this,  as  they  had  done  in 
the  preceding  wars  ;  some  ranged  themselves  under  the  standard 
of  the  viceroy,  others  under  the  banners  of  Gonzalez.  They 
dragged  the  artillery,  levelled  the  roads,  and  carried  the  baggage. 
After  a  variety  of  advantages,  for  a  long  time,  alternately  obtained 
by  the  contending  parties,  fortune  at  length  favored  the  rebellion. 
Under  the  walls  of  Quito,  in  the  month  of  January,  1545,  Nunez 
and  the  greater  part  of  his  men  were  massacred. 

Pizarro  took  the  road  to  Lima,  in  which  city  the  inhabitants 


DEATH    OF   GONZALEZ    PIZARRO.  107 

were  deliberating  on  the  ceremonies  with  which  they  should  re- 
ceive him.  Some  officers  wished  that  a  canopy  should  be  carried 
for  him  to  march  under,  after  the  manner  of  kings.  Others,  with 
adulation  still  more  extravagant,  pretended  that  part  of  the  walls 
of  the  town  and  even  some  houses  must  be  pulled  down,  as  was 
the  custom  at  Rome  when  a  general  obtained  the  honors  of  a  tri- 
umph. Gonzalez  contented  himself  with  making  his  entrance  on 
horseback,  preceded  bY  his  lieutenants,  who  marched  on  foot. 
Four  bishops  accompanied  him,  and  he  was  followed  by  the 
magistrates.  The  streets  were  strewn  with  flowers,  and  the  air 
resounded  with  the  noise  of  bells  and  various  musical  instruments. 
This  homage  completely  turned  the  head  of  a  man  naturally 
haughty,  and  of  a  narrow  understanding.  He  began  to  act  the 
despot,  and  disgusted  the  people  by  the  arrogance  of  his  language. 
Had  he  possessed  judgment  and  the  appearance  of  moderation,  he 
might  have  rendered  himself  permanently  independent.  The 
chief  men  of  his  party  wished  it.  The  majority  would  have 
viewed  the  event  with  indifference,  or  at  least  assent.  But  the 
character  of  the  usurper  prevented  this.  His  blind  cruelties, 
insatiable  avarice,  and  unbounded  pride,  altered  the  dispositions 
of  all  who  were  favorable  to  his  designs.  Even  the  persons  whose 
interests  were  most  connected  with  those  of  the  tyrant,  wished  for 
a  deliverer. 

Such  a  person  arrived  from  Europe  in  the  person  of  Pedro  de 
la  Gasca.  He  was  a  priest,  advanced  in  years,  but  prudent,  dis- 
interested, firm  and  sagacious.  He  brought  no  troops  with  him  ; 
but  he  was  intrusted  by  the  government  with  unlimited  powers. 
The  first  use  he  made  of  them  was  to  publish  a  general  amnesty, 
without  distinction  of  persons  or  crimes,  and  a  revocation  of  the 
severe  laws  that  had  rendered  the  preceding  administration  odious. 
This  step  alone  secured  to  him  the  fleet  and  the  forces  of  the 
mountainous  provinces.  If  Pizarro,  to  whom  the  amnesty  had 
been  particularly  offered,  with  every  testimony  of  distinction,  had 
accepted  it,  as  he  was  advised  to  do  by  the  most  enlightened  of 
his  partisans,  the  troubles  would  have  been  at  an  end.  His 
haughty  temper  and  the  habit  of  commanding,  however,  would 
not  suffer  him  to  descend  to  a  private  station ;  and  he  had  recourse 
to  arms,  in  the  hope  of  perpetuating  his  authority.  Without  losing 
a  moment,  he  advanced  towards  Cuzco,  where  Gasca  was  assem- 
bling his  forces.  On  the  9th  of  April,  1548,  a  battle  was  fought 
four  leagues  from  the  city.  One  of  the  rebel  general's  lieutenants, 
seeing  him  abandoned  at  the  first  charge  by  his  best  soldiers, 
earnestly  exhorted  him  to  throw  himself  into  the  enemy's  bat- 
talions and  perish  like  a  Roman ;  but  Pizarro,  dejected  by  this 


108  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

sudden  reverse  of  fortune,  had  not  the  spirit  to  perform  this  heroic 
act  He  quietly  surrendered,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  scaffold. 
Nine  or  ten  of  his  officers  were  hanged  around  him. 

A  more  disgraceful  execution  awaited  Carvajal,  the  confidant 
of  Pizarro,  whose  life  and  character  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of 
the  Spanish  conquerors  of  the  New  World.  This  man,  in  the  his- 
tories of  that  period,  is  charged  with  having  massacred,  with  his 
own  hand,  four  hundred  men ;  of  having  sacrificed,  by  means  of 
his  agents,  more  than  a  thousand  Spaniards,  and  of  having  de- 
stroyed more  than  twenty  thousand  Indians  through  excess  of 
labor.  At  a  time  when  the  minds  of  others  around  him  were 
depressed  or  wavering,  he  displayed  a  degree  of  courage  which 
could  hardly  admit  of  comparison.  He  remained  always  faithful 
to  the  cause  he  had  espoused,  although  the  custom  of  changing 
standards,  according  to  circumstances,  was  then  universally  prev- 
alent. He  never  forgot  the  most  trifling  service  that  had  been 
rendered  him,  while  those  who  had  once  conferred  an  obligation 
upon  him,  might  afterwards  affront  him  with  impunity.  His 
cruelty  became  a  proverb;  and  in  the  most  horrid  executions 
ordered  by  him,  he  never  lost  anything  of  his  mirth.  Strongly' 
addicted  to  raillery,  he  was  appeased  with  a  jest,  while  he  insulted 
the  cry  of  pain,  which  appeared  to  him  the  exclamation  of  cow- 
ardice or  weakness.  His  iron  heart  made  a  sport  of  every  cruelty. 
He  took  away  or  preserved  life  for  a  trifle,  because  life  was  a 
trifle  in  his  estimation.  His  passion  for  wine  did  not  prevent  him 
from  enjoying  uncommon  strength  of  body,  and  the  dreadful  vigor 
of  his  soul  maintained  itself  to  old  age.  At  eighty-four  years,  he 
was  still  the  first  soldier  and  the  first  commander  in  the  army. 
His  death  was  conformable  to  his  life.  He  was  hanged  and  quar- 
tered, without  showing  any  remorse  for  his  crimes,  any  depression 
at  his  sentence,  or  any  uneasiness  for  the  future. 

Another  rebellion  broke  out  after  the  death  of  Gasca,  and  was 
quelled  after  the  usual  amount  of  slaughter.  This  was  the  last 
scene  of  a  tragedy,  every  act  of  which  had  been  marked  with 
blood.  Civil  wars  have  always  been  cruel  in  all  countries  and  in 
all  ages ;  but  in  Peru  they  were  destined  to  have  a  peculiar  char- 
acter of  ferocity.  Those  who  excited  them,  and  those  who  en- 
gaged in  them,  were  mostly  adventurers  without  education  and 
without  character.  Avarice,  which  had  brought  them  into  the 
New  World,  was  joined  to  other  passions  which  render  domestic 
dissensions  at  once  violent  and  lasting.  All  of  them,  without  ex- 
ception, considered  the  chief  whom  they  had  chosen,  merely  as  a 
partner  in  their  fortunes,  whose  influence  was  to  extend  only  to 
the  guidance  of  their  hostilities.  None  of  them  accepted  any  pay. 


DISCOVERY   OF    THE   MINES    OF    PERU.  109 

As  plunder  and  confiscation  were  to  be  the  fruits  of  victory,  no 
quarter  was  given  in  action.  After  the  engagement  was  over, 
every  rich  man  was  exposed  to  proscription;  and  there  were 
nearly  as  many  citizens  who  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  execu- 
tioner, as  by  those  of  the  soldiers  in  battle.  The  gold  that  had 
been  acquired  by  such  enormities,  was  soon  squandered  in  de- 
bauchery and  the  most  extravagant  luxury,  and  the  people  were 
again  exposed  to  all  the  excesses  of  military  license  that  knows 
no  restraint. 

Fortunately  for  this  opulent  part  of  the  new  hemisphere,  the 
most  seditious  of  the  conquerors,  and  of  those  who  followed  their 
steps,  had  perished  in  these  wars.  Few  of  them  had  survived 
the  doubles,  except  those  who  had  constantly  preferred  peace- 
able occupations  to  the  tumult  and  dangers  of  revolutions.  What 
still  remained  of  the  agitation  that  had  been  raised  in  their  minds, 
insensibly  sank  into  a  calm,  as  does  the  turmoil  of  waves  after  a 
long  and  furious  tempest.  Then,  and  then  only,  the  Catholic 
kings  might  with  truth  style  themselves  the  sovereigns  of  the 
Spaniards  fixed  in  Peru.  .  . 

We  have  but  one  event  to  add  to  our  history  of  this  period. 
There  was  an  inca,  named  Tupac  Amara,  still  remaining.  This 
legitimate  heir  of  so  many  vast  dominions,  lived  in  the  midst  of 
the  mountains,  in  a  state  of  independence.  Some  princesses  of  his 
family,  who  had  submitted  to  the  conquerors,  abused  his  inexpe- 
rience and  youth,  and  prevailed  upon  him  to  visit  Lima.  The 
usurpers  of  his  rights  carried  their  insolence  so  far  as  to  send  him 
letters  of  grace,  and  assigned  to  him  only  a  very  moderate  domain 
for  his  subsistence.  He  went  to  hide  his  shame  and  his  regret  in 
the  valley  of  Yucay,  where,  at  the  expiration  of  three  years, 
death,  though  still  too  tardy,  put  an  end  to  his  unfortunate  ca- 
reer. An  only  daughter,  who  survived  him,  married  Loyola ;  and 
from  this  union  are  sprung  the  houses  of  Oropesa  and  Alcaningas. 
Thus  was  the  conquest  of  Peru  completed  about  the  year  1 560. 

The  best  mines  of  Peru  were  discovered  after  the  conquest. 
That  of  Potosi,  the  richest  in  the  western  world,  was  not  known 
till  1545.  An  Indian,  named  Hualpa,  chasing  some  wild  animals 
on  that  mountain,  laid  hold  of  a  shrub  or  tree,  to  aid  his  ascent  in 
a  steep  place ;  it  came  up  by  the  roots  and  revealed  a  mass  of  the 
richest  silver  ore,  which  lay  so  near  the  surface  that  lumps  of  the 
metal  clung  to  the  roots  of  the  plant.  Hualpa  kept  the  -  secret  of 
this  discovery  for  some  time,  but  his  rapid  increase  of  wealth 
having  attracted  the  notice  of  one  of  his  countrymen,  he  revealed 
it  to  him.  .  The  two  friends,  as  was  natural  in  such  a  case,  soon 
quarrelled,  and  the  secret  became  divulged.  The  fame  of  this 
10 


110 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 


wealth  drew  adventurers  from  all  quarters,  and  the  barren  moun- 
tain of  Potosi  quickly  beheld  a  city  spring  up  at  its  foot,  contain- 
ing seventy  thousand  inhabitants.  The  quicksilver  mines  of 
Guanca  Velica  were  discovered  in  1564. 


Hualpa  discovering  the  mine. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

Almagro  undertakes  the  conquest  of  Chili. — Losses  suffered  by  the  invaders  in 
crossing  the  Andes. — Expedition  of  Valdivia. — Resistance  of  the  Chilians. — 
Defeat  and  death  of  Valdivia. — Manners  of  the  Araucamans. — Their  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  Spaniards. —  Colonization  of  Chili. — Paraguay. — Description  of 
the  inhabitants. — Discovery  of  the  river  Paraguay. — Expedition  of  the  Spaniards, 
under  Sebastian  Cabot,  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. — Foundation  of  Buenos  Ayres. — 
Assumption. —  The  Spaniards  intermarry  with  the  natives. — Colonization  of  the 
country. — Success  of  the  Jesuits  in  civilizing  the  Indians. —  Comparison  of  the 
policy  of  the  Peruvian  incas  with  that  of  the  Jesuits. 


Almagro  marching  against  Chili. 

THE  conquest  of  Chili  was  undertaken  by  the  Spaniards  as 
soon  as  they  had  subdued  the  principal  provinces  of  Peru.  In 
the  beginning  of  1535,  Almagro  set  out  from  Cuzco  for  this  object, 
with  five  hundred  and  seventy  Europeans  and  fifteen  hundred 
Peruvians.  He  first  traversed  the  country  of  Charcas,  to  which 
the  mines  of  Potosi  have  since  given  so  much  celebrity.  To  go 
from  this  country  to  Chili,  there  were  but  two  ways  then  known, 
and  they  were  both  considered  as  almost  impassable.  The  first 
was  along  the  borders  of  the  sea,  and  presented  nothing  but 
burning  sands,  without  water  or  other  means  of  subsistence  for  a 
traveller.  To  pursue  the  second,  it  was  necessary  to  cross  steep 


112 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 


mountains  of  prodigious  height,  and  covered  with  perpetual 
snows.  These  difficulties  did  not  discourage  Almagro,  and  he 
determined  upon  the  latter  route,  for  no  other  reason  than  because 
it  was  the  shortest.  This  ambition  caused  the  destruction  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  Spaniards  and  ten  thousand  Indians,  who  per- 
ished by  the  way:  but  at  length  he  accomplished  his  design,  and 
was  received  with  every  mark  of  submission  by  the  nations  that 
had  been  formerly  under  the  dominion  of  the  Peruvian  empire. 
The  terror  of  his  arms  would  probably  have  procured  him 
greater  advantages,  had  not  some  concerns  of  a  private  nature 
called  him  back  to  the  centre  of  the  empire.  His  little  army  re- 
fused to  pass  the  Cordilleras,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  by  the 
way  he  had  first  rejected.  His  march  was  so  favored  by  fortu- 
nate accidents,  that  it  suffered  much  less  than  had  been  feared. 
This  success  enlarged  the  views  of  Almagro,  and  precipitated 
him,  perhaps,  into  those  fatal  enterprises  which  occasioned  his 
death. 

The  Spaniards  appeared  again  in  Chili  in  1541.  Valdivia, 
their  leader,  entered  it  without  the  least  opposition.  The  nations, 
however,  that  inhabited  this  country,  had  no  sooner  recovered 
from  the  astonishment  with  which  they  had  been  seized,  on  observ- 
ing the  European  arts  and  discipline,  than  they  wished  to  regain 
their  independence.  A  war  soon  arose,  which  continued  inces- 
santly for  ten  years.  If  some  districts,  discouraged  by  repeated 
losses,  resolved  at  last  to  submit,  many  of  them  obstinately  per- 
sisted in  the  defence  of  their  liberty,  though  they  were  generally 
defeated. 


There  was  one  Indian  captain,  whom  age  and  infirmities  con- 
fined to  his  hut.     He  was  continually  told  of  these  misfortunes. 


MANNERS  OF  THE  ARAUCANIANS.  113 

The  grief  of  seeing  his  people  always  beaten  by  a  handful  of 
strangers,  inspired  him  with  courage.  He  formed  thirteen  compa- 
nies, of  a  thousand  men  each,,  arranged  them  in  file,  and  led  them 
against  the  enemy.  If  the  first  company  was  routed,  it  was  not 
to  fall  back  upon  the  rest,  but  to  rally,  and  be  supported  by  it. 
This  order,  which  was  strictly  obeyed,  disconcerted  the  Spaniards. 
They  forced  through  all  the  companies,  one  after  another,  witheut 
gaining  any  material  advantage.  As  both  the  men  and  horses 
wanted  rest,  Valdivia  retreated  towards  a  defile,  where  he  judged 
he  could  easily  defend  himself;  but  the  Indians  did  not  allow  him 
sufficient  time  to  secure  his  retreat.  Their  rearguard  marched 
through  by-ways,  and  took  possession  of  the  defile,  while  their 
vanguard  followed  the  Spaniards  with  so  much  precaution,  that 
Yaldivia  was  surrounded  and  massacred,  together  with  his  hun- 
dred and  fifty  men.  It  is  said  that  the  savages  poured  melted  gold 
down  his  throat,  exclaiming  with  exultation,  "  Glut  thyself  with 
that  metal  of  which  thou  art  so  fond !  "  They  availed  them- 
selves of  this  victory  to  burn  and  destroy  many  of  the  Spanish 
settlements ;  and  all  of  them  had  shared  this  fate,  had  they  not  re- 
ceived timely  assistance,  by  means  of  considerable  reinforcements 
sent  from  Peru,  wbich  enabled  them  to  defend  their  remaining 
posts,  and  afterwards  to  recover  those  they  had  lost. 

These  fatal  hostilities  were  renewed  in  proportion  as  the  usur- 
pers wished  to  extend  their  empire,  and  frequently  even  when 
they  did  not  entertain  this  ambitious  design.  The  engagements 
were  bloody,  and  for  a  long  course  of  years  were  only  interrupted 
by  short  truces.  The  following  sketch  of  these  people  is  agreea- 
ble to  the  representations  of  the  early  Spanish  writers  : 

"  The  people  of  Arauco,  or  the  Araucanians,  are  the  most  nu- 
merous, the  most  intrepid,  and  the  most  irreconcilable  enemies 
the  Spaniards  have  had  in  these  regions.  They  are  often  joined 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Tucapel,  and*  of  the  river  Biobio,  and  by 
those  whose  domains  extend  towards  the  Cordilleras.  As  their 
manners  bear  a  greater  resemblance  to  those  of  the  savages  of 
North  America  than  to  those  of  the  Peruvians,  their  neighbors, 
the  confederacies  they  formed  were  always  formidable. 

"  When  they  go  to  war,  they  carry  nothing-  with  them,  and 
want  neither  tents  nor  baggage.  The  same  trees  from  which  they 
gather  their  food,  supply  them  with  lances  and  darts.  As  they 
are  sure  of  finding,  in  one  place,  what  they  had  in  another,  they 
willingly  resign  any  country  which  they  are  unable  to  defend ;  all 
places  are  equally  indifferent  to  them.  Their  troops,  free  from  all 
incumbrance  of  provisions  and  ammunition,  march  with  surpris- 
ing agility.  They  expose  themselves  to  danger,  like  men  who 

0 


114  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

set  little  value  on  life ;  and  if  they  lose  the  field  of  battle,  they 
are  not  at  a  loss  for  magazines  and  encampments  Avherever  therfi 
is  ground  covered  with  fruits. 

"  These  are  the  only  people  of  the  New  World,  who  ventured 
to  try  their  strength  with  the  Spaniards  in  the  open  field,  and  who 
have  thought  of  the  use  of  the  sling  to  lance  the  stroke  of  death 
from  afar.  They  are  so  bold,  that  they  will  attack  the  best  forti- 
fied posts.  They  sometimes  succeed  in  these  violent  attacks, 
because  they  are  continually  receiving  succors,  which  prevent  them 
from  being  sensible  of  their  losses.  If  these  be  so  considerable  as 
to  oblige  them  to  desist,  they  retire  a  few  leagues,  and  five  or  six 
days  after,  they  direct  their  attacks  to  another  post.  These  bar- 
barians never  think  themselves  beaten  unless  they  are  surrounded. 
If  they  can  reach  a  place  of  difficult  access,  they  think  themselves 
conquerors.  The  head  of  a  Spaniard,  which  they  carry  off  in 
triumph,  comforts  them  for  the  loss  of  a  hundred  Indians." 

In  1550,  the  town  of  Concepcion  was  built  on  an  uneven  and 
sandy  sail,  a  little  raised,  upon  the  borders  of  a  bay  which  is 
nearly  four  leagues  in  circumference,  and  has  three  ports,  one  of 
which  only  is  safe.  The  town  was  at  first  the  capital  of  a  colo- 
ny; but  the  neighboring  Indians  so  frequently  made  themselves 
masters  of  it,  that,  in  1574,  it  was  thought  proper  to  deprive  it  of 
this  distinction.  In  1603,  it  was  again  destroyed  by  the  Arauca- 
nians,  but  rebuilt.  Since  that  period  it  has  suffered  much  from 
earthquakes. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  Paraguay  contained  a  great 
number  of  distinct  nations,  each  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of 
a  few  families.  Their  manners  must  have  been  the  same,  and  if 
there  had  been  a  difference  in  their  characters,  it  would  hardly 
have  been  noticed  by  the  adventurers  who  first  shed  the  blood  of 
the  native  Americans.  These  nations  lived  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  upon  wild  fruits,  and  honey,  which  was  commonly  found  in 
the  forests,  and  roots  that  are  yielded  spontaneously  by  the  soil. 
They  were  perpetually  wandering  from  one  district  to  another. 
As  they  had  nothing  to  remove  but  a  few  earthen  vessels,  and  as 
branches  of  trees  could  be.  found  everywhere  of  which  to  build 
their  huts,  these  emigrations  were  attended  with  few  incumbran- 
ces.  Though  they  all  lived  in  a  state  of  absolute  independence, 
yet  the  necessity  of  mutual  defence  had  obliged  them  to  form 
associations.  Some  individuals  united  under  the  direction  of  a 
leader  of  their  own  choice.  These  associations,  which  were  more 
or  less  powerful,  in  proportion  to  the  reputation  and  abilities  of 
the  chief,  were  as  easily  dissolved  as  formed. 

The  discovery  of  the  river  Paraguay  was  made  in  1515,  by 


CABOT  DISCOVERS  THE  LA  PLATA.  115 

Diaz  de  Solis,  a  noted  pilot  of  Castile.  He  and  most  of  his  men 
were  mastered  by  the  natives,  who,  to  avoid  being  enslaved, 
some  year"  after,  also  destroyed  the  Portuguese  who  settled  in 
Brazil.  The  two  rival  nations,  Spain  and  Portugal,  equally 
alarmed  by  these  calamities,  gave  up  all  present  thought  of  Para 
guay,  and  turned  their  avaricious  views  towards  another  quarter. 
The  Spaniards  accidentally  returned  to  Paraguay  in  1526. 

Sebastian  Cabot,  who,  in  1496,  had  made  the  discovery  of  New- 
foundland for  the  crown  of  England,  finding  that  kingdom  was 
too  much  occupied  by  domestic  affairs  to  think  of  making  settle- 
ments in  a  new  world,  offered  his  services  to  Castile,  where  his 
reputation  caused  him  to  be  fixed  upon  to  conduct  an  important 
expedition. 

The  Victory,  celebrated  for  being  the  first  ship  that  ever  sailed 
round  the  world,  and  the  only  one  of  Magellan's  squadron  that 
returned  to  Europe,  had  brought  back  from  the  East  Indies  a  great 
quantity  of  spices.  The  immense  profit  arising  from  the  sale  of 
these,  occasioned  the  undertaking  of  a  second  expedition,  the 
command  of  which  was  given  to  Cabot.  In  pursuing  the  track 
of  the  former  voyage,  he  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata.  Being  either  in  wan  of  provisions,  or  compelled  by  the 
mutiny  of  his  men,  he  put  into  the  river.  Sailing  up  the  stream, 
he  gave  it  the  name  of  La  Plata,  because,  among  the  spoils  of  a 
few  Indians,  inhumanly  put  to  death,  some  omaments  of  gold  and 
silver  had  been  found.  Cabot  built  a  kind  of  fortress  at  the 
entrance  of  a  river,  descending  from  the  mountains  of  Tucuman. 
The  opposition  he  met  with  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
made  him  judge,  that,  in  order  to  form  a  solid  establishment,  means 
were  necessary  superior  to  those  he  possessed.  In  1530,  he  went 
to  Spain,  in  order  to  obtain  recruits.  Those  of  his  companions 
whom  he  left  in  the  colony,  were  most  of  them  massacred,  and 
the  few  who  escaped  from  the  hands  of  the  enemy  soon  aban- 
doned the  country. 

Some  more  considerable  forces,  led  by  Mendoza,  came  and  set- 
tled on  the  river  in  1535,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
They  were  soon  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  perishing  with  hun- 
ger within  their  palisades,  or  of  devoting  themselves  to  certain 
death,  if  they  ventured  out  of  them  in  order  to  procure  subsist- 
ence. A  return  to  Europe  seemed  to  be  the  only  way  of  relief 
from  so  desperate  a  situation ;  but  the  Spaniards  had  persuaded 
themselves  that  the  inland  countries  abounded  in  mines,  and  this 
belief  induced  them  to  persevere.  They  abandoned  a  place, 
where  they  could  no  longer  live,  and  founded,  in  1536,  a  colony 
on  the  island  of  Assumpcion,  three  hundred  leagues  up  the  coun- 


llfi  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

try,  but  still  on  the  banks  of  the  same  river.  By  this  change, 
they  evidently  removed  farther  from  the  assistance  of  the  mother 
country,  but  they  imagined  it  brought  them  nearer  the  source  of 
riches,  and  their  avidity  was  still  greater  than  their  foresight. 

They  were  again,  however,  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  perish- 
ing, unless  they  could  succeed  in  gaining  the  friendship  of  the 
savages.  The  marriage  of  the  Spaniards  with  the  Indian  women 
appeared  calculated  to  effect  this  great  object ;  and  it  was  accord- 
ingly resolved  upon.  From  the  union  of  two  such  different 
nations  sprang  the  race  of  Mestizoes,  which,  in  process  of  time, 
became  so  common  in  South  America.  Thus  it  seems  to  be  the 
fate  of  the  Spaniards  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to  be  a  mixed  race. 
The  blood  of  the  Moors  still  flows  in  their  veins  in  Europe,  and 
that  of  the  savages  in  the  western  hemisphere. 

The  thirst  of  gold  perpetuated  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards, 
even  after  the  connections  they  had  formed.  They  wished  to 
punish  the  Indians  for  their  own  obstinacy  in  searching  for  gold 
where  there  was  none.  Several  ships,  which  were  bringing  them 
troops  and  ammunition,  were  lost,  with  all  they  had  on  board,  by 
venturing  too  far  up  the  river ;  but  even  this  circumstance  could 
not  prevent  them  from  obstinately  persisting  in  their  avaricious 
views,  though  they  had  so  long  been  disappointed  in  them,  till 
they  were  compelled,  by  repeated  orders  from  the  mother  coun- 
try, to  re-establish  themselves  at  Buenos  Ayres. 

This  necessary  undertaking  had  now  become  easy.  The  Span- 
iards, who  had  multiplied  in  Paraguay,  were  strong  enough  to 
restrain  or  destroy  the  nations  that  might  oppose  them.  Accord- 
ingly, they  met  with  little  difficulty.  Juan  Ortiz  de  Zarate  exe- 
cuted the  plan  in  1580,  and  rebuilt  Buenos  Ayres  upon  the  same 
spot  which  had  been  forsaken  for  forty  years.  Some  of  the  petty 
nations  in  the  neighborhood  submitted  to  the  yoke.  Those  which 
were.,  more  attached  to  their  liberty,  went  to  a  greater  distance, 
with  a  view  of  removing  still  farther,  in  proportion  as  their  opres- 
sors  should  extend  their  establishments.  Most  of  them  at  last  took 
refuge  in  Chaco. 

This  country,  two  hundred  and  fifty  leagues  in  length,  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  in  breadth,  is  reckoned  one  of  the  finest  in  Amer- 
ica, and  is  peopled  with  many  thousands  of  savages.  They  form, 
as  in  other  parts  of  the  New  World,  a  great  number  of  nations, 
many  of  which  even  now  remain  but  imperfectly  known.  Their 
territory  is  traversed  by  several  rivers.  The  Pilcomayo,  more 
considerable  than  all  the  rest,  issues  from  the  province  of  Charcas, 
and  divides  into  two  branches,  seventy  leagues  before  it  empties 
itself  into  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  course  of  this  river  appeared 


INFLUENCE    OF    THE   JESUITS.  117 

to  be  the  most  convenient  way  of  establishing  settled  connections 
between  Paraguay  and  Peru.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1702,  that 
an  attempt  was  made  to  sail  up  the  river.  The  people  who  dwelt 
upon  the  banks,  understood  very  w,ell  that  they  should  sooner  or 
later  be  enslaved  if  the  expedition  were  successful;  and  they 
prevented  this  misfortune  by  massacring  all  the  Spaniards  who 
were  engaged  in  it. 

Nineteen  years  after,  the  Jesuits  resumed  this  grand  project; 
but  when  they  had  advanced  three  hundred  and  fifty  leagues,  they 
were  forced  to  put  back,  for  want  of  water.  They  were  blamed 
for  having  undertaken  it  in  the  months  of  September,  October  and 
November,  which,  in  these  countries,  constitute  the  dry  season; 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  enterprise  must  have  proved  success- 
ful at  another  period  of  the  year. 

After  incredible  fatigues,  which  were  for  a  long  time  useless, 
some  missionaries  at  length  succeeded  in  fixing  three  thousand  of 
these  wandering  Indians  in  fourteen  villages,  seven  of  which  were 
situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Tucuman,  four  on  the  side  of  Santa  Cruz 
de  la  Sierra,  two  towards  Taixa ;  and  one  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  island  of  Assumpcion. 

America  had  been  laid  waste  during  the  course  of  a  century, 
when  the  Jesuits  brought  into  this  country  that  indefatigable 
activity,  which,  from  their  origin,  had  made  them  so  successful  in 
their  undertakings.  These  enterprising  men  could  not  recall  from 
the  tomb  the  thousands  of  victims  which  had  been  sacrificed  by 
the  blind  ferocity  of  the  Spaniards ;  they  could  not  drag  out  of 
the  bowels  of  the  earth  the  timid  Indians,  whom  the  avarice  of 
the  conquerors  obliged  daily  to  descend  into  the  mines.  Their 
anxiety  was  turned  towards  those  savages,  whom  a  wandering  life 
had,  till  then,  preserved  from  tyranny  and  the  sword.  The  plan 
was  to  draw  them  out  of  their  forests,  and  to  collect  them  into  a 
national  body,  but  at  a  distance  from  the  places  inhabited  by  the 
oppressors  of  the  new  hemisphere.  These  views  were  crowned 
with  much  success  in  California,  among  the  Moxos,  among  the 
Chiqnitos  upon  the  river  Amazon,  and  in  some  other  countries. 
Nevertheless,  none  of  their  institutions  acquired  so  great  a  degree 
of  splendor  as  that  which  was  formed  at  Paraguay,  which  had 
for  its  basis  the  maxims  followed  by  the  incas  of  Peru  in  the 
government  of  their  empire  and  in  their  conquests. 

The  descendants  of  Manco  Capac  used  to  march  to  their  fron- 
tiers with  armies,  which  at  least  knew  how  to  obey,  to  fight  and 
to  intrench  themselves,  and  who,  together  with  better  offensive 
arms  than  those  of  the  savages,  had  also  shields  and  defensive 
weapons,  which  their  enemies  had  not.  They  proposed  to  the 


118  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

nation  which  they  wanted  to  unite  to  their  government,  to  embrace 
their  religion,  laws  and  manners.  These  invitations  were  most 
commonly  rejected.  Fresh  deputies  were  sent,  who  urged  these 
matters  more  strenuously.  Sometimes  they  were  murdered;  and 
the  savages  fell  suddenly  upon  the  Peruvians.  The  troops  that 
were  attacked  had  generally  the  advantage ;  but  they  suspended 
the  fight  the  instant  they  had  gained  the  victory,  and  treated  their 
prisoners  so  kindly  that  these  afterwards  inspired  their  companions 
with  an  affection  for  conquerors  so  humane.  A  Peruvian  army 
seldom  began  an  attack,  and  the  inca.  has  often  been  known  to 
forbear  hostilities  even  after  he  had  experienced  the  perfidy  of  the 
barbarians  and  several  of  his  soldiers  had  been  murdered. 

The  Jesuits,  who  had  no  army,  confined  themselves  to  the  arts 
of  preservation.  They  penetrated  into  the  forest  in  search  of  the 
savages,  and  prevailed  upon  them  to  renounce  their  old  customs 
and  prejudices,  to  embrace  a  religion  which,  however,  they  did  not 
comprehend,  and  to  enjoy  the  sweets  of  society,  to  which  they 
had  always  been  strangers. 

The  incas  had  another  advantage  over  the  Jesuits,  which  lay  in 
the  nature  of  their  religion,  and  which  was  calculated  to  strike  the 
senses.  It  is  more  easy  to  persuade  men  to  worship  the  sun,  which 
seems  to  announce  its  own  divinity  to  mortals,  than  to  adore  an 
invisible  God,  and  to  believe  doctrines  and  mysteries  which  they 
can  hardly  understand.  Accordingly,  the  missionaries  had  the 
prudence  to  civilize  the  savages  in  some  measure,  before  they 
attempted  to  convert  them.  They  did  not  pretend  to  make  them 
avowed  Christians,  till  they  had  made  them  feel,  in  some  degree, 
like  men.  As  soon  as  they  had  assembled  them  in  communities, 
they  exerted  themselves  to  provide  everything  for  their  subsistence 
and  comfort.  In  this  manner,  by  rendering  them  contented  and 
tractable,  they  found  it  much  easier  to  persuade  them,  formally,  to 
embrace  Christianity. 

The  Jesuits  imitated  the  example  of  the  incas,  in  the  division 
of  land  into  three  shares ;  for  religious  purposes,  for  the  public, 
and  for  individuals.  They  encouraged  working  for  orphans,  old 
people  and  soldiers;  they  rewarded  great  actions;  they  inspected 
or  censured  the  morals  of  the  people ;  they  practised  acts  of  benev- 
olence ;  they  established  festivals,  and  intermixed  them  with  labo- 
rious employments;  they  appointed  military  exercises;  kept  up 
a  spirit  of  subordination ;  invented  preservatives  against  idleness, 
and  inspired  the  people  with  respect  for  religion  and  virtue.  They 
educated  the  young,  and  taught  them  to  sing  hymns,  while  they 
moved  in  long  processions.  In  a  word,  whatever  was  valuable 


POLICY    OF    THE    INCAS    AND    JESUITS.  119 

in  the  legislation  of  the  incas  was  adopted,  or  even  improved 
upon  in  Paraguay. 


Singing  hymns. 

The  incas  and  the  Jesuits  had  alike  established  such  a  system 
of  regularity  and  order,  as  prevented  the  commission  of  crimes, 
and  removed  the  necessity  of  punishment.  There  was  hardly 
such  a  thing  as  a  delinquent  in  Paraguay.  The  morals  of  the 
people  were  good,  and  were  maintained  in  this  state  of  purity  by 
still  milder  methods  than  had  been  practised  in  Peru.  The  crim- 
inal laws  had  been  severe  in  that  empire ;  they  were  not  so  among 
the  Indians  of  Paraguay.  Punishments  were  not  dreaded  there, 
and  men  feared  nothing  so  much  as  the  reproach  of  their  own 
conscience. 

After  the  example  of  the  incas,  the  Jesuits  had  established  the 
theocratical  government,  with  an  additional  help  peculiar  to  the 
Catholic  religion ;  this  was  the  practice  of  confession,  which,  in 
Paraguay,  brought  the  guilty  person  to  the  feet  of  the  magistrate. 
There,  far  from  palliating  his  crime,  remorse  made  him  rather 
aggravate  it ;  and  instead  of  endeavoring  to  elude  his  punishment, 
he  implored  it  on  his  knees.  The  more  public  and  severe  it  was, 
the  more  did  it  contribute  4o  quiet  his  conscience.  By  these 
means,  punishment,  which  in  all  other  places  is  a  terror  to  the 
guilty,  was  here  considered  a  source  of  consolation,  as  it  stifled  the 
pangs  of  remorse  by  the  expiation  of  the  guilt.  The  Indians  of 
Paraguay  had  no  civil  laws,  because  they  knew  of  no  property ; 
nor  had  they  any  criminal  statutes,  because  every  one  was  his 
own  accuser,  and  voluntarily  submitted  to  punishment.  Their 
only  laws  were  the  precepts  of  religion. 

There  were  more  arts  and  domestic  conveniences  in  the  repub- 


120  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

lies  of  the  Jesuits,  than  there  had  been  even  in  Cuzco  itself,  with- 
out more  luxury.  The  use  of  coin  was  unknown.  The  watch- 
maker, weaver,  locksmith  and  tailor,  all  deposited  their  works  in 
public  warehouses.  They  were  supplied  with  every  necessary  of 
life,  for  the  husbandman  labored  for  them.  The  ministers  of  re- 
ligion, assisted  by  magistrates  who  were  chosen  by  the  people, 
attended  to  the  several  wants  of  the  whole  community.  There 
was  no  distinction  of  station ;  and  it  appears  to  have  been  the  only 
successful  attempt  at  a  political  society,  on  an  extended  scale, 
where  men  have  enjoyed  that  equality  which  is  the  second  of  all 
blessings ;  for  liberty  is  undoubtedly  the  first. 

The  incas  and  the  Jesuits  both  inspired  mankind  with  a  rever- 
ence for  religion,  by  the  dazzling  pornp  of  external  ceremonies. 
The  temples  of  the  sun  were  as  well  constructed,  and  as  well 
ornamented,  as  the  imperfect  state  of  the  arts,  and  the  nature  of 
the  materials  in  use,- would  allow;  and  the  churches  in  Paraguay 
were  very  beautiful.  Sacred  music,  that  awakened  human  sensi- 
bility, affecting  hymns,  lively  paintings,  the  pomp  of  ceremonies ; 
every  thing,,  in  a  word,  conspired  to  attract  and  to  detain  the  In- 
dians in  these  places  of  divine  worship,  where  they  found  enjoy- 
ment blended  with  the  exercises  of  piety. 

When  the  missions  of  Paraguay  were  taken  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  Jesuits,  in  1768,  they  had  arrived  perhaps  to  the  highest 
degree  of  civilization  to  which  it  is  possible  to  bring  savage 
nations,  and  which  certainly  far  surpassed  anything  to  be  found 
in  the  rest  of  the  new  hemisphere.  The  laws  were  well  observed : 
an  exact  police  was  established;  the  manners  were  pure,  and  all 
the  inhabitants  were  united  by  brotherly  love.  All  the  arts  of 
necessity  were  improved,  and  some  of  those  of  luxury  wer^  known. 
Plenty  was  universal,  and  the  public  stores  were  filled.  In  a 
word,  two  leading  objects  of  political  government,  tranquillity  and 
contentment,  seemed  to  be  fully  secured  to  these  people. 

Such  is  the  picture,  at  least,  afforded  by  the  Spanish  writers, 
and  it  appears  to  have  received  the  general  assent  of  mankind, 
with  little  abatement  of  the  favoring  colors  in  which  it  is  drawn. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

Settlement  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana. — Story  of  El  Dorado. — Settlement  of  Danen 
and  California. — General  view  of  the  government  of  Spanish  America. — Rapacity 
of  the  viceroys. — Monopoly  of  commerce  by  the  mother  country. — Despotism  of 
the  government. — Description  of  the  several  classes  of  the  inhabitants. — State  of 
the  Indians. — Intercourse  of  the  South  Americans  with  Spain. — Fair  of  Porto 
Bello. — Integrity  of  the  Spanish  merchants. — Effect  of  the  treasures  of  the  Amer- 
ican mines  upon  Spain. — Decline  of  that  kingdom. — Effects  of  the  war  of  the 
succession. — The  trade  of  Peru  opened  to  the  French. — The  Asienlo  treaty  with 
the  English. — The  Porto  Bello  trade  opened  to  the  English. — Factories  estab- 
lished by  them  in  Spanish  America. — Contraband  trade. — Abolition  of  the  galeons. 


Entrance  to  palace  of  El  Dorado. 


FLORIDA  soon  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Spanish  adventurers, 
and  was  invaded  by  them  in  the  same  daring  spirit  as  the  neigh- 
boring countries.  But  as  that  territory  now  forms  a  portion  of 
the  American  republic,  we  have  reserved  the  account  of  this  in- 
vasion for  the  history  of  the  United  States.  We  shall  now  pro- 
ceed to  complete  the  history  of  the  Spanish  discoveries  and  con- 
quests in  the  southern  portion  of  the  western  hemisphere. 

^Ije  province  of  VENEZUELA  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards 
11  P 


122  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

under  Ojeda,  in  1499.  The  voyagers,  on  landing  there,  observed 
a  village  of  Indian  huts  built  upon  piles,  in  order  to  raise  them 
above  the  stagnant  water  which  covered  the  ground.  They 
named  the  place  Venezuela,  from  their  usual  propensity  to  find  a 
resemblance  between  the  objects  they  saw  in  America  and  those 
that  were  familiar  to  them  in  Europe.  They  made  some  attempts 
to  settle  here,  but  with  little  success.  The  final  reduction  of  the 
province  was  accomplished  by  means  very  different  from  those  to 
which  Spain  was  indebted  for  her  other  acquisitions  in  the  New 
World. 

The  ambition  of  Charles  V.  often  engaged  him  in  undertakings 
of  such  variety  and  extent  as  to  exceed  the  capacity  of  his  reve- 
nue. Among  other  expedients  for  supplying  the  deficiencies  of 
his  treasury,  he  had  borrowed  large  sums  of  money  from  the  Vel- 
sers,  of  Augsburg,  the  richest  merchants  then  in  Europe.  By 
way  of  payment,  or  perhaps  in  hopes  of  obtaining  a  new  loan,  he 
bestowed  upon  them  the  province  of  Venezuela,  to  be  held  as  a 
hereditary  fief  of  the  crown  of  Castile,  on  condition  that  within  a 
limited  time  they  should  make  themselves  masters  of  the  country 
and  establish  a  colony  there.  Under  proper  conductors  this 
scheme  might  have  been  attended  with  good  success ;  but  unfortu- 
nately, its  execution  was  intrusted  to  some  of  those  soldiers  of  for- 
tune who  abounded  in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  century.  These 
adventurers,  impatient  to  amass  riches,  instead  of  planting  a 
colony  that  might  have  cultivated  and  improved  the  country, 
wandered  from  district  to  district  in  search  of  mines,  plundering 
the  natives  with  unfeeling  rapacity,  and  oppressing  them  by  the 
imposition  of  intolerable  tasks.  In  a  few  years  their  avarice  and 
extortions,  in  comparison  with  which  those  of  the  Spaniards  were 
moderate,  desolated  the  province  so  completely  that  it  could  hardly 
afford  them  subsistence ;  and  the  Velsers  relinquished  a  property 
from  which  they  had  no  hope  of  ever  deriving  any  advantage. 

When  the  wretched  remainder  of  the  Germans  abandoned 
Venezuela,  the  Spaniards  again  took  possession  of  it ;  but  unfortu- 
nately, the  scenes  of  horror  which  the  Germans  had  exhibited, 
were  renewed  by  Carvajal.  to  whom  was  confided  the  government 
of  this  unhappy  country.  His  barbarities  rendered  the  depopula- 
tion so  complete,  that,  as  early  as  1550,  a  great  number  of  negroes 
were  imported  from  Africa,  on  whom  the  hopes  of  an  unbounded 
prosperity  were  founded.  But  the  habits  of  tyranny  impelled  the 
Spaniards  to  treat  these  slaves  with  so  much  severity  that  they 
revolted.  Their  rebellion  was  assigned  as  a  reason  for  massa- 
cring all  the  males,  and  this  province  once  moi"  Became  a  desert, 
in  which  the  ashes  of  negroes,  Spaniards,  Indians  and  Germans, 


GUIANA.  123 


the  oppressors  and  the  oppressed,  were  intermingled.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  ravages  the  country  for  a  long  time  lay  waste,  and 
when  new  settlements  were  begun,  they  advanced  so  slowly  that 
this  part  of  the  Spanish  possessions  remained  comparatively  ob- 
scure and  unproductive,  while  the  other  American' colonies  were 
in  a  flourishing  condition. 

GUIANA,  or  the  territory  extending  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  Ama- 
zon, was  peopled,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  by  a  diversity  of 
tribes,  similar  in  their  general  character  to  the  other  natives  of 
South  America.  The  Orinoco  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1498.  but  the  country  lay  many  years  neglected.  It  was  not  till 
1535,  that  the  Spaniards  thought  of  exploring  it;  and  being  then 
disappointed  in  their  search  after  mines,  they  regarded  it  as  of  so  lit- 
tle value  that  they  founded  but  one  settlement  on  the  Orinoco.  This 
country  is  remarkable,  in  the  early  history  of  America,  as  being  the 
quarter  in  which  was  situated  the  fabulous  region  of  El  Dorado. 
The  belief  in  the  existence  of  this  country  cost  Spain  a  greater 
expenditure  of  life  and  treasure  than  all  her  other  conquests  in  the 
New  World.  There  were,  along  the  whole  coast  of  the  Spanish 
Main,  rumors  of  an  inland  country  which  abounded  with  gold. 
These  rumors  undoubtedly  related  to  the  kingdom  of  Bogota  and 
Tunja,  now  the  Republic  of  New  Granada.  Belalcazar  set  out 
in  quest  of  this  country  from  Quito.  Federman,  who  came  from 
Venezuela,  and  Gonzalo  Ximenes  de  Q,uesada,  sought  it  by  way 
of  the  river  Madalena.  Wherever  these  adventurers  came  there 
were  rumors  of  a  rich  land  at  a  distance.  Similar  accounts 
prevailed  in  Peru.  In  Peru  they  related  to  New  Grenada ;  there 
they  related  to  Peru ;  and  thus  adventurers  from  both  sides  were 
allured  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  an  object  which  constantly  fled 
before  them.  An  imaginary  kingdom  was  soon  shaped  out  as  the 
object  of  their  quest,  and  stories  concerning  it  were  easily  invented 
and  eagerly  believed.  It  was  said  that  a  younger  brother  of 
Atahualpa  fled  from  Peru  after  the  destruction  of  the  incas,  took 
with  him  the  main  part  of  their  treasures,  and  founded  a  greater 
empire  than  that  of  which  his  family  had  been  deprived.  Some- 
times this  imaginary  emperor  was  called  the  Great  Paytiti,  some- 
times the  Great  Mozo,  sometimes  the  Enim,  or  Great  Paru.  An 
impostor  at  Lima  affirmed  that  he  had  been  in  his  capital,  the  city 
of  Manoa,  where  not  fewer  than  three  thousand  workmen  were 
employed  in  the  silversmiths'  street.  He  even  produced  a  map  of 
the  country,  in  which  he  had  marked  a  hill  of  gold,  another  of 
silver,  and  a  third  of  salt.  The  columns  of  the  palace  were  do- 
scribed  as  of  porphyry  and  alabaster ;  the  galleries  of  ebony  and 
cedar ;  the  throne  of  ivory,  and  the  ascent  to  it  was  by  steps  of 
gold. 


SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

When  Don  Martin  del  Barco  was  writing  his  poem  of  the  Ar- 
gentina, which  was  about  the  time  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  first 
expedition  to  Guiana,  a  report  was  current  in  Paraguay,  that  the 
court  of  the  Great  Moxo  had  been  discovered.  Don  Martin  com- 
municates it  as  certain  intelligence,  and  expresses  his  regret  that 
Cabeza  de  Vaca,  had  turned  back  from  the  Xarayes ;  for  had  he 
proceeded  in  that  direction,  he  would  have  been  the  fortunate 
discoverer.  The  palace,  he  says,  stood  on  an  island  in  a  lake. 
It  was  built  of  white  stone ;  at  the  entrance  were  two  towers,  and 
between  them  a  column  five  and  twenty  feet  in  height ;  on  its  top 
was  a  large  silver  moon,  and  two  living  lions  were  fastened  to  its 
base  with  chains  of  gold.  Having  passed  by  these  keepers  you 
came  into  a  quadrangle,  planted  with  trees  and  watered  by  a  silver 
fountain  which  spouted  through  four  golden  pipes.  The  gate  of 
the  palace  was  of  copper;  it  was  very  small,  and  its  bolt  was 
received  into  the  solid  rock.  Within,  a  golden  sun  was  placed 
upon  an  altar  of  silver,  and  four  lamps  were  kept  burning  before 
it  day  and  night.  However  manifestly  these  fictions  were  borrow- 
ed from  the  romances  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  and  Palmerin  of  Eng- 
land, they  were  not  too  gross  for  the  greedy  avarice  of  those  to 
whom  they  were  addressed. 

This  imaginary  kingdom  obtained  the  name  of  El  Dorado,  from 
the  fashion  of  its  emperor,  who  was  described  as  arrayed  in  the  most 
whimsical  and  barbarous  magnificence.  His  body  was  anointed 
every  morning  with  a  certain  fragrant  gum,  of  great  price,  and  gold 
dust  was  then  blown  upon  him  through  a  tube  till  he  was  covered 
with  it ;  the  whole  was  washed  off  at  night.  This  the  barbarian 
thought  a  more  magnificent  and  costly  attire  than  could  be  afforded 
by  any  other  potentate  in  the  world,  and  hence  the  Spaniards 
called  him  El  Dorado,  or  the  Gilded  One.  A  history  of  all  the 
expeditions  which  were  undertaken  for  the  conquest  of  this  fabu- 
lous kingdom,  would  form  a  volume  no  less  entertaining  than 
extraordinary. 

The  belief  in  the  existence  of  El  Dorado  was  not  extinct  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  though 
probably  discrediting  the  marvellous  part  of  the  story  himself,  did 
not  scruple  to  make  use  of  the  fable  in  alluring  the  English  into  a 
scheme  of  his  own  for  colonizing  Guiana.  He  led  an  expedition 
to  that  country  in  1600,  but  after  making  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  penetrate  into  the  interior,  he  was  forced  to  abandon  the  under- 
taking and  return  to  England.  The  deceits  which  he  had  practised 
in  order  to  promote  this  measure  were  exposed  and  his  character 
was  ruined.  Raleigh's  expedition  to  Guiana  brought  him  to  the 
scaffold. 


CAYENNE.  125 

The  French  formed  a  settlement  at  CAYENNE,  in  1635.     This 
colony  experienced  many  disasters.      The  merchants  of  Rouen 


View  in  Cayenne. 

formed  a  company  for  colonization  here,  and  entrusted  the  man- 
agement of  it  to  Poncet  de  Bretigny,  a  man  of  ferocious  disposition. 
He  declared  war  both  against  the  natives  and  the  colonists,  and 
was  soon  massacred.  This  misfortune  checked  the  prosperity  of 
the  colony;  but,  in  1651,  a  new  company  was  established,  on  a 
larger  scale  than  the  first.  In  Paris  alone,  seven  or  eight  hundred 
settlers  were  collected.  They  embarked  on  the  Seine  for  Havre 
de  Grace,  but,  unfortunately,  the  virtuous  Abbe  de  Marivault,  who 
was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  undertaking,  and  who  had  been 
selected  for  director-general,  was  drowned  as  he  was  stepping  into 
his  boat.  Roiville,  a  gentleman  of  Normandy,  was  then  appointed 
general,  but  he  was  assassinated  on  the  passage.  Twelve  of  the 
principal  adventurers  who  had  committed  this  deed  of  violence, 
assumed  the  direction  of  affairs,  and  administered  the  government 
of  the  colony  in  a  manner  worthy  of  so  atrocious  a  beginning.  They 
hanged  one  of  their  number,  and  banished  three  to  a  desert  island ; 
two  more  died,  and  the  rest  abandoned  themselves  to  every  species 
of  excess.  The  commandant  of  the  citadel  deserted  to  the  Dutch 
with  a  part  of  his  garrison,  and  those  of  the  remainder  who  escaped 
hunger,  sickness  and  the  fury  of  the  savages,  which  had  been 
roused  by  numerous  provocations,  abandoned  the  country,  after 
fifteen  months'  stay,  and  fled  to  the  leeward  islands.  They  left 
11* 


126  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

behind  them  in  the  fort  a  large  quantity  of  arms,  ammunition  and 
merchandise,  with  the  dead  bodies  of  six  hundred  of  their  wretched 
companions. 

In  1663,  a  new  company  was  formed  in  France,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  La  Barre,  master  of  requests,  with  a  capital  of  about  forty 
thousand  dollars.  By  obtaining  some  assistance  from  the  ministry, 
they  were  able  to  expel  the  Dutch,  who  had  taken  possession  of 
the  country.  In  1667,  the  English  became  masters  of  the  colony, 
and  the  Dutch  again  in  1676;  but  it  reverted  to  the  French,  wh& 
still  retain  it. 

SURINAM  was  founded  by  the  French  in  1640,  but  they  aban- 
doned it  shortly  afterwards,  and  were  succeeded  by  the  English, 
who  made  some  progress  in  the  settlement,  when  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  Dutch.  The  colony  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
peace  of  Breda,  and  they  remain  masters  of  it  at  the  present  day. 

The  Dutch  formed  a  settlement  on  the  Essequibo  about  the  year 
1602 ;  this  and  the  settlements  in  its  neighborhood  were  subse- 
quently taken  by  the  French  and  English.  They  were  recovered 
by  the  Dutch,  and  retained  Toy  them  till  1781,  when  the  colonies  on 
the  Essequibo  and  Demerara  put  themselves  under  British  protec- 
tion. In  1783  the  French  again  took  possession  of  this  territory. 
The  British  subdued  them  in  1796,  and  they  were  restored  to  the 
Dutch  at  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  in  1802.  The  British  took  posses- 
sion of  them  once  more  in  1803,  and  have  retained  them  to  the 
present  day. 

A  settlement  was  made  by  the  Scotch  at  the  ISTHMUS  OF  DARIEN 
in  1696.  They  landed  twelve  hundred  men,  furnished  with  every- 
thing necessary  to  establish  a  colony.  The  country  was  named 
Caledonia,  and  the  town  which  they  began  to  build,  New  Edin- 
burgh. The  design  of  the  settlers  was  to  gain  the  confidence  ot 
the  natives,  whom  the  Spaniards  could  not  subdue,  and  with 
whom  they  were  then  at  war ;  to  intercept  the  Spanish  galeons, 
and,  by  combining  with  the  British  forces  at  Jamaica,  to  cut  off" 
the  trade  through  Garth agena  and  Porto  Bello,  and  compete  with 
the  Spaniards  for  the  ascendency  in  this  part  of  the  world.  This 
scheme  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  offered  the  court 
of  Madrid  a  fleet  to  frustrate  the  attempt.  The  Dutch  were  still 
more  alarmed,  in  the  apprehension  that  this  new  company  would 
one  day  rival  them  in  the  smuggling  trade,  of  which  they  enjoyed 
at  that  period  a  monopoly.  But,  above  all,  the  Spaniards  had 
reason  to  oppose  it,  and  the  government  of  Madrid  threatened  in 
consequence  to  confiscate  the  property  of  British  merchants  trading 
in  their  territories.  Yet,  had  the  scheme  been  encouraged  by  the 
English,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  permanent  establishment 


CALIFORNIA.  127 

would  have  been  effected,  of  great  importance  to  their  commerce. 
Some  illiberal  prejudices,  however,  excited  the  court  against  this 
enterprise.  Scotland  was  yet  a  separate  kingdom,  and  it  was 
feared  that  the  gold  of  America,  by  making  that  country  rich, 
would  withdraw  it  from  its  dependence  on  England.  The  permis- 
sion to  make  this  settlement  was  therefore  revoked  by  king 
William;  and  he  prohibited  all  the  other  British  colonies  from 
furnishing  arms  and  ammunition  or  provisions  to  the  settlement  at 
Darien.  The  undertaking  was  therefore  stifled  in  its  infancy. 

CALIFORNIA  was  discovered  by  Cortez  in  1536,  but  he  had  no 
leisure  to  explore  it.  Several  unsuccessful  attempts  were  after- 
wards made  to  form  settlements  there,  and  the  losses  and  expendi- 
tures consequent  upon  these  failures  had  so  far  discouraged  the 
Spanish  government  that  the  project  was  entirely  given  up,  till,  in 
1697,  the  Jesuits  offered  to  undertake  it.  Having  obtained  this 
permission,  they  devised  a  plan  of  legislation  founded  upon  accu- 
rate notions  of  the  climate,  soil  and  character  of  the  inhabitants. 
Their  proceedings  were  not  guided  by  fanaticism.  They  treated 
the  natives  with  gentleness  and  conciliation,  winning  their  favoi 
with  gifts,  instead  of  exciting  their  hostility  by  plundering  them  of 
their  property.  The  hatred  which  the  Californians  bore  against 
the  Spanish  name  was  overcome,  the  useful  arts  were  introduced, 
and  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization  established  among  the 
inhabitants. 

The  whole  Spanish  dominion  in  America  was  divided  into  two 
great  governments ;  one  subject  to  the  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  or 
Mexico,  and  the  other  to  the  viceroy  of  Peru.  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  former  extended  over  all  the  provinces  north  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama ;  that  of  the  latter,  over  all  the  South  American  prov- 
inces. The  inconveniences  of  this  arrangement  were  felt  at  an 
early  period ;  and  they  became  intolerable  when  the  remote  prov- 
inces had  increased  in  population.  So  wide  was  the  extent  of 
these  dominions,  that  many  places  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  viceroys,  were  at  such  an  enormous  distance  from  the  capitals 
in  which  they  resided,  that  no  authority  could  effectually  reach 
them.  Some  districts  in  the  viceroyalty  of  Mexico  lay  at  a  dis- 
tance of  two  thousand  miles  from  the  seat  of  government.  Lima, 
the  capital  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru,  was  at  a  still  greater  dis- 
tance from  some  of  its  dependencies.  The  people  in  these  remote 
quarters,  could  hardly  be  said  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  civil  gov- 
ernment. The  oppression  and  insolence  of  petty  magistrates 
were  grievances  that  were  borne  in  silence,  as  no  redress  could  be 
obtained,  except  by  a  long  and  expensive  journey  to  the  capital. 
A  partial  remedy  for  these  evils  was  at  length  applied,  at  the  be- 


128  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS. 

ginning  of  the  last  contury,  by  the  establishment  of  a  third  vice- 
royalty  at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Granada,  the  jurisdiction  of  which  extended  over  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Tierra  Firme  and  the  province  of  Quito.  Subse- 
quently a  fourth  viceroyalty  was  erected,  comprising  the  provin- 
ces of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Buenos  Ayres,  Paraguay,  Tucuman,  Potosi, 
and  a  few  other  districts.  The  limits  of  the  viceroyalty  of  New 
Spain  were  likewise  contracted,  and  four  of  its  remote  provinces, 
California,  Sinaloa,  Sonora  and  New  Navarre,  formed  into  a  sepa- 
rate government,  without,  however,  the  rank  of  a  viceroyalty. 

The  viceroys  of  these  rich  and  extensive  countries,  not  only  rep- 
resented the  person  of  their  sovereign,  but  possessed  his  royal 
prerogatives  in  their  utmost  strength,  within  the  precincts  of  their 
own  governments.  Their  authority  was  supreme  in  every  de- 
partment, military,  civil  and  criminal.  They  presided  in  every 
tribunal,  and  had  the  sole  right  of  nominating  to  offices  of  the 
highest  importance.  The  external  pomp  of  their  government 
corresponded  with  its  real  dignity  and  power.  The  court  was 
formed  upon  the  model  of  that  at  Madrid,  with  horse  and  foot 
guards.  They  possessed  a  household  regularly  established ;  nu- 
merous attendants  and  insignia  of  command,  and  made  a  display 
of  pompous  magnificence  which  hardly  bore  the  semblance  of 
delegated  authority.  The  government  of  Madrid,  with  character- 
istic jealousy,  being  conscious  of  all  this,  and  of  the  innumerable 
opportunities  the  viceroys  possessed  of  amassing  wealth,  permit- 
ted them  to  remain  in  office  only  a  few  years ;  which  circumstance 
only  increased  their  rapacity,  and  added  to  the  ingenuity  with 
which  they  labored  to  improve  every  moment  of  power,  which 
they  knew  was  hastening  fast  to  a  period.  They  were  then  suc- 
ceeded by  others,  who  had  the  same  motives  to  pursue  the  same 
conduct ;  and  being  generally  chosen  out  of  families  of  distinc- 
tion, decayed  in  fortune,  the  provinces  thus  became  exhausted  by 
avarice  and  oppression. 

The  viceroys  were  aided  in  their  government  by  officers  and  tri- 
bunals similar  to  those  in  Spain.  The  administration  of  justice  was 
vested  in  courts  known  by  the  name  of  Audiences.  These  were 
eleven  in  number,  dispensing  justice  to  as  many  districts.  Their 
sentences  were  final  in  all  cases  of  property  below  the  value  of 
six  thousand  dollars ;  above  this,  the  case  was  subject  to  review, 
and  might  be  carried  by  appeal  before  the  Royal  Council  of  the 
Indies  in  Spain. 

The  first  object  of  the  Spanish  government,  after  reducing  the 
native  Americans  to  subjection  and  establishing  the  colonies  in 
perpetual  dependence  on  the  parent  state,  was  to  secure  a  mo- 


GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    COLONIES.  129 

nopoly  of  their  commerce.  In  order  to  prevent  the  colonies  from 
making  any  efforts  in  trade  or  manufacture  that  might  interfere 
with  the  business  of  the  mother  country,  they  prohibited,  by  the 
severest  penalties,  the  establishment  of  the  staple  manufactures  of 
Spain,  and  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  olive.  The  inhabitants 
trusted  to  old  Spain  both  for  articles  of  luxury  and  prime  neces- 
sity. In  exchange  for  these,  the  colonies  sent  to  Spain  the  pro- 
duce of  their  mines  and  plantations.  All  that  they  produced 
flowed  into  the  ports  of  Spain,  and  nearly  all  that  they  consumed 
issued  from  them.  No  foreigner  could  enter  one  of  the  Spanish 
American  settlements  without  express  permission ;  foreign  vessels 
were  excluded  from  their  ports,  and  the  penalty  of  death  and  con- 
fiscation was  denounced  against  all  who  presumed  to  trade  with 
them.  Nor  did  the  jealousy  and  narrow  maxims  cf  the  Spanish 
government  stop  here.  All  communication  was  prohibited  be- 
tween one  province  and  another  along  the  Pacific  Ocean,  though 
each  of  these  yielded  peculiar  productions,  which  could  have  been 
interchanged,  to  the  great  promotion  of  the  wealth,  industry  and 
happiness  of  the  people.  Hostile  nations  have  enjoyed  more  inter- 
course with  each  other  than  was  permitted  to  the  Spaniards  of 
Mexico,  Peru,  New  Granada  and  Guatemala. 

Such  is  the  general  outline  of  the  ancient  government  of  Spanish 
America, — a  system  dictated  by  avarice  and  ambition,  selfish  and 
short-sighted,  and  rendered  still  more  oppressive  by  superstition 
Never,  perhaps,  was  a  despotism  established  with  so  little  regard 
to  the  rights  of  humanity ;  the  natives  enslaved,  the  colonists 
subjected  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  a  constant  succession  of  hungry 
and  rapacious  rulers,  who  preyed  upon  their  vitals  with  the  re- 
morseless greediness  of  so  many  vultures ;  prohibited  from  sup- 
plying their  own  wants,  from  intercourse  with  foreigners  or  the 
neighboring  colonies  of  their  own  countrymen,  and  obliged  to 
purchase  the  produce  of  the  mother  country  at  an  extravagant 
price.  In  order  to  secure  the  monopoly  at  which  she  aimed,  Spain 
conducted  all  her  trade  with  America  by  means  of  two  fleets  with 
strong  convoys,  one  named  the  galeons,  and  the  other  the  flota  ; 
they  were  equipped  annually,  and  sailed  from  Seville,  touching  at 
Cadiz.  In  consequence  of  such  a  restricted  mode  of  communi- 
cation, the  profits  on  merchandise  exported  to  America,  generally 
amounted  to  two  and  three  hundred  per  cent. 

Population  was  not  likely  to  make  rapid  advances  in  settle- 
ments where  men  had  so  few  inducements  to  think  of  their 
posterity ;  nor  was  industry  likely  to  flourish  under  all  these  dis- 
couragements. As  a  further  check  upon  both,  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion, under  the  same  form  as  in  Spain,  was  established  here,  with 

Q 


SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

its  full  train  of  archbishops,  bishops,  deans  and  other  dignita- 
ries, exacting  a  te'nth  out  of  the  produce  of  the  planter.  This 
tax  on  industry,  which  is  no  slight  oppression  to  society  even  in 
its  most  improved  state,  was  highly  grievous  to  the  infant  colonies, 
as  it  affected  every  article  of  prime  necessity.  The  industry  of 
the  planter  was  taxed  in  every  stage  of  its  progress,  but  so  fertile 
were  the  regions  which  the  settlers  occupied,  that  population 
gradually  increased,  in  spite  of  every  hindrance  from  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  colonies  were  filled  with  citizens  of  various  distinct 
orders.  Among  these  the  natives  of  Old  Spain  held  the  first  rank. 
by  the  name  of  chapetones  ;  and  from  the  jealousy  of  the  Spanish 
court  in  securing  the  dependence  of  the  colonies,  every  office  of 
importance  was  filled  from  this  class  of  persons.  Those,  who,  by 
their  birth  or  long  residence  in  America,  might  be  suspected  to 
have  any  interest  separate  from  that  of  the  mother  country,  were 
the  objects  of  distrust  to  such  a  degree  that  it  amounted  nearly  to 
an  exclusion  from  all  offices  of  trust  or  authority.  The  chape- 
tones,  therefore,  were  raised  to  such  a  pre-eminence  in  Spanish 
America,  that  they  looked  down  with  disdain  on  every  other 
order  of  men. 

The  Creoles,  or  descendants  of  Europeans  settled  in  America, 
formed  the  second  class  of  subjects  in  the  Spanish  colonies.  Some 
of  these  were  the  posterity  of  the  original  conquerors,  and  others 
belonged  to  the  noblest  families  of  Spain,  but  by  the  enervating 
influence  of  a  sultry  climate,  and  other  causes,  the  original 
vigor  of  their  minds  became  so  entirely  broken,  that  the  greater 
part  of  them  were  accustomed  to  waste  life  in  luxurious  indul- 
gence. Commerce  was  too  laborious  an  employment  for  them; 
and  the  interior  traffic  of  the  colonies,  as  well  as  that  with  Spain, 
was  carried  on  solely  by  the  chapetones,  who  acquired  immense 
wealth  by  this  means,  at  the  same  time  that  they  engrossed  the 
emoluments  of  government.  The  various  passions  excited  by  this 
distinction  of  rank  and  character,  settled  down  into  the  most  im- 
placable hatred  between  these  two  classes,  which,  even  at  an  early 
period,  broke  out  into  occasional  ferments.  From  a  refinement  in 
their  distrustful  policy,  the  court  of  Spain  cherished  the  seeds  of 
discord,  and  fomented  this  mutual  jealousy,  hoping  to  prevent  the 
two  most  powerful  classes  of  its  subjects  in  the  New  World  from 
combining  against  the  parent  state.  The  further  effects  of  these 
animosities,  as  exhibited  in  the  revolutions  to  which  Spanish 
America  has  been  subjected  during  the  present  century,  will  be 
described  in  another  portion  of  this  work. 

The  third  class  of  colonists  was  a  mixed  race,  the  offspring 
either  of  an  European  and  a  negro,  or  of  an  European  and  Indian, 


EACES   IN   THE    SPANISH   COLONIES.  131 

the  former  a  mulatto,  and  the  latter  a  mestizo.  The  several  stages 
of  descent  in  their  race,  and  the  gradual  variations  of  shade,  until 
the  African  black,  or  the  copper-color  of  America  brightened  into  an 
European  complexion,  were  accurately  marked  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  each  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  name.  The  mechanic  arts 
were  chiefly  carried  on  by  this  mixed  race,  whose  form  is  remarka- 
bly robust  and  hardy.  The  negroes  held  the  fourth  rank,  and 
were  chiefly  employed  in  domestic  service.  They  were  much 
caressed  by  their  masters,  whose  manners  they  imitated,  and 
whose  passions  they  imbibed.  Their  dress  and  external  appear- 
ance were  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  their  lords.  Elevated  by,  this 
distinction,  they  assumed  a  tone  of  superiority  over  the  Indians, 
and  treated  them  with  such  insolence,  that  the  antipathy  between 
the  two  races  became  deep  and  inveterate. 

The  Indians  formed  the  fifth  and  the  most  depressed  order  of 
inhabitants  in  that  country  which  belonged  to  their  ancestors. 
By  the  edict  of  Charles  V.,  which  caused  such  disturbances,  the 
Indians  were  exempted  from  involuntary  services ;  but  so  much 
inconvenience  was  experienced  in  carrying  this  edict  into  literal 
execution,  that,  after  many  fruitless  attempts,  the  project  was 
abandoned ;  and  measures  were  taken  to  secure  the  labor  of  the 
Indians,  and  make  them  contribute  to  the  support  of  government, 
at  the  same  time  regarding  them  as  freemen.  A  yearly  tax  was 
laid  upon  every  male  from  eighteen  years  of  age  to  fifty,  and  the 
nature  and  degree  of  the  services  required  were  fixed  with  preci- 
sion. Every  Indian  was  either  an  immediate  vassal  of  the  crown, 
or  a  dependent  upon  some  person  to  whom  the  district  where  he 
lived  had  been  granted  for  a  limited  time,  under  the  name  of  an 
encomienda.  In  the  former  case  about  three  fourths  of  the  tax  were 
paid  into  the  royal  treasury;  in  the  latter,  the  same  proportion 
went  to  the  holder  of  the  grant.  According  to  the  same  rule,  the 
benefit  arising  from  the  services  of  the  Indians,  accrued  either  to 
the  crown,  or  to  the  grantee  of  the  encomienda.  The  nature  of 
the  work  was  not  only  defined,  but  a  recompense,  seemingly  equi- 
table, assigned.  On  many  occasions,  however,  both  from  the 
avarice  of  individuals  and  the  exactions  of  the  magistrates,  un- 
reasonable tasks  were  imposed,  the  term  of  labor  prolonged,  and 
they  were  made  to  groan  under  all  the  insults  and  wrongs  of  an 
enslaved  and  degraded  people.  The  mines  were  the  great  source 
of  their  oppression.  Their  constitutions  were  exhausted,  and 
their  bodies  worn  down,  by  extracting  ore  from  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  and  refining  it  by  a  process  no  less  laborious  than  un- 
healthy. How  often  must  they  have  cursed  the  fatal  wealth  of 
their  soil,  which  not  only  tempted  the  Spaniards  to  conquest,  but 


132  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

doomed  them  to  a  condition  more  completely  wretched  than  that 
of  any  other  vanquished  race  ! 

Porto  Bello,  on  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  although  situated  in  a  most 
unhealthy  spot,  became  at  one  period  the  theatre  of  the  richest 
commerce  that  ever  was  transacted  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The 
gold,  silver  and  other  productions  of  Peru  and  Chili,  were  carried 
annually  thither  from  Panama,  to  be  exchanged  for  the  manufac- 
tures of  Europe,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  galeons  arrived 
from  Spain,  laden  with  every  article  of  necessity  and  luxury.  At 
this  period  Porto  Bello  was  filled  with  people,  its  harbor  crowded 
with  ships,  and  the  neighboring  fields  covered  with  droves  of 
mules,  laden  with  the  precious  metals.  Instead  of  poverty  and 
solitude,  its  characteristics  on  ordinary  occasions,  the  town  ex- 
hibited, during  the  season  of  the  fair,  the  most  imposing  show  of 
wealth  and  activity.  Bales  of  goods,  chests  of  treasure,  and 
bustling  crowds  everywhere  met  the  eye.  As  soon  as  the  galeons 
were  unloaded,  and  the  merchants  of  Peru  with  the  president  of 
Panama  had  arrived,  preliminaries  of  the  fair  began.  The  depu- 
ties of  the  several  parties  repaired  on  board  the  admiral's  ship, 
where  the  prices  of  the  different  commodities  were  settled,  in 
presence  of  the  commander  of  the  galeons  and  the  president  of 
Panama.  The  estimate  was  not  adjusted  according  to  the  intrin- 
sic value  of  each  article,  but  by  its  scarcity  or  plenty ;  and  the 
ability  of  the  agents  was  shown  in  forming  their  combinations  so 
judiciously,  that  the  cargo  imported  from  Europe  should  absorb 
all  the  treasures  that  were  sent  from  Lama.  It  was  regarded  as  a 
bad  market  when  goods  were  left  unsold  for  want  of  money,  or 
money  remained  unexpended  for  want  of  goods.  In  the  former 
case,  and  in  that  only,  the  Spanish  merchants  were  permitted  to 
go  and  traffic  in  the  South  Sea ;  and  in  the  latter,  only,  the  Peru- 
vian merchants  might  make  remittances  to  Spain,  for  the  purchase 
of  goods. 

The  prices  being  settled,  the  business  of  the  fair  began.  This 
was  neither  tedious  nor  difficult,  but  was  conducted  with  that 
simplicity  and  confidence  which  accompany  extensive  commerce. 
No  bale  of  goods  was  ever  opened;  no  chest  of  treasure  was 
examined;  both  were  received  on  the  credit  of  the  persons  to 
whom  they  belonged;  and  the  exchanges  were  made  with  so 
much  honesty,  that  this  liberal  confidence  was  never  abused. 
Chests  of  gold  were  found  more  than  once  mixed  among  chests  of 
silver ;  and  articles  were  contained  in  the  bales  not  mentioned  in 
the  invoice,  but  all  these  were  accurately  accounted  for  on  the 
return  of  the  galeons.  There  was  known  one  instance  of  fraud. 
In  1654,  all  the  coined  silver  which  was  shipped  from  Porto  Bello 


THE   FAIR   OF    PORTO    BELLO,   ETC.  13$ 

to  Europe,  was  found  to  have  one  fifth  of  alloy.  The  Spanish 
merchants,  with  their  usual  integrity,  sustained  the  whole  loss, 
and  indemnified  the  foreigners  by  whom  they  were  employed. 
The  fraud  was  detected,  and  the  author  of  it,  who  was  no  other 
than  the  treasurer  of  the  mint  at  Lima,  publicly  burnt  for  his  vil- 
lany.  The  reputation,  therefore,  of  the  Peruvian  merchants  suf- 
fered no  stain. 

The  fair  of  Porto  Bello  was  limited  to  forty  days,  on  account 
of  the  insalubrity  of  the  place.  After  this,  the  galeons  returned 
to  Spain  by  the  way  of  Cuba,  often  with  twenty  millions  of  dol- 
lars in  money  and  goods.  The  two  towns  of  Porto  Bello  and 
Panama,  which  were  the  main  channels  of  communication  be- 
tween Spain  and  her  most  valuable  colonies,  were  reduced  almost 
to  nothing  after  the  galeons  were  abolished. 

The  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  entered  at  the  Spanish  ports 
from  America,  exceeded  twenty  millions  of  dollars  per  annum, 
besides  what  was  smuggled.  It  might  naturally  be  supposed 
that  such  a  torrent  of  treasure  must  have  rendered  Spain  the 
richest  country  in  the  universe.  But  the  event  proved  other- 
wise. All  the  greedy  rapacity  and  oppression  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  have  been  unable  to  prevent  Spain  from  sinking 
into  one  of  the  poorest  and  feeblest  powers  in  Europe.  When 
the  American  mines  were  first  opened,  and  the  intercourse  be- 
tween the  mother  country  and  her  colonies  became  active,  the 
industry  and  manufactures  of  Spain  were  so  thriving  that  she 
was  able  to  answer  the  growing  demands  of  the  American  set- 
tlements. The  manufactures  in  wool,  and  flax,  and  silk,  were 
so  considerable,  as  to  furnish  not  only  sufficient  for  her  own  con; 
sumption,  but  afforded  a  surplus  for  exportation.  And  when 
a  new  market  for  them  was  opened,  to  which  she  alone  had  ac- 
cess, this  new  employment  must  have  augmented  her  industry. 
But  a  sudden  and  enormous  influx  of  wealth  must  ever  bring 
pernicious  consequences  in  its  train,  by  overturning  all  sober  plans 
of  industry,  and  breeding  a  taste  for  whatever  is  wild,  extrava- 
gant and  daring  in  business  and  action.  The  treasures  of  Spain 
were  accordingly  squandered  by  Charles  V.  in  attempts  to  over- 
turn the  liberties  of  Germany,  and  by  the  imbecile  and  arrogant 
Philip  II.,  who  imagined  his  feeble  intellect  equal  to  the  task  of 
subjugating  all  Europe.  Spain  was  thus  drained  of  men  and 
money.  The  calamities  of  the  country  were  increased  by  the 
bigot,  Philip  III.,  who  wantonly  expelled  from  his  dominions  a 
million  of  industrious  Morescoes,  who  constituted  the  life  of  the 
Spanish  manufactures. 

The  demands  of  the  colonies  continued  to  increase  in  proportion 
12 


134  SPANISH    DISCOVERIES    AND    CONQUESTS. 

'     •  '     "  '         \» '      -  '  r    '     •'•-j 

as  the  parent  state  declined  in  population  and  industry.  The 
Spaniards,  finding  industry  discouraged  at  home,  repaired  with 
eagerness  to  the  New  World ;  and  another  drain  of  her  population 
was  opened  in  Spain  by  the  flow  of  emigrants  to  the  west. 
Thinned  of  people  and  void  of  industry,  she  was  unable  to  sup- 
ply the  increasing  demands  of  her  colonies,  and  had  recourse  to 
her  neighbors.  The  manufactures  of  the  Low  Countries,  of  Eng- 
land, France  and  Italy,  which  her  wants  called  into  existence,  or 
animated  with  new  vigor,  furnished  in  abundance  whatever  she 
required.  In  vain  did  the  fundamental  law  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  excluding  foreigners  from  the  trade  of  America,  oppose 
this  innovation.  Necessity,  more  powerful  than  written  statutes, 
defeated  its  operations,  and  forced  the  Spaniards  themselves  to 
concur  in  eluding  it.  Relying  on  the  fidelity  and  honor  of  the 
Spanish  merchants,  who  lent  their  names  to  cover  the  transaction, 
the  English,  the  French  and  the  Dutch  sent  out  their  manufac- 
tures to  the  Spanish  colonies,  and  reaped  the  enormous  profits 
created  by  the  misgovernment  of  the  court  of  Madrid.  That 
probity,  which  is  the  pride  and  distinction  of  the  Castilians,  was 
the  security  of  foreigners  in  this  traffic.  Neither  the  dread  of 
danger,  nor  the  allurements  of  profit  ever  induced  a  Spanish 
agent  to  betray  the  trust  confided  in  him. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  not  more  than  a 
twentieth  part  of  the  commodities  exported  to  Spanish  America 
was  the  growth  or  fabric  of  the  parent  state.  All  the  rest  was  the 
property  of  foreign  merchants,  though  entered  in  the  name  of 
Spaniards.  The  treasures  of  the  New  World  may  be  said  from 
this  time  to  have  belonged  not  to  Spain,  but  to  foreigners.  The 
court  of  Madrid  were  astonished  and  distressed  to  behold  their 
American  wealth  vanish  almost  as  soon  as  it  appeared.  In  their 
desperation  and  perplexity  they  had  recourse  to  many  wild  and 
ineffectual  schemes.  The  exportation  of  gold  and  silver  was  made 
a  capital  crime ;  but  this  law,  like  the  former,  was  eluded,  and 
Philip  IV.,  unable  to  supply  what  was  requisite  in  circulation, 
attempted  to  raise  copper  coin  to  the  value  nearly  of  silver.  The 
lord  of  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  was  driven  to  the  necessity 
of  uttering  base  money  ! 

Under  the  feeble  monarchs  with  whom  the  reign  of  the  Austrian 
line  in  Spain  terminated,  no  remedy  was  applied  to  the  evils  under 
which  the  national  trade  and  industry  languished.  These  evils 
continued  to  increase,  and  Spain,  with  dominions  more  extensive 
and  opulent  than  any  other  European  state,  possessed  neither 
money,  vigor,  nor  industry.  At  length  the  violence  of  a  great 
national  convulsion  aroused  the  slumbering  genius  of  the  land  in 


THE    ASIENTO,  ETC.  135 

the  war  of  the  succession,  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century. 
This  war  rekindled,  in  some  degree,  the  ancient  spirit  and  energy 
of  the  nation;  while  the  various  powers  who  favored  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  Austrian  or  Bourbon  candidate  for  the  throne, 
France,  England  and  Holland,  sent  formidable  fleets  and  armies 
to  their  support,  and  remitted  immense  sums  of  money  to  Spain, 
which  were  spent  there.  Part  of  the  American  treasure,  of  which 
the  kingdom  had  been  drained,  flowed  back ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
Bourbons  obtained  quiet  possession  of  the  throne,  they  discerned 
this  change  in  the  spirit  of  the  people,  and  took  advantage  of  it. 
Accordingly  the  first  object  of  Philip  V.  was  to  suppress  an  inno- 
vation which  had  taken  place  during  the  war,  and  which  over- 
turned the  whole  system  of  the  Spanish  commerce  with  America. 

The  English  and  Dutch,  by  their  superiority  in  naval  power, 
having  acquired  such  command  of  the  sea  as  to  cut  off  all  com- 
munication between  Spain  and  her  colonies,  the  court  of  Madrid, 
in  order  to  furnish  the  settlements  with  those  necessaries  of  life, 
without  which  they  could  not  subsist,  opened  the  trade  of  Peru  to 
the  French.  The  privilege  of  this  trade  was  granted  by  Louis 
XIV.  to  the  merchants  of  St.  Malo,  who  entered  into  it  with  vigor 
and  prosecuted  it  upon  principles  very  different  from  those  of  the 
Spaniards.  They  supplied  Peru  with  European  commodities  at  a 
moderate  price  and  in  large  quantities.  Such  an  abundance  of 
goods  flowed  into  every  province  of  Spanish  America,  as  had 
never  before  been  seen;  and  if  this  intercourse  had  been  con- 
tinued, the  commerce  with  Spain  must  have  ceased  and  the 
dependence  of  the  colonies  on  the  mother  country  speedily  come 
to  an  end.  Peremptory  orders  were  therefore  issued,  prohibiting 
the  admission  of  foreign  vessels  into  any  part  of  Peru  or  Chili, 
and  a  Spanish  squadron  was  sent  into  the  South  Sea  to  enforce 
the  new  system. 

But  though  Spain  by  this  means  repelled  one  encroachment  on 
her  commerce,  she  became  exposed  to  another,  hardly  less  fatal. 
At  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  Philip  V.  transferred  to  Great  Britain  the 
Asiento,  or  privilege  of  supplying  the  Spanish  colonies  with  slaves, 
and  added  to  this  grant  the  more  extraordinary  favor  of  allowing 
the  English  to  send  annually  to  the  fair  of  Porto  Bello,  a  ship  of 
five  hundred  tons,  laden  with  European  commodities.  By  virtue 
of  this  contract,  which  was  vested  exclusively  in  the  South  Sea 
Company,  British  factories  were  established  at  Carthagena,  Pa- 
nama, Vera  Cruz,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  Spanish  settlements ; 
and  the  company  was  farther  permitted  to  freight,  in  the  ports  of 
the  South  Sea,  vessels  of  four  hundred  tons,  to  convey  negroes  to 
all  the  ports  of  Peru,  and  to  bring  back  the  produce  of  their  sales 
in  gold  and  silver,  free  of  duty. 


136  SPANISH   DISCOVERIES   AND    CONQUESTS. 

Thus  the  veil  with  which  Spain  had  hitherto  covered  the  affairs 
of  her  colonies  was  removed.  The  agents  of  a  rival  nation  resid- 
ing in  the  towns  of  most  extensive  trade  and  of  chief  resort,  had 
the  best  opportunities  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  interior 
condition  of  the  provinces.  The  merchants  of  Jamaica,  and  other 
English  colonies  that  traded  to  the  Spanish  main,  were  accord- 
ingly enabled  to  carry  on  the  contraband  trade  with  a  facility  and 
success  never  before  equalled.  This,  however,  was  not  the  most 
fatal  effect  of  the  Asiento  upon  the  commerce  of  Spain.  The 
agents  of  the  British  South  Sea  Company,  under  cover  of  the 
importation  which  they  were  authorized  to  make  by  the  ship  sent 
annually  to  Porto  Bello,  poured  in  their  goods  without  measure  or 
restraint.  Instead  of  a  ship  of  five  hundred  tons,  as  stipulated 
by  the  treaty,  they  employed  one  of  more  than  double  that  size. 
She  was  accompanied  by  three  or  four  smaller  vessels,  which, 
mooring  in  some  neighboring  creek,  supplied  her  clandestinely 
with  fresh  bales  of  goods  as  fast  as  the  first  were  sold.  The 
inspectors  of  the  fair  and  the  officers  of  the  revenue,  corrupted 
by  exorbitant  presents,  conniVed  at  the  fraud. 

In  this  manner,  almost  the  whole  trade  of  Spanish  America  fell 
into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  immense  commerce  of  the 
galeons,  formerly  the  pride  of  Spain  and  the  envy  of  other  na- 
tions, was  ruined  by  this  competition,  and  the  squadron  itself, 
reduced  from  fifteen  thousand  to  two  thousand  tons,  served  hardly 
any  other  purpose  than  to  bring  home  the  royal  revenue  arising 
from  the  fifth  on  silver. 

The  attempts  of  the  Spanish  government  to  check  this  Contra- 
band trade,  by  the  establishment  of  guarda  costas  on  the  coast  of 
the  Spanish  main,  precipitated  her  into  a  war  with  Great  Britain, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  latter  obtained  a  release  from  the 
Asiento,  and  was  left  at  full  liberty,  by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Cha- 
pelle,  to  regulate  the  trade  with  her  colonies  without  being  re- 
strained by  any  foreign  engagements.  Subsequently  to  this,  the 
Spanish  government  permitted  a  considerable  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can trade  to  be  carried  on  by  register  ships,  which  were  despatch- 
ed by  merchants  in  Seville  and  Cadiz  in  the  intervals  between  the 
voyages  of  the  galeons  and  the  flota.  The  advantages  of  this 
new  arrangement  were  soon  felt;  the  contraband  trade  was 
checked,  the  number  of  register  ships  increased,  and  in  1748,  the 
galeons 'were  finally  abolished,  after  having  been  employed  above 
two  centuries.  All  the  register  ships  for  the  Pacific  Ocean  were 
obliged  to  take  their  departure  from  Cadiz  and  return  thither, 
so  that  the  American  commerce  remained  still  under  the  restraint 
of  a  species  of  monopoly. 


BRAZIL, 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

Discovery  of  Brazil. —  Voyage  of  Amerigo  Vespucci. — Attempt  of  the  French,  under 
Villegagnon,  to  establish  a  settlement  at  Rio  Janeiro. — Expulsion  of  the  French. — 
Convicts  transported  to  Brazil. — De  Souza  appointed  governor. — Hostility  of 
the  natives. — Introduction  of  the  Jesuits. — They  pacify  the  natives. —  Contrast  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  policies  in  the  conquest  of  America. — The  Carigcs. — 
Anecdote  of  Farnahaca,  a  Brazilian  chief. — Slaves  brought  into  Brazil. — Neio 
attempts  of  the  French. — The  Brazilian  philosopher. 


Modern  hunters  of  Brazil. 


BRAZIL  was  first  discovered  by  Vincent  Yanez  Pinzon,  one  of 
the  companions  of  Columbus  in  his  first  voyage.  Seven  years 
after  this,  Pinzon  and  his  nephew  Arias  obtained  a  commission  to 
make  further  discoveries.  They  sailed  from  Palos,  with  four 
caravels,  in  1499,  and  came  in  sight  of  Cape  St.  Augustine,  Jan- 
uary 26,  1500.  They  gave  this  headland  the  name  of  Cape  Con- 
solation, landed,  cut  inscriptions  on  the  trees,  and  took  possession 
of  the  country  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  They  had  some  hostile 
dealings  with  the  natives,  and  coasted  south  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon.  From  this  point  they  sailed  northwardly  as  far 
as  the  Orinoco,  and  returned  to  Spain  with  specimens  of  cinnamon, 
12*  R 


13S 


BRAZIL. 


ginger,  Brazil  wood  and  other  commodities.  The  Spaniards, 
however,  made  no  attempt  to  colonize  this  country,  as  it  was  found 
to  lie  within  the  limits  which  had  been  assigned  to  the  Portuguese. 
In  fact,  before  the  Pinzons  returned  to  Spain,  it  had  been  taken 
possession  of  by  that  power, 

The  Portuguese  discovered  it  by  accident.  In  1500,  Pedro 
Alvarez  Cabral  sailed  from  Lisbon,  with  a  fleet,  for  the  East  Indies ; 
the  passage  thither  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  having  first 
been  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama.  The  fleet,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  calms  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  stood  a  great  distance  to  the 
west,  and,  on  the  24th  of  April,  saw  land  in  lat.  17°  south.  They 
steered  along  the  shore,  and,  on  the  3d  of  May,  landed  at  a 
harbor,  which  they  named  Porto  Seguro.  This  being  the  day 
dedicated  to  the  holy  cross,  Cabral  named  the  country,  Terra 


Cabral  taking  possession  of  Brazil. 

Nova  de  Vera  Cruz,  or  New  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross.  The  forests 
abounded  with  trees  producing  a  beautiful  dye-wood  as  red  as 
fire,  to  which  the  Portuguese  gave  the  name  of  brazil,  from  braza, 
a  live  coal.  This  name  afterwards  was  applied  to  the  whole  coun- 
try. Cabral  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  crown  of 
Portugal.  He  sent  a  vessel  back  to  Lisbon  with  the  news  of  his 
discovery,  and  proceeded  on  his  voyage  to  India. 

The  king  of  Portugal  immediately  fitted  out  three  ships,  under 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  sailed  to  Brazil  in  1501.  Vespucci  ex- 
plored the  coast  as  far  south  as  the  52d  degree  of  latitude,  but 
made  no  settlement,  and  returned  to  Lisbon  after  a  voyage  of  six- 
teen months.  He  made  a  second  voyage  in  1503,  in  which  he  lost 
all  his  fleet  but  his  own  ship,  established  a  settlement  on  the  coast, 


RIO   JANEIRO.  139 

and  carried  home  a  cargo  of  brazil  wood,  the  value  of  which 
tempted  many  private  adventurers  to  that  country,  and  an  estab- 
lishment of  these  volunteer  colonists  was  soon  formed  at  St.  Sal- 
vador. The  Portuguese  government,  however,  strangely  neglected 
this  valuable  territory,  and  the  French  began  to  turn  their  eyes 
in  that  direction.  In  1558,  Nicolas  Villegagnon,  a  Frenchman,  a 
knight  of  Malta,  and  an  officer  of  high  rank  in  the  French  navy, 
sailed  on  an  expedition  to  Rio  Janeiro.  He  formed  a  settlement 
on  an  island  in  that  harbor,  which  still  bears  his  name.  The 
design  was  to  make  this  country  an  asylum  for  the  Huguenots ; 
and  the  leaders  of  that  party  in  France  used  every  effort  to  pro- 
mote it.  Among  these  was  the  celebrated  Admiral  Coligny,  and 
the  fortress  on  the  island  was  called  after  his  name.  A  colony 
of  Protestants  was  collected  and  sent  out  from  France,  under  his 
protection.  Two  clergyman  of  that  persuasion  were  selected  at 
Geneva,  with  fourteen  students  of  divinity,  to  act  as  pastors ;  and 
there  was  reason  to  hope  that  the  Reformation  would  take  root 
here,  and  in  process  of  time  fill  the  south  as  well  as  the  north  of 
the  New  World  with  a  Protestant  people.  But  Villegagnon  seems 
to  have  been  unworthy  of  his  trust.  He  persecuted  his  followers, 
who  had  fled  from  Europe  to  avoid  persecution,  till  he  drove  them 
from  this  asylum  also. 

The  Portuguese  settlers,  jealous  of  this  encroachment,  and 
alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  reformed  faith  in  this  new  country, 
sent  a  force  from  San  Salvador,  who  drove  the  French  from  the 
island,  and  demolished  their  fortress.  The  remnant  of  the  Protes- 
tant garrison  retired  to  the  continent,  and  were  well  received  by 
the  Tamoyas  Indians,  with  whom  they  had  formed  an  alliance. 
They  fixed  themselves  in  a  new  situation  near  Rio  Janeiro,  where 
they  maintained  themselves  by  new  accessions  of  people  from 
Europe  for  ten  years.  But,  in  1565,  the  Portuguese  despatched 
another  expedition  against  them.  After  a  struggle  of  two  years, 
the  French  were  expelled  from  all  their  fortresses,  and  the  colony 
was  completely  crushed.  The  court  of  Lisbon  ordered  a  survey 
to  be  taken  of  the  country,  and,  having  ascertained  that  it  afforded 
neither  gold  nor  silver,  held  it  in  such  contempt,  that  they  sent  to 
it  no  other  colonists  than  condemned  criminals. 

India  in  those  days  attracted  all  the  attention  of  the  Portuguese. 
It  was  the  road  to  fortune,  to  power,  and  to  fame.  The  great 
exploits  of  the  nation  in  the  east,  and  the  wealth  brought  from 
that  quarter,  inflamed  the  imagination  of  every  one.  No  person 
went  voluntarily  to  America ;  but,  fortunately  for  Brazil,  those 
unhappy  men  whom  the  inquisition  had  doomed  to  destruction, 
were  added  to  the  convicts  already  transported  thither.  By  the 


140  BKAZIL. 

united  industry  of  these  exiles,  who  procured,  from  the  island  of 
Madeira,  slips  of  the  sugar-cane,  which  they  cultivated  with  great 
care,  sugar,  which  had  hitherto  been  used  only  in  medicine,  by 
reason  of  its  scarcity,  was  furnished  in  such  plenty  as  to  become 
an  article  of  luxury.  The  rich  and  great  were  everywhere  eager 
to  procure  this  new  species  of  indulgence;  a  taste  which  proved 
extremely  favorable  to  Brazil.  The  court  of  Lisbon,  notwith- 
standing its  prejudices,  began  to  be  sensible  that  a  colony  might 
become  beneficial  to  the  mother  country  without  producing  gold 
or  silver.  It  now  looked  with  less  contempt  on  an  immense  re- 
gion which  chance  had  thrown  in  its  way,  and  which  it  had  long 
considered  as  a  place  only  fit  to  receive  the  refuse  of  the  kingdom. 

Brazil  had  hitherto  been  left  to  the  capricious  management  of 
the  settlers ;  but  it  was  at  length  thought  to  deserve  some  kind  of 
attention  from  the  government.  Thomas  de  Souza,  a  man  of 
abilities,  was  accordingly  sent  thither,  in  1549,  as  governor.  He 
built  a  city,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  St.  Salvador.  Souza 
began  with  reducing  the  desperate  herd,  who  composed  the  greater 
part  of  the  colony,  into  a  state  of  proper  subordination,  and  bring- 
ing their  scattered  settlements  nearer  together.  He  next  applied 
himself  to  acquire  some  information  respecting  the  natives,  with 
whom  he  knew  he  must  be  continually  engaged  either  in  traffic 
or  war.  It  was  no  easy  matter  to  accomplish  this.  Brazil  was 
full  of  small  nations  of  Indians,  some  of  which  inhabited  the  for- 
ests; others  lived  in  the  plains  and  along  the  rivers.  Some  had 
settled  habitations,  but  the  greater  number  led  a  roving  life. 
Most  of  them  had  no  intercourse  with  each  other.  Those  who 
were  not  divided  by  hostilities,  were  kept  apart  by  hereditary 
hatred  and  jealousy. 

Such  manners  did  not  dispose  the  Brazilians  to  submit  tamely 
to  the  yoke  which  the  Portuguese  wished  to  impose  upon  them. 
At  first  they  only  declined  all  intercourse  with  the  invaders;  but 
finding  themselves  afterwards  pursued,  in  order  to  be  made  slaves 
and  employed  in  the  labors  of  the  field,  they  took  the  resolution 
of  murdering  all  the  Europeans,  wherever  they  could  seize  them. 
The  friends  and  relatives  of  the  natives  that  were  taken  also 
ventured  to  make  attempts  to  rescue  them,  and  were  sometimes 
successful.  This  brought  an  increase  of  enemies  against  the 
Portuguese,  who  were  forced  to  attend  to  the  double  occupation  of 
labor  and  of  war.  Souza  did  not  bring  forces  sufficient  materially 
to  change  the  situation  of  affairs.  By  building  a  city  at  St.  Sal- 
vador, he  gave  a  centre  to  the  colony ;  but  the  honor  of  settling, 
extending,  and  making  it  really  useful  to  the  mother  country,  was 
reserved  for  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  brought  in  his  train. 


'MISSION   OF    THE    JESUITS.  141 

Those  intrepid  and  enterprising  men.  who  have  always  been 
prompted  by  motives  of  religion  or  ambition  to  undertake  the 
greatest  designs,  dispersed  themselves  among  the  Indians.  Such 
of  the  missionaries  as  were  murdered  from  hatred  of  the  Portuguese 
name,  were  immediately  replaced  by  others,  who  appeared  to  be 
inspired  only  with  sentiments  of  peace  and  charity.  This  mag- 
nanimity confounded  the  barbarians.  By  degrees  they  began  to 
place  some  confidence  in  men  who  seemed  to  seek  them  only  with 
a  view  of  making  them  happy.  Their  attachment  to  the  mission- 
aries grew  up  into  a  passionate  fondness.  When  a  Jesuit  was 
expected  in  one  of  their  nations,  the  young  people  flocked  to  meet 
him,  concealing  themselves  in  the  woods  along  the  road.  As  he 
drew  near  they  sallied  forth,  played  upon  their  pipes,  beat  their 
drums,  danced,  and  made  the  air  resound  with  joyful  songs.  They 
omitted  nothing  that  could  express  their  satisfaction.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  village  the  old  men  and  chief  inhabitants  were 
assembled,  who  expressed  as  much  joy,  but  with  more  sedateness. 
A  little  farther  on  stood  the  women  and  young  girls,  in  a  respect- 
ful posture  suitable  to  their  sex.  There  all  joined  and  conducted 
the  father  in  triumph  to  the  place  where  they  were  accustomed  to 
hold  their  assemblies.  There  he  instructed  them  in  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  of  religion ;  exhorted  them  to  regularity  of  manners, 
to  a  love  of  justice,  brotherly  kindness,  charity,  and  to  an  abhor- 
rence of  human  blood.  After  this  he  baptized  them. 

As  the  Jesuits  were  too  few  in  number  to  transact  all  the 
business  themselves,  they  frequently  deputed  some  of  the  most 
intelligent  natives  in  their  stead.  Proud  of  so  honorable  an  office, 
these  Indians  distributed  hatchets,  knives  and  looking-glasses 
among  the  savages,  and  represented  the  Portuguese  as  harmless, 
humane  and  good  people.  They  never  returned  from  their  excur- 
sions without  bringing  with  them  some  of  their  countrymen,  who 
followed  them  from  motives  of  curiosity.  When  those  savages 
had  once  seen  the  Jesuits,  it  was  with  difficulty  they  ever  quitted 
them.  If  they  returned  home,  it  was  to  invite  their  families  and 
friends  to  come  and  share  their  happiness,  and  to  display  the  pres- 
ents they  had  received. 

Should  any  one  be  inclined  to  doubt  these  happy  effects  of 
humanity  and  kindness  in  dealing  with  savage  nations,  let  him 
only  compare  the  progress  which  the  Jesuits  made  in  a  short  time, 
in  South  America,  with  what  the  fleets  and  armies  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  were  not  able  to  effect  in  the  course  of  two  centuries. 
While  multitudes  of  soldiers  were  employed  in  changing  two 
populous  and  civilized  empires  into  deserts,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
roving  savages,  a  few  missionaries  have  changed  little  wandering 


142  BRAZIL. 

tribes  into  great  and  civilized  nations.  If  these  active  and  cour- 
ageous men  had  been  less  infected  with  the  spirit  of  the  church  of 
Rome ;  if  when  formed  into  a  society  in  the  most  intriguing  and 
corrupt  court  in  Europe,  they  had  not  insinuated  themselves  into 
other  courts  to  influence  all  political  events ;  if  the  chiefs  of  the 
society  had  not  made  an  ill  use  of  the  very  virtues  of  its  members, 
the  Old  and  New  World  would  still  have  reaped  the  advantage  of 
their  unquestionable  zeal,  talent  and  industry. 

The  Brazilian  Indians  had  too  much  cause  of  hatred  against  the 
Europeans,  not  to  mistrust  their  kindness.  But  this*  diffidence 
was  in  some  measure  removed  by  a  signal  act  of  justice.  The 
Portuguese  had  formed  the  settlement  of  St.  Vincent  on  the  sea- 
coast,  in  the  twenty-fourth  degree  of  south  latitude.  There  they 
traded  peaceably  with  the  Cariges,  the  mildest  and  most  civilized 
nation  in  all  Brazil.  The  advantages  which  they  reaped  from 
their  intercourse  could  not  restrain  the  Portuguese  from  seizing 
upon  seventy  of  the  Cariges,  in  order  to  make  slaves  of  them.  The 
persons  who  had  committed  the  offence  were  condemned  to  carry 
the  prisoners  back  to  the  place  whence  they  had  been  taken,  and 
to  make  the  proper  excuses  for  so  heinous  an  insult.  Two  Jesuits, 
who  were  employed  to  dispose  the  Indians  to  accept  of  this  satis- 
faction, which  would  never  have  been  offered  but  at  their  desire, 
gave  notice  of  their  commission  to  Farnacaha,  the  most  respectable 
man  of  his  nation.  He  came  out  to  meet  them,  and  embraced 
them  with  tears  of  joy.  "  My  fathers/'  said  he,  "we  consent  to 
forgive  all  that  is  past,  and  to  enter  into  a  fresh  alliance  with  the 
Portuguese ;  but  let  them  for  the  future  be  more  moderate,  and 
more  observant  of  the  rights  of  nations.  Our  attachment  entitles 
us  at  least  to  equitable  treatment !  We  are  called  barbarians,  yet 
we  respect  justice  and  our  friends." 

The  missionaries  having  engaged  that  for  the  future  their  nation 
should  religiously  observe  the  laws  of  peace  and  justice,  Farnacaha 
proceeded  thus : — "  If  you  doubt  the  faith  of  the  Cariges,  I  will 
give  you  a  proof  of  it.  I  have  a  nephew,  for  whom  I  have  a  great 
affection ;  he  is  the  hope  of  my  family,  and  the  comfort  of  his 
mother ;  she  would  die  of  grief,  if  she  should  lose  her  son.  Yet  I 
will  deliver  him  to  you  as  a  hostage.  Take  him  along  with  you 
— cultivate  his  young  mind;  take  care  of  his  education,  and 
instruct  him  in  your  religion.  Let  his  manners  be  gentle  and  pure. 
I  hope,  when  you  return,  you  will  instruct  me  also,  and  enlighten 
my  mind."  Many  of  the  Cariges  followed  the  example  of  Farna- 
caha, and  sent  their  children  to  St.  Vincent's  for  education.  The 
Jesuits  were  too  artful  not  to  take  advantage  of  this  circumstance; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  had  any  intention  to  enslave  the 


THE    BRAZILIAN   PHILOSOPHER.  143 

Indians.  Avarice  had  not  yet  possessed  the  minds  of  these  mis- 
sionaries, and  the  interest  they  had  at  court  secured  sufficient 
respect  in  the  colony,  at  once  to  gratify  their  ambition  and  to 
make  the  situation  of  their  converts  a  comfortable  one. 

This  season  of  tranquillity  was  improved  to  the  advantage  of 
the  sugar-trade,  by  means  of  the  slaves  procured  from  Africa. 
No  sooner  had  the  Portuguese  established  settlements  on  that  coast 
than  they  brought  away  a  great  number  of  negroes,  who  were 
employed  in  Portugal  in  domestic  uses.  That  practice,  one  of  the 
first  which  contributed  to  corrupt  the  character  of  the  nation,  was 
introduced  much  later  into  the  American  settlements,  where  it 
was  not  established  till  the  year  1530. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Portuguese  colony,  which  was  visible  in 
all  the  markets  of  Europe,  excited  the  envy  of  the  French.  They 
attempted  to  make  settlements  successively  at  Rio  Janeiro,  Par- 
aiba,  and  the  island  of  Maranham;  but  their  levity  would  not 
permit  them  to  wait  the  usually  slow  progress  of  infant  estab- 
lishments ;  and,  merely  from  inconstancy  and  impatience,  they 
gave  up  prospects  that  were  sufficient  to  have  encouraged  any 
other  nation  to  persevere.  France,  however,  derived  one  advan- 
tage from  these  fruitless  invasions ;  the  honor  of  making  mankind 
acquainted  with  the  character  of  the  Brazilians,  in  regard  to  which 
we  should  otherwise  have  remained  in  almost  perfect  ignorance, 
as  the  jealousy  of  the  Portuguese  government,  like  that  of  Spain, 
excluded  all  foreigners  from  their  settlements,  and  they  have 
thrown  no  light  upon  that  subject  themselves.  The  "following 
dialogue,  in  which  Lery.  to  whom  we  have  already  been  much 
indebted  for  information,  was  an  interlocutor,  is  a  valuable  mon- 
ument of  the  natural  good  sense  of  those  savages,  notwithstanding 
the  barbarity  of  their  manners. 

The  native  Brazilians  being  greatly  surprised  to  see  the  French 
take  so  much  pains  to  procure  their  wood,  one  of  their  old  men 
said  to  Lery,  "  What  reason  can  induce  you  Frenchmen  to  come 
so  far,  to  get  wood  for  firing  ?  Is  there  none  in  your  own  coun- 
try ?"  ."  Yes,"  replied  Lery,  "  and  a  great  deal  too,  but  not  such 
as  yours,  which  we  do  not  burn,  but  in  the  same  manner  as  your 
people  employ  it,  to  dye  their  plumes  and  bow-strings, — we  also 
use  it  in  dyeing."  "Very  well,"  said  the  Brazilian,  "but  do  you 
require  so  great  a  quantity  7"  "  Yes,"  replied  Lery,  "  for  in  our 
country  there  are  some  merchants  who  have  more  red  and  scarlet 
cloth  than  you  ever  saw  here.  One  of  these  will  buy  several 
cargoes  of  this  wood."  "  Ha ! "  said  the  Brazilian,  "  thou  tellest 
me  wonders."  Then  pausing  a  little  upon  the  information  he 
had  received,  his  curiosity  operated  thus : — "  But  this  rich  man, 


144 


BRAZIL. 


of  whom  thou  talkest,  is  he  never  to  die?"  "Yes,  yes,"  said 
Lery,  "as  well  as  others."  On  which  the  Brazilian  inquired,  to 
whom  all  his  wealth  belonged  when  he  was  dead.  "It  goes," 
replied  Lery,  "  to  his  children,  or,  if  he  has  none,  to  his  brothers, 
sisters,  or  nearest  of  kin."  "  Truly,"  concluded  the  Brazilian, 
"  I  now  perceive  that  you  Frenchmen  are  great  fools.  Must  you 
work  so  hard,  and  cross  the  seas,  to  heap  up  riches  for  those  that 
come  after  you,  as  if  the  earth,  that  has  fed  you,  were  not  suffi- 
cient for  them  also !  We  have  children  and  friends,  whom  we 
love,  as  thou  seest;  but  as  we  are  sure  that  after  our  death,  the 
earth,  which  has  provided  for  our  subsistence,  will  likewise  pro- 
vide for  theirs,  we  give  ourselves  no  concern  about  the  matter." 

The  French  were  inflamed  with  that  love  of  riches,  which,  in 
those  days,  made  all  the  maritime  powers  of  Europe  attempt  es- 
tablishments in  the  New  World.  The  Dutch,  who  had  become 
republicans  from  persecution,  and  merchants  from  necessity,  were 
more  persevering,  and,  in  consequence  of  that,  more  successful 
than  the  French,  in  their  attempts  upon  Brazil.  Other  causes, 
however,  conspired  to  favor  their  designs. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

Conquest  of  Portugal  by  the  Spaniards. — The  Dutch  trade  with  Brazil. — They 
invade  the  country  and  capture  St.  Salvador. — Policy  of  the  Spanish  court. — St. 
Salvador  retaken  by  the  Portuguese. — Success  of  the  Dutch  cruisers. — Further 
attempts  of  the  Dutch  on  Brazil. —  Capture  of  Olinda. — Expedition  of  Maurice 
of  Nassau. — Success  of  the  Dutch. — Revolution  in  Portugal. — The  Dutch  gov- 
ernment of  Brazil. — They  neglect  the  colony. — Conspiracy  against  them. — 
Clavalcante  heads  an  insurrection  of  the  Portuguese. — The  Dutch  expelled  from 
Brazil,  and  the  country  secured  to  the  Portuguese  by  treaty. 

THE  Portuguese,  in  the  very  meridian  of  their  prosperity,  when 
in  possession  of  a  prodigious  commerce,  and  an  extensive  empire 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  Arabia,  India,  the  isles  of  Asia,  and  in 
one  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  America,  were  struck  down  by 
one  of  those  unexpected  blows,  which,  in  a  critical  moment,  de- 
cide the  fate  of  nations.  Don  Sebastian,  one  of  their  greatest 
princes,  in  an  unfortunate  expedition  against 'the  Moors  of  Bar- 
bary,  perished  with  the  flower  of  his  army,  in  1581.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  disaster,  the  Portuguese  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
Spain.  Nor  was  this  their  only  misfortune.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  low  countries,  whom  the  tyranny  and  cruelty  of  Philip  II. 
had  excited  to  revolt,  and  who  had  thrown  off  the  Spanish  yoke 
with  indignation,  were  not  satisfied  with  erecting  themselves  into 
a  free  state,  and  supporting  their  independence  by  a  successful 
defensive  war ;  but,  flushed  with  the  juvenile  ardor  of  a  growing 
commonwealth,  pursued  the  Spaniards  into  the  utmost  recesses  of 
their  extensive  dominions,  and  grew  rich  and  powerful  by  the 
spoils  of  their  former  masters.  They  fell  upon  the  Portuguese 
possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  and  made  themselves  masters  of 
almost  all  the  settlements  of  that  depressed  nation  in  Asia.  After 
this,  they  began  to  turn  their  eyes  towards  America,  and  the  trace 
of  1609  gave  them  time  to  bring  their  designs  to  maturity. 

This  enterprise  was  committed  to  Jacob  Willekens.  Precau- 
tions had  been  taken  to  procure  the  necessary  information  re- 
specting the  country.  Some  Dutch  ships  had  ventured  to  visit 
Brazil,  in  defiance  of  the  law  that  prohibited  the  admittance  of 
strangers.  As  they  greatly  undersold,  according  to  the  custom  of 
their  country,  the  commodities  that  came  from  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, they  met  with  a  favorable  reception.  At  their  return,  they 
13  s 


]  46  BRAZIL. 

reported  that  the  colony  was  in  a  species  of  anarchy ;  that  foreign 
dominion  had  stifled,  in  the  breasts  of  the  Portuguese,  the  love  of 
their  country;  that  self-interest  had  corrupted  their^minds;  that 
the  soldiers  were  turned  merchants ;  that  they  had  forgotten  the 
art  of  war  •  and  that  whoever  should  invade  the  country  with  a 
competent  force,  would  infallibly  surmount  the  trifling  obstacles 
that  might  be  opposed  by  the  Portuguese. 

Willekens,  furnished  with  this  intelligence,  steered  for  Brazil,  in 
1624.  San  Salvador,  the  capital,  betrayed  by  the  cowardice  of 
the  governor,  surrendered  on  the  appearance  of  the  Dutch,  fleet. 
Don  Miguel  de  Texeira,  the  archbishop,  alone  supported  the  honor 
of  his  nation.  Believing  that,  in  such  an  emergency,  the  service 
of  his  country  superseded  the  common  obligations  of  his  function, 
he  took  arms,  and,  at  the  head  of  his  clergy  and  a  few  scattered 
forces,  attempted  a  resistance.  The  Dutch,  however,  found  an 
immense  booty  in  San  Salvador,  and  in  a  short  time  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  whole  district  of  Bahia,  the  largest  and 
richest  province  in  Brazil. 

The  news  of  this  loss  threw  Portugal  into  the  utmost  conster- 
nation; but  the  Spanish  ministry  were  rather  pleased,  than  dis- 
composed, by  it ;  they  were  comforted  for  the  triumph  obtained 
by  the  most  inveterate  enemies  of  their  country,  by  reflecting  on 
the  mortification  which  the  Portuguese  must  experience.  Ever 
since  the  Spaniards  had  given  a  sovereign  to  this  unfortunate 
people,  they  had  met  with  an  opposition  in  their  tyrannies,  which 
offended  the  haughty  spirit  of  their  despotic  government.  An 
event  that  might  reduce  the  pride  of  Portugal,  and  render  her 
more  tractable,  appeared,  therefore,  to  them  a  fortunate  circum- 
stance. But  though  Philip  IV.  had  harbored  these  base  senti- 
ments, he  thought  the  majesty  of  his  throne  required  of  him 
some  outward  demonstrations  of  resentment  against  the  Dutch. 
He  accordingly  wrote  to  the  Portuguese  of  the  first  rank,  exhort- 
ing them  to  make  such  vigorous  efforts  as  the  present  exigencies 
required.  This  they  were  already  inclined  to  do,  as  most  of 
them  had  possessions  in  Brazil.  Self-interest,  patriotism,  the 
desire  of  throwing  a  damper  upon  the  joy  of  their  tyrants,  all 
concurred  to  quicken  their  alacrity.  The  monied  men  lavished 
their  treasures;  others,  who  had  more  influence  than  wealth, 
levied  troops ;  every  one  was  eager  to  enter  into  the  service.  In 
a  few  months,  twenty-six  ships  were  fitted  out,  and  sailed,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1626,  in  company  with  such  ships  from 
Spain  as  the  slow  and  cautious  policy  of  that  court  had  allowed 
to  assist  the  expedition.  They  were  commanded  by  the  Marquis 
de  Valduesa,  and  arrived  safe  in  the  bay  of  All  Saints,  in  Brazil. 


OPERATIONS    OF    THE    DUTCH    WEST    INDIA    COMPANY.,  147 

The  Dutch,  since  their  conquest  of  San  Salvador,  had  suffered 
many  hardships.  The  archbishop,  at  the  head  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred men,  had  often  defeated  their  parties,  and  cut  off  their  pro- 
visions ;  and  he  held  them  closely  blocked  up,  when  death  put  a 
period  to  his  persevering  efforts.  This  misfortune,  however,  pro- 
duced no  revolution  in  favor  of  the  Dutch,  who  continued  in  the 
same  condition  till  the  arrival  of  the  united  fleets  of  Spain  and 
Portugal.  These  disembarked  four  thousand  men  under  the  com- 
mand of  Don  Manuel  de  Mengis,  and  found  it  easy  to  reduce  a 
place  already  fatigued  with  a  long  siege.  The  governor  would 
have  attempted  resistance,  but  the  garrison  obliged  him  to  capitu- 
late. 

The  success  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  by  sea  made 
amends  for  this  loss.  Their  ships  never  came  into  port,  but 
when  laden  with  the  spoils  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese. 
Their  prosperity  was  so  great  as  to  give  umbrage  even  to  the 
powers  most  interested  in  the  welfare  of  Holland.  The  ocean 
was  covered  with  their  fleets.  Their  admirals  endeavored,  by 
useful  exploits,  to  preserve  their  confidence.  The  inferior  officers 
aspired  to  promotion,  by  seconding  the  valor  and  skill  of  their 
commanders.  The  soldiers  and  sailors  fought  with  unparalleled 
ardor ;  nothing  could  discourage  these  resolute  and  intrepid  men. 
The  fatigues  of  a  seafaring  life,  sickness,  and  repeated  engage- 
ments, seemed  only  to  harden  them  for  war,  and  to  increase  their 
emulation.  The  company  encouraged  this  fervid  spirit,  by  fre- 
quently distributing  rewards.  Exclusive  of  their  pay,  the  sailors 
were  allowed  to  carry  on  a  private  trade,  which  proved  a  great 
encouragement,  and  procured  a  constant  supply  of  men.  As,  by 
this  wise  regulation,  their  interest  was  immediately  connected 
with  that  of  their  employers,  they  wished  to  be  always  in  action ; 
they  never  struck  to  the  enemy,  nor  ever  failed  to  attack  their 
ships  with  that  degree  of  skill  and  persevering  courage,  which 
must  always  insure  success. 

This  prosperity  emboldened  the  West  India  Company  to  make 
a  second  attempt  on  Brazil.  Henry  Touk,  the  Dutch  admiral, 
appeared  on  the  coast  of  Pernambuco,  in  the  beginning  of  1630, 
with  forty-six  ships  of  war.  Thierry,  of  Wardenburg,  who  com- 
manded the  land  forces,  disembarked  with  two  thousand  four 
hundred  men,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  city  of  Olinda, 
after  an  obstinate  resistance.  This  invasion  spread  terror  over 
the  whole  country,  and  the  Dutch  took  advantage  of  it  quickly, 
to  reduce  the  whole  neighboring  district.  The  Portuguese  made 
a  vigorous  but  ineffectual  effort,  the  year  following,  to  expel  the 
invaders.  The  Dutch  not  only  kept  possession  of  Pernambuco. 


148  BRAZIL. 

but  subdued  the  districts  of  Tamaraca,  Paraiba,  and  Rio  Grande, 
in  the  years  1633,1634  and  1635.  All  these  furnished  annually  a 
large  quantity  of  sugar,  dye-wood,  and  other  valuable  commodi- 
ties. 

The  Dutch  were  so  elated  with  the  acquisition  of  this  wealth, 
which  now  flowed  to  Amsterdam,  instead  of  Lisbon,  that  they 
determined  to  conquer  all  Brazil,  and  entrusted  Maurice  of  Nas- 
sau with  the  conduct  of  an  enterprise  for  that  object.  He  reached 
the  place  of  his  destination  in  the  beginning  of  1637.  He  found 
the  soldiers  so  well  disciplined,  the  officers  so  experienced,  and  so 
much  ardor  in  every  one  to  engage  the  enemy,  that  he  imme- 
diately took  the  field.  He  was  successively  opposed  by  Banjola, 
Rocca  de  Borgia,  and  the  famous  native  chief,  Cameron,  the  idol 
of  his  people,  who  was  passionately  fond  of  the  Portuguese. 
Brave,  active  and  cautious,  this  savage  commander  lacked  no 
qualification  of  a  great  general,  but  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  Avar.  These  several  chieftains  exerted  their  utmost  efforts 
to  defend  the  places  under  their  protection ;  but  their  endeavors 
proved  ineffectual.  The  Dutch  reduced  the  districts  of  Sierra, 
Seregippe,  and  the  greater  part  of  Bahia.  Seven  of  the  fourteen 
provinces  into  which  Brazil  is  divided,  had  already  submitted, 
and  the  conquerors  flattered  themselves  that  one  or  two  cam- 
paigns more  would  make  them  masters  of  all  the  possessions  of 
their  enemies  in  that  part  of  America,  when  an  unexpected  revo- 
lution gave  a  new  turn  to  affairs. 

The  Portuguese  had  never  borne  with  patience  the  yoke  of 
Spain,  which  everything  conspired  to  render  grievous.  Philip 
II.,  alike  cruel,  avaricious  and  despotic,  had  endeavored  to  de- 
grade and  insult  them,  that  he  might  obtain  pretexts  for  his 
oppressions.  His  son,  Philip  III.,  who  too  closely  followed  his 
maxims,  and  thought  it  better  to  reign  over  a  ruined  nation,  than 
be  indebted  to  their  good  will  for  submission,  had  suffered  them, 
as  we  have  seen,  to  be  deprived  of  a  multitude  of  conquests, 
which  were  a  source  of  riches,  power  and  glory  to  them,  and 
which  they  had  acquired  by  much  effusion  of  blood.  Philip  IV., 
the  successor  of  that  weak  prince,  who  had  still  less  understand- 
ing than  his  father,  openly  and  contemptuously  attacked  their 
administration,  their  privileges,  their  manners,  and  everything 
that  was  most  dear  to  them.  These  repeated  outrages  united  all 
the  Portuguese,  whom  Spain  had  been  laboring  to  divide.  A  con- 
spiracy, which  had  been  forming  for  years  with  incredible  secrecy, 
broke  out  in  December,  1640,  when  the  Spanish  ministers  were 
expelled  from  Lisbon,  and  the  Duke  of  Braganza  placed  on  the 
throne  of  Portugal.  The  example  of  the  capital  was  followed 


OPERATIONS    OF    THE    DUTCH    WEST   INDIA    COMPANY.  149 

by  that  of  the  whole  kingdom,  and  by  all  that  remained  of  the 
settlements  formed  in  happier  times,  in  Asia,  Africa  and  America. 

John  IV.,  the  new  king,  united  his  interests  and  his  resent- 
ments with  those  of  the  English,  the  French,  and  all  the  enemies 
of  Spain.  On  the  twenty-third  day  of  June,  1641,  he  concluded 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  the  United  Provinces  of 
Holland,  for  Europe,  and  ten  years'  truce  for  the  East  and  West 
Indies ;  during  which  period  each  party  was  to  retain  what  was 
then  in  their  possession.  Some  misunderstanding,  however, 
arose,  relative  to  this  article  of  the  treaty.  The  Dutch,  under 
different  pretexts,  refused  to  restore  certain  places  taken  after  the 
time  mentioned  in  the  truce ;  and  the  king  of  Portugal,  piqued  at 
that  conduct,  took  the  resolution  of  permitting  his  subjects  in 
Brazil  to  act  for  their  own  and  his  interests,  without  seeming  to 
take  any  part  in  their  proceedings.  His  officers  accordingly  af- 
fected to  live  in  perfect  harmony  with  their  new  allies.  Nassau 
was  recalled,  together  with  the  greater  part  of  his  troops,  as  an 
unnecessary  charge  to  the  company ;  and  the  government  of  the 
Dutch  possessions  in  Brazil  was  committed  to  Hamel,  of  Amster- 
dam, Bassis,  a  goldsmith  of  Haarlem,  and  Bullistraat,  a  carpenter 
of  Middleburg. 

In  the  council  founded  by  this  triumvirate  resided  all  authority ; 
and  their  administration  was  such  as  might  have  been  expected 
from  men  of  their  condition.  They  readily  entered  into  the  par- 
simonious views  of  the  company.  Their  own  inclinations  even 
led  them  to  push  these  views  to  a  blamable  excess.  They  suf- 
fered the  fortifications,  already  too  much  neglected,  to  go  to  decay ; 
they  sold  arms  and  ammunition  to  the  Portuguese,  who  paid  them 
such  an  exorbitant  price  for  these  articles,  as  ought  to  have  awa- 
kened their  jealousy;  and  they  granted  to  all  the  soldiers  who 
desired  it,  leave  to  return  to  Europe.  Their  whole  ambition,  in  a 
word,  was  to  amass  wealth  by  gaining  and  saving.  In  this  con- 
duct they  were  confirmed  by  the  applause  of  the  avaricious  and 
weak  men  who  were  entrusted  with  the  direction  of  the  compa- 
ny's affairs.  With  a  view  to  increase  still  further  the  profits  of 
their  countrymen,  they  began  to  oppress  such  of  the  Portuguese 
as  resided  under  their  government.  Tyranny  made  rapid  pro- 
gress, and  was  at  last  carried  to  an  excess,  which  at  once  roused 
resistance  and  inspired  the  most  desperate  purposes. 

The  victims  of  these  proceedings,  who  had  secret  assurances 
of  protection  from  the  Portuguese  court,  wasted  no  time  in  com 
plaints.  In  1645,  the  boldest  of  them  united  to  take  revenge. 
Their  design  was  to  massacre  all  the  Dutch  who  had  any  share 
in  the  government,  at  an  entertainment  in  the  city  of  Maurice,  the 
13* 


150  BRAZIL. 

new  capital  of  Pernambuco ;  and  then  to  attack  the  people,  who, 
suspecting  no  danger,  would  be  unable  to  resist  them.  The  plot 
was  discovered,  but  the  conspirators  had  time  to  leave  the  town, 
and  retire  to  a  place  of  safety.  Their  chief,  named  Antonio  Cal- 
valcante,  was  a  Portuguese  of  obscure  birth.  From  a  common 
servant,  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  merchant.  His  abilities 
had  enabled  him  to  acquire  a  large  fortune;  his  probity  had 
gained  him  universal  confidence,  and  his  generosity  had  procured 
him  an  infinite  number  of  friends. 

Calvalcante  was  not  discouraged  by  the  disappointment.  Ac- 
quainted with  the  wishes  of  his  countrymen,  as  well  as  with  the 
weakness  of  the  Dutch,  he  ventured  to  commence  hostilities 
without  consulting  the  court.  His  name,  his  virtues,  and  his 
objects,  assembled  the  Brazilians,  the  Portuguese  soldiers,  and 
even  the  colonists,  about  him.  He  inspired  them  with  his  own 
ardor,  his  activity,  and  his  courage.  They  determined  to  conquer 
or  to  die  with  him.  He  ravaged  the  territories  of  the  Dutch ;  he 
was  frequently  victorious  in  skirmishes ;  but  he  did  not  allow 
himself  to  slumber  over  success.  Some  checks  which  he  met 
with,  served  only  to  display  the  firmness  of  his  spirit,  the  extent 
of  his  capacity,  and  the  elevation  of  his  mind.  He  assumed  a 
threatening  aspect,  even  after  a  disaster,  and  appeared  yet  more 
formidable  by  his  perseverance  than  by  his  intrepidity.  Though 
never  publicly  supported  by  government,  he  spread  such  terror 
among  his  enemies,  that  they  dared  no  longer  to  keep  the  field.  At 
that  period  of  his  glory,  the  purpose  of  his  generous  efforts  was 
in  danger  of  being  defeated,  and  all  the  blood  spilt  during  a 
struggle  of  ten  years,  might  have  been  shed  in  vain. 

The  Dutch  had  frequently  complained  of  the  hostilities  in 
Brazil,  and  the  court  of  Portugal  had  as  often  disavowed  them, 
and  even  declared  that,  they  would  one  day  punish  the  authors  of 
these  disturbances.  As  the  republic  was  then  engaged  in  a  war 
with  England,  some  regard  was  paid  to  these  evasive  answers; 
but  no  sooner  did  any  prospect  of  peace  appear,  than  effectual 
measures  were  taken  by  the  Dutch  for  humbling  the  Portuguese 
in  Europe  and  America.  John  IV.,  unwilling  to  risk  the  issue  of 
a  war  with  so  powerful  a  nation,  exerted  himself  in  earnest  to  put 
an  end  to  the  hostilities  in  Brazil.  Clavalcante,  who  had  now  no 
resource  for  the  completion  of  his  designs,  but  in  his  fortune,  his 
interest  and  his  abilities,  did  not  even  deliberate  whether  he  should 
obey.  "If  the  king,"  said  he,  "were  but  informed  of  our  zeal 
and  our  success,  and  acquainted  with  his  own  interest,  far  from 
disarming  us,  he  would  encourage  us  to  pursue  our  undertaking, 
and  would  support  us  with  all  his  power."  In  consequence  of 


TREATY    OF    1661. 


151 


this  way  of  thinking,  he  determined  to  hasten  his  operations,  lest 
the  ardor  of  his  companions  should  abate.  Accordingly,  he  made 
a  last  effort,  and  with  the  assistance  of  Baretto,  Vidal,  and  some 
others,  who  were  able  and  willing  to  serve  their  country,  he  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  the  Dutch.  Such  of  these  republicans  as  escaped 
the  sword  and  famine,  evacuated  Brazil  agreeably  to  a  capitula- 
tion signed  on  the  twenty-eighth  day  of  January,  1654. 

The  peace,  concluded  three  months  after,  between  England  and 
the  United  Provinces,  seemed  to  place  the  Dutch  in  a  condition  to 
recover  a  valuable  possession,  which  had  been  lost  by  an  ill-judged 
parsimony.  But  both  the  republic  and  the  West  India  Company 
disappointed  the  general  expectation.  No  attempt  was  made  for 
that  purpose ;  and  the  treaty  which  adjusted  the  claims  of  the 
contending  powers,  in  1661,  secured  to  Portugal  the  sole  possession 
of  Brazil,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  one  million  seven  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars,  which  that  crown  engaged  to  pay  to  the 
United  Provinces.  Thus  did  the  Dutch  part  with  a  conquest 
which  might  have  become  the  richest  of  all  the  European  colonies 
in  the  New  World,  and  which  would  have  given  the  republic  a 
degree  of  consequence  which  it  could  never  have  acquired  from 
its  own  territory,  nor  even  from  its  East  India  possessions. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

Improvements  in  the  colony. —  Condition  of  the  natives. — Extension  of  the  settlements. 
— The  river  Amazon. — Expeditions  of  Orellana  and  Orsua. — The  tyrant 
Aguirre. — Settlement  of  Para. — Expedition  of  Texeira  across  the  continent  to 
Quito. — Scheme  for  navigating  the  Amazon. — Mission  of  the  Spanish  Jesuits  in 
Brazil. — Indolence  of  the  natives. — Settlements  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. — Estab- 
lishment at  St.  Sacrament. — Expulsion  of  the  Portuguese  from  that  place. — It  is 
restored  to  them  by  treaty. — Final  adjustment  of  the  boundaries  with  the  Span- 
iards.— History  of  the  Paulists. —  Their  lawless  and  profligate  life. —  They  enslave 
the  Indians. — Ravages  committed  by  them. — Attempts  of  the  Portuguese  to  pene- 
trate into  the  interior. 


Orellana  sailing  in  search  of  the  nation  with  temples  of  gold. 

As  soon  as  the  Portuguese  were  entirely •  freed  from  the  Dutch, 
they  employed  themselves  in  placing  Brazil  in  better  condition  than 
it  had  hitherto  been,  even  before  the  war.  The  first  step  taken 
for  this  purpose,  was  to  regulate  the  condition  of  such  of  the 
natives  as  had  already  submitted,  or  might  hereafter  be  reduced 
to  subjection.  Upon  an  attentive  examination,  it  was  found  that 
the  accounts,  which  represented  these  savages  impatient  of  any 
control,  were  without  foundation.  The  first  impression  made 
upon  them  by  the  sight  of  the  Europeans,  was  a  sense  of  danger 
mingled  with  diffidence.  The  conduct  of  the  Portuguese  con- 


THE   JESUITS   AMONG   THE   INDIANS.  153 

firmed  their  suspicions,  and  rendered  them  ferocious.  The  diffi- 
culty of  understanding  one  another  gave  still  more  frequent 
occasion  for  animosity  on  both  sides.  If,  on  more  mature  acquaint- 
ance, the  Indians  sometimes  renewed  their  hostilities,  it  was 
commonly  because  they  were  roused  to  vengeance  by  the  rapa- 
ciousness,  cruelty  and  perfidy  of  that  ambitious  power  which  had 
come  to  disturb  the  peace  of  this  part  of  America.  On  other 
occasions  they  might  perhaps  be  charged  with  imprudence,  in  too 
hastily  taking  up  arms  from  false  apprehensions  of  danger; 
but  never  with  injus^ce  or  duplicity.  They  were  always  found 
true  to  their  promises,  to  the  faith  of  treaties,  and  to  the  sacred 
rights  of  hospitality.  The  just  idea  which  was  at  length  enter- 
tained of  their  character,  induced  the  Portuguese  to  collect  them 
into  villages  along  the  coast,  or  some  little  way  up  the  country. 
By  this  means  a  communication  was  secured  between  the  remote 
settlements  of  the  Portuguese ;  and  the  savages,  who  infested  the 
intermediate  parts  by  their  depredations,  were  kept  at  a  distance. 

Some  missionaries,  mostly  Jesuits,  were  entrusted  with  the  tem- 
poral and  spiritual  government  of  these  new  communities.  These 
ecclesiastics,  according  to  the  best  information,  were  absolute 
tyrants ;  such  as  retained  any  sentiments  of  moderation  or  human- 
ity, whether  from  indolence  or  superstition,  kept  those  little  societies 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  infancy.  They  neither  improved  their 
understanding  nor  their  industry,  beyond  a  certain  degree ;  and 
possibly,  had  they  been  ever  so  willing,  they  might  have  found  it 
difficult  to  have  been  more  serviceable  to  them ;  for  the  court  of 
Lisbon,  while  it  exempted  the  Indians  from  all  taxes,  subjected 
them  to  the  labors  of  vassalage.  This  fatal  law  made  them  depend- 
ent upon  the  neighboring  commandants  and  magistrates,  who, 
under  the  usual  pretence  adopted  by  men  in  office,  of  making  them 
work  for  the  public,  too  often  imposed  labors  upon  them  for  their 
own  selfish  purposes.  Those  who  were  not  employed  for  them  as 
their  spiritual  directors,  were  generally  idle.  If  they  shook  off 
their  natural  indolence,  it  was  to  go  hunting  or  fishing,  or  to  culti- 
vate as  much  cassava  as  was  necessary  for  their  own  subsistence. 
Their  manufactures  were  confined  to  some  cotton  girdles  or  sashes, 
to  cover  their  loins,  and  the  arrangement  of  a  few  feathers  to 
adorn  their  heads.  Those  among  them  who  were  most  industrious, 
procured  the  means  of  purchasing  a  few  articles  of  cutlery,  and 
other  things  of  small  value. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  Brazilian  natives,  who  had  submitted 
to  the  crown  of  Portugal,  and  whose  number  never  exceeded  two 
hundred  thousand.  The  independent  natives  had  little  intercourse 
with  the  Portuguese,  except  by  the  captives  which  they  sold  them 


154  BRAZIL. 

or  those  of  their  number  that  were  made  such,  for  the  purpose  of 
servitude.  A  sense  of  mutual  interest  made  acts  of  hostility  less 
frequent  between  the  two  nations,  and  a  total  cessation  of  them 
at  last  took  place.  The  Portuguese  have  not  been  in  danger  from 
the  natives,  since  1717,  and  have  not  molested  them  since  1756. 

While  the  court  of  Lisbon  was  engaged  in  regulating  the  inte- 
rior concerns  of  the  colony;  some  of  the  subjects  of  Portugal  were 
devising  the  means  of  extending  it.  They  advanced  to  the  south 
towards  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  to  the  north  as  far  as  the  Amazon. 
The  Spaniards  seemed  to  be  in  possession  t>f  both  these  rivers ; 
and  the  Portuguese  were  determined  to  expel  them,  or  to  share 
the  navigation  with  them. 

The  Maragnon  or  Amazon,  no  less  famous  for  its  length  of 
course  than  for  that  vast  body  of  water  with  which  it  swells  the 
ocean,  derives  its  common  name,  the  river  of  Amazons,  from  the 
fabulous  relation  of  Orellana,  a  Spaniard,  who  sailed  down  it ;  and 
who,  among  other  marvellous  particulars,  described  a  republic  of 
female  warriors  inhabiting  its  banks.  This  absurd  fiction  the 
fond  credulity  of  the  age  believed ;  and  what  more  particularly 
excited  the  Spaniards,  was  another  circumstance  in  Orellana's 
story.  He  described  a  nation  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  whose 
temples  were  covered  with  gold.  In  quest  of  this  rich  country 
Orellana  himself  embarked  in  1644,  with  four  hundred  men,  and 
the  title  of  governor  over  all  the  regions  he  should  conquer  ;  but  a 
tram  of  disasters  ruined  his  ships ;  his  men  perished  by  diseases, 
or  were  cut  off  by  the  natives ;  and  he  himself  fell  a  victim  to  his 
own  vainglorious  ambition,  in  attempting  to  realize  some  part  of 
the  tale  he  had  invented. 

The  civil  war  of  Peru  prevented  any  second  attempt  to  take 
possession  of  the  country  bordering  on  the  Amazon,  till  the  year 
1560,  when,  tranquillity  being  restored,  Pedro  de  Orsua,  a  Spaniard 
distinguished  for  his  talent  and  bravery,  offered  to  renew  the 
undertaking.  He  accordingly  set  out  from  Cuzco,  with  seven 
hundred  men ;  but  these  adventurers  proved  to  be  unprincipled 
and  lawless  desperadoes.  They  massacred  their  commander,  and 
selected  for  their  leader,  Lope  de  Aguirre,  a  native  of  Biscay. 
With  their  consent  he  assumed  the  title  of  king;  and  while  he  was 
a  man  of  ferocious  and  bloody  disposition,  destitute  of  common 
humanity,  he  promised  them  all  the  treasures  of  the  New  World. 
Inflamed  with  such  flattering  hopes,  these  desperate  men  sailed 
down  the  Amazon  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  landing  at  Trini- 
dad, murdered  the  governor  and  plundered  the  island.  The 
coasts  of  Cumana,  Caracas  and  St.  Martha,  were  still  more 
severely  treated,  because  they  were  richer.  The  plunderers  next 


EXPEDITION   FROM    BRAZIL    TO    QUITO.  155 

penetrated  into  New  Granada,  and  were  advancing  towards  Quito 
and  the  interior  part  of  Peru,  when  they  were  unexpectedly 
attacked  and  dispersed  by  a  body  of  troops  hastily  assembled. 
Aguirre,  their  chief,  seeing  no  way  to  escape,  marked  his  despair 
by  an  atrocious  action.  "  My  child,"  said  he  to  his  only  daughter, 
who  attended  him  in  this  expedition,  "I  thought  to  have  placed 
thee  upon  a  throne,  but  the  event  has  not  answered  my  expecta- 
tions. My  honor  and  thine  own  will  not  permit  thee  to  live  and 
be  a  slave  to  our  enemies.  Die  then  by  a  father's  hand  ! "  Hav- 
ing uttered  these  words,  he  plunged  a  dagger  into  her  heart.  His 
strength  soon  failed  him;  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  suffered  the 
punishment  due  to  his  crimes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country 
believe,  to  this  day,  that  the  soul  of  "the  tyrant."  wanders  in  the 
savannas,  like  a  flame  that  flies  at  the  approach  of  man. 

After  these  unfortunate  expeditions,  the  river  Amazon  was 
entirely  neglected,  and  seemed  to  be  totally  forgotten  for  half  a 
century.  Some  attempts  were  again  made  to  resume  the  discovery 
of  the  countries  stretching  along  its  banks,  but  with  no  better 
success  than  formerly.  The  honor  of  surmounting  every  difficulty, 
and  acquiring  a  useful  knowledge  of  that  great  river,  was  reserved 
for  the  Portuguese.  They  had  built  a  town  called  Para,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  At  this  place  Pedro  de  Texeira  embarked  in 
1638,  and  with  a  great  number  of  canoes,  full  of  Indians  and  Por- 
tuguese, sailed  up  the  river,  as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the  Napo, 
and  then  up  the  Napo,  which  brought  them  almost  to  Quito, 
whither  he  proceeded  by  land.  Notwithstanding  the  enmity  sub- 
sisting between  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  though  at  that 
time  subject  to  the  same  prince,  Texeira  was  received  at  Quito 
with  the  regard  and  confidence  due  to  a  man  who  had  performed 
a  signal  service.  He  returned  in  company  with  Da  Cunha  and 
de  Astieda,  two  learned  Jesuits,  who  were  appointed  to  verify  his 
observations  and  to  make  others.  An  accurate  account  of  these 
two  successful  voyages  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Madrid,  where  it 
gave  rise  to  a  very  extraordinary  project. 

The  communication  between  the  Spanish  colonies  had  long 
been  found  very  difficult.  The  Buccaneers  at  that  time  infested 
both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  and  interrupted  their  navi- 
gation. Even  those  ships  which  had  reached  Havana  and 
joined  the  fleet,  were  not  perfectly  safe.  The  galeons  were  fre- 
quently attacked,  and  taken  in  whole  squadrons  by  the  Dutch ; 
and  they  were  always  pursued  by  privateers,  who  seldom  failed 
to  carry  off  the  straggling  vessels.  The  river  Amazon,  it  was 
hoped,  would  remedy  all  these  inconveniences.  It  was  thought 
to  be  even  an  easy  matter,  to  convey  thither  the  treasures  of  New 


156  BRAZIL. 

Granada,  Popayan,  Quito,  Peru,  and  of  Chili  itself,  by  navigable 
rivers,  and  that,  descending  the  river,  they  would  find  the  galeons 
ready  in  the  harbor  of  Para  to  receive  them.  The  fleet  from 
Brazil  would  then  have  joined  and  strengthened  the  fleet  from 
Spain.  They  would  have  sailed  with  great  security  in  latitudes 
little  frequented  by  cruisers.  But  the  revolution  which  placed 
the  duke  of  Braganza  on  the  throne  of  Portugal,  put  an  end  to 
these  important  projects.  Each  of  the  two  nations  was  then 
intent  only  upon  securing  to  itself  that  part  of  the  great  river 
which  best  suited  its  own  situation. 

The  Spanish  Jesuits  undertook  to  establish  a  mission  in  the  coun- 
try lying  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Napo,  and  near  the  con- 
flux of  these  two  rivers.  Every  missionary,  attended  only  by  one 
man,  took  with  him  hatchets,  knives  and  needles,  and  all  kinds 
of  iron  tools,  and  penetrated  into  the  thickest  of  the  forest.  There 
they  spent  whole  days  in  climbing  up  the  trees,  to  see  if  they 
could  descry  any  hut,  perceive  a  smoke,  or  hear  the  sound  of  a 
drum  or  fife.  When  they  were  assured  by  some  of  these  tokens 
that  any  savages  were  in  the  neighborhood,  they  advanced 
towards  them.  Most  of  them  fled;  but  those  whom  the  mission- 
ary could  reach,  were  easily  allured  by  such  presents  as  were 
offered  them.  This  was  all  the  eloquence  the  missionary  could 
employ,  and  all  that  he  had  occasion  to  exert.  When  he  had 
assembled  a  few  families,  he  led  them  to  the  spot  where  he  had 
determined  to  build  a  village ;  but  they  were  not  easily  persuaded 
to  take  up  their  abode  there.  As  they  were  accustomed  to  rove 
about,  they  found  it  an  insupportable  hardship  to  remain  forever 
in  the  same  place.  The  state  of  savage  independence  in  which 
they  had  always  lived,  they  thought  preferable  to  the  social  life 
that  was  recommended  to  them ;  and  their  unconquerable  aversion 
to  labor  induced  them  to  return  constantly  to  the  forests,  where 
they  passed  their  lives  in  idleness.  Even  those  who  were  re- 
strained by  the  authority  or  paternal  kindness  of  their  pious 
legislators,  seldom  failed  to  disperse  in  their  absence,  though  ever 
so  short,  and  their  death  always  occasioned  a  total  subversion  of 
the  settlement. 

But  the  perseverance  of  the  Jesuits  at  last  conquered  these  ob- 
stacles, apparently  invincible.  Their  mission,  which  began  in 
1637,  gradually  acquired  some  degree  of  firmness,  and,  before  the 
dissolution  of  the  order,  consisted  of  thirty-six  villages,  twelve  of 
which  were  situated  along  the  Napo,  and  twenty-four  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amazon.  The  number  of  inhabitants,  however,  in 
these  villages  was  very  inconsiderable,  and  the  increase  must 
always  have  been  slow.  The  women  of  this  part  of  America 


THE    INDIANS — ST.  SACRAMENT.  157 

are  not  fruitful ;  the  climate  is  unhealthy,  and  contagious  distem- 
pers are  frequent.  These  obstructions  to  population  were  aug- 
mented by  the  natural  stupidity  of  the  people.  Of  all  the  Indians 
whom  the  Jesuits  had  collected,  they  found  none  so  intractable 
and  incapable  of  being  roused  to  exertion,  as  those  inhabiting  the 
banks  of  this  river.  Every  missionary  was  obliged  to  put  him- 
self at  their  head,  in  order  to  make  them  pick  up  the  cocoa,  the 
vanilla  and  the  sarsaparilla,  which  nature  spontaneously  oflers 
them.  Their  whole  property,  usually,  consisted  of  a  hut  open  on 
all  sides,  and  covered  with  palm  leaves ;  some  fishing  tackle ;  a 
tent,  a  hammock,  and  a  canoe.  It  was  impossible  to  inspire  them 
with  a  desire  beyond  these  articles.  They  were  so  well  satisfied 
with  what  they  possessed,  that  they  wished  for  nothing  more. 
They  lived  unconcerned,  and  died  without  fear  :  and  if  happiness 
consists  more  in  an  exemption  from  the  uneasy  sensation  that 
attends  want,  than  in  the  multiplicity  of  enjoyments  that  our  wants 
create,  these  Indians  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  happiest  people 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  Portuguese  paid  more  attention  to  their  settlement  towards 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  They  had  established  themselves,  in  1679,  at 
St.  Sacrament,  opposite  Buenos  Ayres,  when  they  were  acci- 
dentally discovered  by  the  Spaniards.  The  Guaranis,  under  the 
command  of  their  spiritual  leaders,  hastened  thither  to  make 
amends  for  the  neglect  of  government.  They  attacked  the  newly- 
erected  fortifications  of  the  Portuguese  with  great  intrepidity,  and 
demolished  them.  The  court  of  Lisbon,  which  had  built  great 
hopes  upon  that  settlement,  was  not  discouraged  by  this  misfor- 
tune, and  requested  that,  till  such  time  as  their  claim  could  be 
adjusted,  the  Portuguese  might  be  allowed  a  place  where  they 
could  be  sheltered  from  the  storms,  if  forced  by  stress  of  weather 
to  enter  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Charles  II.,  of  Spain,  who  dreaded 
war  and  hated  business,  was  weak  enough  to  comply  with  their 
request,  only  stipulating  that  the  place  so  granted  should  be  con- 
sidered his  property ;  that  no  more  than  fourteen  Portuguese  fam- 
ilies should  be  sent  thither ;  that  the  houses  should  be  built  of 
wood  and  thatched ;  that  no  fort  should  be  erected ;  and  that  the 
governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  should  have  a  right  to  inspect  both  the 
settlement  and  the  ships  which  should  come  into  its  harbor. 

If  the  Jesuits  who  conducted  the  war  had  also  been  trusted 
with  the  negotiation,  such  a  permission  would  never  have  been 
granted.  It  was  impossible  that  a  fixed  settlement  in  such  a  situ- 
ation, however  inconsiderable,  should  not  become  a  frequent 
source  of  altercation  with  enterprising  neighbors,  whose  claims 
were  very  strong;  who  were  sure  of  the  protection  of  all 'the  ene- 
14 


158  BRAZIL. 

mies  of  Spain,  and  whose  vicinity  to  the  settlements  of  their 
countrymen  would  enable  them  to  take  advantage  of  every  oppor- 
tunity to  aggrandize  and  fortify  themselves.  The  event  soon 
discovered  the  danger  that  might  have  heen  foreseen.  Immedi- 
ately on  the  elevation  of  a  French  prince  to  the  throne  of  Spain, 
while  all  was  still  in  confusion  and  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the 
consequences  of  that  great  revolution,  the  Portuguese  restored  the 
fortifications  of  St.  Sacrament  with  amazing  celerity.  The  pre- 
caution which  they  took,  at  the  same  time,  of  threatening  the 
tribe  of  Guaranis,  by  ordering  some  troops  to  advance  towards  their 
frontiers,  induced  them  to  hope  that  they  should  prevent  any  dis- 
turbances from  that  quarter.  But  they  were  mistaken.  The 
Jesuits,  having  detected  the  artifice,  brought  their  converts  to  St. 
•Sacrament,  which  was  already  besieged.  Those  brave  Indians, 
on  their  arrival,  offered  to  mount  the  breach,  though  they  knew  it 
was  bat  just  opened.  When  they  began  their  approach,  some 
batteries  were  fired  upon  them  from  the  town,  but  they  stood  the 
cannonade  without  breaking  their  ranks,  nor  could  they  be  re- 
strained by  the  fire  of  the  small-arms,  which  killed  many  of  them. 
The  intrepidity  with  which  they  continued  to  advance,  raised 
such  astonishment  among  the  Portuguese  that  they  fled  to  their 
ships  and  abandoned  the  place. 

The  misfortunes  which  Philip  Y.  experienced  in  Europe,  pre- 
vented this  success  from  being  of  any  advantage.  The  settle- 
ment of  St.  Sacrament  was  firmly  re-established  by  the  peace  of 
Utrecht.  Queen  Anne,  who  made  that  peace,  and  who  neither 
neglected  her  own  interests  nor  those  of  her  allies,  required  Spain 
to  give  up  this  contested  spot.  Being  now  under  no  apprehen- 
sion, the  Portuguese  of  St.  Sacrament  began  to  carry  on  an  im- 
mense trade  with  Buenos  Ayres.  This  contraband  traffic  had 
long  subsisted,  though  in  an  inferior  degree.  Rio  Janeiro  fur- 
nished Buenos  Ayres  with  sugar,  tobacco,  wine,  brandy,  negroes, 
and  woollen  goods ;  and  received  flour,  biscuit,  dried  or  salt  meat, 
and  money.  As  soon  as  the  two  colonies  had  a  safe  and  commo- 
dious mart  of  trade,  their  connexions  were  unlimited.  The  court 
of  Madrid,  which  soon  perceived  the  road  the  treasures  of  Peru 
were  taking,  showed  great  marks  of  discontent;  and  this  in- 
creased as  the  injury  complained  of  grew  to  a  greater  height. 

A  perpetual  source  of  division  was  thus  opened  between  the 
two  nations  ;  and  as  the  conciliatory  methods  proposed  from  time 
to  time  were  found  impracticable,  an  open  rupture  was  expected  to 
be  the  consequence.  At  last,  however,  matters  were  adjusted.  It 
•was  agreed  at  Madrid,  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  January,  1750, 
that  Portugal  should  give  up  to  Spain  the  colony  of  St.  Sacra- 


THE   PAULISTS.  159 

ment,  and  the  north  banks  of  Rio  de  la  Plata ;  together  with  the 
village  of  St.  Christopher,  and  the  adjacent  lands  situated  between 
the  rivers  Ypara  and  Issa,  which  fall  into  the  river  Amazon. 
Spain,  on  her  side,  gave  up  all  the  lands  and  habitations  border- 
ing on  the  east  side  of  the  river  Uruguay,  from  the  river  Ibicui,  to 
the  north ;  the  village  of  Santa  Rosa,  and  all  others  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Guarapey. 

In  the  district  of  St.  Vincent,  the  southernmost  in  Brazil,  and 
nearest  to  Rio  de  la  Plata,  thirteen  leagues  from  the  sea,  is  a  town 
called  St.  Paul.  It  was  founded  by  those  convicts  who  were  first 
sent  from  Portugal  to  America.  As  soon  as  they  perceived  that 
they  were  to  be  subjected  to  the  restraints  of  law,  they  withdrew 
from  the  place  they  had  first  inhabited,  intermarried  with  the 
natives,  and  in  a  short  time  became  so  profligate  that  their  fellow- 
citizens  broke  off  all  intercourse  with  them.  The  situation  of 
their  town,  which  could  be  defended  by  a  handful  of  men,  against 
the  most  powerful  armies  that  could  be  sent  against  them,  inspired 
them  with  the  resolution  of  being  subject  to  no  foreign  power; 
and  their  ambition  was  successful.  Profligate  men,  of  all  nations, 
resorted  in  great  numbers  to  this  establishment.  All  travellers 
were  shut  out  from  the  new  republic,  under  the  severest  prohibi- 
tions. In  order  to  gain  admittance,  it  was  previously  necessary  to 
promise  to  settle  there,  and  candidates  were  subjected  to  a  severe 
trial.  Those  who  could  not  go  through  that  kind  of  noviciate,  or 
who  were  suspected  of  perfidy,  were  barbarously  murdered,  as 
were  all  who  had  any  inclination  to  quit  the  community. 

A  pure  air,  a  serene  sky,  a  temperate  climate, — though  in  the 
twenty-fourth  degree  of  south  latitude, — and  a  territory  abounding 
with  corn,  sugar,  and  excellent  pasture,  conspired  to  induce  the 
Paulists  to  lead  a  life  of  indolence  and  effeminacy ;  but  that  rest- 
lessness so  natural  to  fierce  spirits, — that  habit  of  roving,  acquired 
by  a  lawless  banditti, — that  desire  of  dominion,  which  is  nearly 
connected  with  a  love  of  independence, — the  progress  of  freedom, 
which  leads  men  to  wish  for  glory  of  some  kind  or  other,  and  to  be 
emulous  of  distinguishing  themselves, — all  these  causes,  combined 
or  separate,  prompted  the  Paulists  to  forego  an  easy  life,  and  to 
engage  in  toilsome  and  hazardous  excursions. 

The  first  object  of  these  excursions  was  to  procure  slaves. 
When  they  had  depopulated  the  adjacent  country,  they  proceeded 
to  the  province  of  Guayra,  where  the  Spanish  Jesuits  had  collec- 
ted and  civilized  the  Guaranis.  ^hese  new  Christians  were  ex- 
posed to  such  violences,  and  so  many  of  them  were  carried  off, 
that  they  suffered  themselves  to  be  persuaded  to  remove  to  the 
unwholesome  banks  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay,  which  they 


160  BRAZIL. 

still  inhabit.  They  reaped  little  advantage,  however,  from  this 
compliance;  for  it  was  found  that  they  could  enjoy  no  safety, 
unless  they  were  allowed  to  defend  themselves  with  the  same 
weapons  as  those  with  which  they  were  attacked.  To  request  that 
they  should  be  furnished  with  such  arms,  was  a  matter  of  too 
delicate  a  nature  to  be  proposed  abruptly ;  it  was  necessary,  in 
the  first  place,  to  show  the  propriety  of  such  a  measure.  Spain 
had  laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental  maxim,  never  to  introduce  the 
use  of  fire-arms  among  the  Indians,  lest  these  unfortunate  victims 
of  her  insatiable  avarice  should  one  day  make  use  of  them  to 
free  themselves  from  a  yoke  which  they  found  so  galling.  The 
lawgivers  of  the  Guaranis  applauded  this  jealous  precaution  in 
regard  to  slaves,  who  were  kept  under  by  compulsion ;  but  they 
thought  it  unnecessary  in  respect  to  men  who  had  voluntarily 
submitted  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and  who  were  too  sensible  of  the 
benefits  they  now  possessed,  ever  to  think  of  revolting,  so  long  as 
they  were  permitted  to  enjoy  their  freedom.  In  a  word,  they  plead- 
ed the  cause  of  their  converts  so  well,  that,  in  spite  of  opposition 
and  prejudice,  they  obtained  their  request.  The  Guaranis  were 
indulged  with  fire-arms  in  1639,  and  soon  made  such  good  use  of 
them,  that  they  became  the  bulwark  of  Paraguay,  and  were  able 
to  repel  the  Paulists. 

These  desperate  men  now  resolved  to  procure  by  craft,  what 
they  could  no  longer  obtain  by  force.  Dressed  in  the  habit  of 
Jesuits,  they  repaired  to  the  places  where  the  missionaries  were 
accustomed  to  resort  in  quest  of  converts,  and  there  they  set  up 
crosses.  They  made  some  trifling  presents  to  the  Indians  they  met 
with,  and  some  of  the  most  intelligent  among  them  made  a  short 
discourse  in  the  Indian  language,  with  which  they  were  generally 
acquainted,  on  the  nature  of  Christianity,  accompanied  with  the 
warmest  exhortations  to  induce  their  auditors  to  embrace  it. 
When,  by  these  artifices,  they  had  assembled  a  number  of  prose- 
lytes, they  proposed  to  conduct  them  to  a  certain  place,  where 
everything  was  in  readiness  to  make  them  happy.  The  greater 
part  followed  them  implicitly;  and  when  they  arrived  at  a  par- 
ticular station,  the  troops  that  lay  concealed,  rushed  out  upon  the 
credulous  Indians,  loaded  them  with  fetters,  and  carried  them  off. 
Some,  who  made  their  escape,  gave  the  alarm,  which  produced  a 
general  suspicion,  extremely  prejudicial  to  the  pious  purposes  of 
the  Jesuits,  but  which  also  occasioned  a  termination  of  these 
deceitful  practices. 

The  Paulists  afterwards  carried  on  their  depredations  in  another 
quarter,  and  extended  them  as  far  as  the  river  Amazon.  They  are 
said  to  have  destroyed  no  less  than  a  million  of  Indians.  Those 


THE    PAUL1STS. 


161 


who  escaped  their  fury,  in  an  extent  of  three  or  four  hundred 
leagues,  became  more  savage  than  in  their  original  state.  They 
fled  for  safety  to  the  caves  of  the  mountains,  or  dispersed  them- 
selves among  the  darkest  recesses  of  the  forests.  Their  persecu- 
tors did  not  share  a  better  fate ;  having  all  gradually  perished  in 
these  dangerous  excursions.  Unhappily,  however,  for  Brazil, 
their  place  was  supplied  by  vagabond  Brazilians,  fugitive  ne- 
groes, and  Europeans,  who  were  captivated  with  a  roving  life. 
The  same  spirit  continued  to  prevail  at  St.  Paul's  even  after  some 
particular  circumstances  had  induced  that  disorderly  society  to 
acknowledge  the  dominion  of  Portugal.  But  their  excursions 
were  afterwards  carried  on  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  rather 
promoted  than  obstructed  the  views  of  the  mother  country.  By 
following  the  course  of  several  rivers,  they  attempted  to  open  a 
way  into  Peru  by  the  north  of  Paraguay.  The  vicinity  of  lake 
Xarayes  put  them  in  possession  of  the  gold  mines  of  Guiaba  and 
Montegrosso,  which  they  worked  without  meeting  any  opposition 
from  Spain.  They  would  have  carried  their  usurpations  further, 
had  they  not  been  prevented  by  the  Chiquitos,  a  formidable  tribe 
of  Indians. 


14* 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

Flourishing  condition  of  Brazil. — Productions  of  the  country. — Discovery  of  goJa 
mines. — Method  of  working  them. — Discovery  of  diamonds. — The  diamond  com- 
pany.— Submission  of  the  Paulists. —  General  policy  of  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment.— Removal  of  the  court  to  Brazil. — Its  effects  upon  the  country. — Brazil 
made  a  kingdom. — Becomes  independent  of  Portugal. —  The  emperor  Don  Pedro. 
— Present  government  of  the  country. 


Slaves  washing  fur  gold. 

WHILE  these  restless  and  enterprising  men  were  ravaging  the 
banks  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Plata,  and  the  mountains  of  Peru, 
the  seacoasts  of  Brazil  were  daily  improving.  This  colony  sent 
annually  to  the  mother  country  thirty-two  million  pounds  of  sugar, 
which  was  not  only  enough  for  its  own  consumption,  but  sufficient 
to  supply  a  great  part  of  Europe ;  while  it  produced  a  considerable 
quantity  of  tobacco,  which  could  be  disposed  of  to  advantage 
either  in  Africa  or  the  European  markets.  The  other  productions 
were  capivi,  a  balsamic  oil,  which  distils  from  incisions  made  in 
a  tree ;  ipecacuanha,  well  known  as  a  mild  emetic :  cocoa,  which 
grew  wild  in  some  places,  and  was  cultivated  in  others ;  cotton, 
superior  to  that  of  the  Levant  or  the  Carribee  islands;  indigo, 
which  the  Portuguese  have  never  sufficiently  attended  to;. hides, 
the  produce  of  cattle  that  run  wild  as  in  other  parts  of  South 
America ;  and  lastly,  brazil  wood. 


BRAZIL  WOOD GOLD  MINES.  163 

The  tree  producing  this  wood,  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
country,  is  as  tall  as  the  oak.  But  he  who  judges  of  the  quantity 
of  the  timber  by  the  size  of  the  trees  will  be  much  deceived,  as  the 
bark  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  plant.  The  trunk  is  commonly 
crooked  and  knotty.  The  leaves  are  small,  roundish  and  of  a 
brfght  green ;  the  blossoms,  which  resemble  lilies  of  the  valley,  are 
of  a  lively  red,  and  exhale  a  fragrant  smell.  The  wood  takes  a 
fine  polish,  but  its  chief  use  is  for  the  red  dye.  The  tree  gener- 
ally grows  in  dry,  barren  and  rocky  grounds.  It  is  found  in  most 
parts  of  Brazil,  but  chiefly  in  Pernambuco.  The  best  grows  ten 
leagues  from  Olinda,  the  capital  of  that  province. 

In  exchange  for  these  commodities,  Portugal  supplied  Brazil 
with  flour,  wine,  brandy,  salt,  woollen  goods,  silks,  linen,  hard- 
ware, and  paper ;  in  a  word,  with  all  the  articles  which  Europe 
exports  to  America,  except  gold  and  silver  stuffs,  which  the  mother 
country  excluded  from  her  colonies.  The  whole  trade  was  carried 
on  by  a  fleet,  which  sailed  every  year  from  Lisbon  and  Oporto  in 
the  month  of  March,  and  consisted  of  about  twenty  ships  for  Rio 
Janeiro,  thirty  for  Bahia,  and  as  many  for  Pernambuco,  and  seven 
or  eight  for  Para.  The  ships  parted  when  they  came  to  a  certain 
latitude,  and  proceeded  to  their  respective  destinations.  They 
afterwards  met  at  Bahia,  to  sail  -for  Portugal,  which  they  reached 
in  September  or  October,  the  year  following. 

Notwithstanding  the  errors  in  government  which  generally  pre- 
vailed, though  not  in  the  same  degree,  in  all  parts  of  Brazil,  it  had 
long  been  in  a  prosperous"  way.  when,  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  discovery  of  the  gold  mines  gave  it  ah 
additional  lustre.  The  circumstances  that  produced  this  discov- 
ery are  variously  related ;  but  the  most  common  opinion  is,  that  a 
caravan  of  Portuguese,  who  went  from  Rio  Janeiro  in  1695,  pen- 
otrated  into  the  continent,  and  meeting  with  the  Paulists,  received 
from  them  gold  dust,  which  they  understood  was  procured  from 
the  mines  of  Parana,  in  exchange  for  European  commodities.  A 
few  years  after,  a  company  of  soldiers  from  Rio  Janeiro,  who  were 
sent  to  quell  a  rebellion  of  some  Indians  in  the  inland  parts,  found, 
on  their  march,  some  gold  fish-hooks,  and  were  informed  that 
many  torrents  rushing  from  the  mountains  brought  gold  into  the 
valleys.  Upon  this  information  strict  search  was  made ;  and  though 
few  veins  of  gold  were  found  so  rich  as  to  answer  the  purpose  of 
working  for  any  time,  the  gold  picked  up  in  such  valleys  as  had 
been  overflowed,  and  in  the  sands  of  rivers,  after  the  waters  had 
subsided,  almost  exceeded  belief.  This  labor  was  chiefly  per- 
formed by  negroes.  If  the  slave  procured  the  quantity  of  gold 
required  of  him,  his  master  could  claim  nothing  more.  The  over- 


164  BRAZIL. 

• 

plus  was  his  own  property.  It  was  some  consolation  to  him  to  be 
able  to  alleviate  the  burden  of  slavery,  and  have  a  prospect  of 
purchasing  his  freedom,  by  the  very  toils  that  are  attached  to  that 
state.  If  we  were  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  gold  that  Brazil 
annually  furnished,  by  the  fifth  which  the  king  of  Portugal 
received,  it  might  be  computed  at  ten  millions  of  dollars ;  but  we 
may  venture  to  assert,  without  exaggeration,  that  the  desire  of  elud- 
ing the  duty,  deprived  the  government  of  one  third  of  the  produce. 

There  are  very  few  diamond  mines.  Till  the  last  century  none 
were  known  except  in  the  East  Indies ;  and  some  apprehensions 
were  entertained  that  the  continual  wars  in  that  country  would 
put  a  stop  to  this  source  of  riches ;  but  these  were  removed  by  a 
discovery  at  Serro  do  Frio,  in  Brazil.  Some  slaves,  who  were  con- 
demned to  look  for  gold,  used  to  find  little  bright  stones,  which 
they  threw  away  among  the  sand  and  gravel.  Some  curious 
miners  preserved  several  of  these  pebbles,  which  were  shown  to 
Pedro  de  Almeyda,  governor-general  of  the  mines.  As  he  had 
been  in  the  East  Indies,  he  suspected  that  they  were  diamonds. 
In  order  to  ascertain  this,  the  court  of  Lisbon,  in  1730,  despatched 
Da  Cunha,  the  minister  to  Holland,  to  make  the  necessary  inqui- 
ries. He  put  some  of  them  into  the  hands  of  able  artificers,  who, 
having  cut  them,  declared  that  they  were  very  fine  diamonds. 
The  Portuguese  immediately  searched  for  them,  with  such  success, 
that  the  Rio  Janeiro  fleet,  in  1732,  brought  home  eleven  hundred 
and  forty-six  ounces.  This  caused  them  to  fall  considerably  in 
price ;  but  the  ministry  took  such  measures  as  made  them  soon 
rise  to  their  original  value,  which  they  have  maintained  ever 
since.  They  conferred  on  a  company  the  exclusive  right  of  search- 
ing for,  and  selling  diamonds:  and  even  to  restrain  the  avidity  of 
the  company  itself,  it  was  required  to  employ  no  more  than  six 
hundred  slaves  in  that  business.  The  company,  however,  were 
afterwards  permitted  to  employ  as  many  as  they  pleased,  on  con- 
dition of  paying  a  certain  sum,  amounting  to  about  three  hundred 
dollars,  for  every  slave.  But  in  both  contracts  the  court  reserved 
to  itself  all  diamonds  that  were  found  above  a  certain  size. 

The  gold  and  diamond  mines,  added  to  a  rich  culture,  ought  to 
have  made  Brazil  the  most  flourishing  colony  in  the  New  World. 
In  order  to  effect  this,  however,  it  was  necessary  that  the  country 
should  be  preserved  from  intestine  commotions  and  foreign  inva- 
sions. Both  these  objects  were  therefore  taken  into  consideration. 
All  the  mines  are  situated  in  the  districts  of  St.  Vincent  and  Rio 
Janeiro,  or  in  the  adjacent  lands.  Some  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
Paulists,  and  the  rest  lay  exposed  to  their  inroads.  As  those 
banditti  were  too  numerous  and  too  brave  to  be  brought  under 


REMOVAL  OF  THE  COURT  OF  PORTUGAL  TO  BRAZIL.      165 

subjection  by  force,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  treat  with  them. 
As  they  could  make  no  use  of  their  newly-acquired  wealth,  with- 
out a  free  communication  with  those  parts  where  the  conveniences 
and  luxuries  of  life  were  to  be  purchased,  they  were  more  tracta- 
ble than  was  expected.  They  consented  to  pay,  like  the  rest  of 
the  Portuguese,  a  fifth  of  their  gold  to  the  crown;  but  they 
determined  the  amount  of  this  tribute  themselves,  and  never  made 
it  what  it  should  have  been.  The  government  prudently  winked 
at  the  fraud.  It  was  foreseen  that  these  connexions  and  the  new 
way  of  life  of  the  Paulists  would  gradually  soften  their  manners, 
and  that  sooner  or  later  they  would  be  brought  to  submission. 
This  revolution  accordingly  happened  in  1730,  when  the  whole 
republic  of  the  Paulists  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  court  of 
Lisbon,  and  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  the  other  Por- 
tuguese in  Brazil. 

During  the  remaining  part  of  the  last  century  the  country 
offered  little  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  historian.  The  policy 
of  the  government  was  narrow  and  illiberal.  Industry  was  neg- 
lected, and  commerce  fettered  by  restrictions  and  monopolies.  The 
attention  of  the  government  was  engrossed  by  the  search  for  gold 
and  diamonds.  Foreigners  were  excluded  from  the  country  or 
jealously  watched,  and  trade  was  confined  to  the  fortified  ports. 
This  state  of  things  continued  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  when  a  great  change  was  effected  in  the  political  and 
social  condition  of  the  country  by  the  emigration  of  the  court  of 
Portugal  to  Brazil. 

The  design  of  removing  the  court  of  Portugal  to  Brazil,  as 
affording  an  asylum  to  a  weak  government  against  the  oppressions 
of  its  more  powerful  neighbors,  had  been  long  entertained  in  the 
mother  country.  In  1761,  the  Marquis  de  Pornbal  had  determined 
on  the  measure,  and  preparations  were  made  to  transport  the  royal 
family  across  the  Atlantic;  but  as  the  danger  of  invasion  subsided, 
the  project  was  abandoned.  But  in  1808,  when  the  French  inva- 
ded Portugal  and  overran  the  kingdom,  the  court  abandoned  the 
country  and  took  up  their  residence  at  Rio  Janeiro.  This  event 
resulted  in  great  advantages  to  the  Brazilians.  In  January,  1808, 
the  king  issued  a  royal  charter,  abolishing  the  old  exclusive  system 
of  trade,  and  granting  to  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  the  commerce 
of  all  foreign  nations,  and  opening  all  the  ports  of  the  country. 
Shortly  after,  another  decree  permitted  the  free  exercise  of  industry 
to  all  classes  of  people.  The  press,  which  for  three  centuries  had 
been  prohibited,  was  now  established  in  the  country,  and,  in  1808, 
the  first  book  was  printed  in  Brazil.  Nothing  can  mark  more 
emphatically  the  deplorable  state  of  darkness  and  ignorance  in 


166  BRAZIL. 

which  this  fine  country  had  been  kept  by  the  government,  than 
this  simple  fact. 

Brazil  was  made  a  separate  state  in  1815.  A  royal  decree,  of 
the  16th  December,  elevated  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  kingdom,  thence- 
forth, to  be  called  the  kingdom  of  Brazil,  which  with  the  European 
territories  should  constitute  the  United  Kingdoms  of  Portugal. 
Algarves  and  Brazil.  In  1817,  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Per- 
nambuco,  but  although  it  was  speedily  quelled,  the  country 
continued  to  be  agitated  by  disturbances  which  were  augmented 
by  the  political  fluctuations  in  the  mother  country.  It  was  plain- 
ly to  be  perceived  that  a  strong  disposition  existed  in  the  people 
of  Brazil  to  detach  themselves  entirely  from  Portugal.  This 
inclination  manifested  itself  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  at  length 
became  so  decidedly  pronounced,  that  a  general  legislative  and 
constituent  assembly  of  deputies  from  every  part  of  the  country, 
was  called  to  take  the  subject  into  consideration.  On  the  12th 
October,  1822,  Don  Pedro,  son  of  the  king,  was  proclaimed  con- 
stitutional emperor  of  Brazil ;  all  connexion  with  Portugal  was  rent 
asunder  and  formally  abjured  by  the  people,  and  Brazil  became 
an  independent  power.  The  king  of  Portugal  acknowledged  her 
independence,  and  was  recognised  as  emperor,  with  the  succession 
of  Don  Pedro.  Ten  millions  of  dollars  were  paid  by  Brazil  for 
this  acknowledgement.  Don  John  remained  in  Portugal,  and  Don 
Pedro  governed  Brazil  as  regent. 

Don  John  died  on  the  10th  March,  1826,  and  Don  Pedro  became 
emperor  of  Brazil.  The  country,  however,  continued  in  an  unset- 
tled state,  and  the  government  prospered  so  little  under  his  sway 
that  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  the  crown  on  the  6th  of  April,  1831. 
His  infant  son,  Pedro  II.,  succeeded,  and  the  government  has  since 
been  administered  by  a  regency  in  his  name.  Since  these  occur- 
rences, Brazil  has  been  involved  in  wars  with  her  neighbors,  and 
has  suffered  from  internal  embarrassments  and  convulsions ;  but 
the  government  of  the  country  has  undergone  no  change,  nor  have 
the  vicissitudes  of  its  history  afforded  any  events  which  can 
interest  the  general  reader.  [1842.] 


THE   WEST   INDIES, 
CHAPTER     XVII. 

Settlement  of  Porto  Pico  by  Ponce  de  Leon. — Insurrection  of  the  natives. — The 
Spaniards  settle  in  Cuba. — Behavior  of  the  cacique  Hatuey. — Extirpation  of  the 
Cubans. — Havana  founded. — Jamaica  settled  by  the  Spaniards — conquered  by 
the  English. — Barbados,  Antigua,  Nevis,  St.  Christopher's,  the  Virgin  Islands , 
Grenada,  Tobago,  St.  Vincent's,  Dominica,  Trinidad ,  acquired  by  the  English — 
Martinique,  GuadaJoupe,  Deseada,  Marie  Galante,  by  the  French — other  islands 
by  the  Dutch,  Swedes  and  Danes. — Introduction  of  slaves  from  Africa  by  Las 
Casas. — The  slave  trade. —  The  Asiento. — Abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British 
West  Indies. 


THE  settlement  of  Hispaniola  by  the  Spaniards  has  already 
been  described.  Their  next  important  acquisition  was  the  island 
of  PORTO  Rico.  Although  this  island  had  been  discovered  by 


168 


THE    WEST    INDIES. 


Columbus  in  1493,  the  Spaniards  made  no  attempt  to  settle  it 
till  1509,  when  the  pursuit  after  gold  carried  them  thither  from 
Hispaniola,  under  the  command  of  Ponce  de  Leon.  They  met 
with  no  resistance  from  the  natives,  who  had  been  fully  informed 
of  the  hard  fate  which  had  overtaken  their  neighbors.  They, 
too,  regarded  the  invaders  as  superior  beings,  to  whose  authority 
they  willingly  submitted.  A  little  intercourse,  however,  with 
their  visitors  having  convinced  them  that  they  were  mortal  men, 
they  rose  in  insurrection  and  massacred  a  hundred  of  the  Span- 
iards. Ponce  de  Leon  made  a  vigorous  attack  upon  the  insurgents 
and  defeated  them  with  great  loss.  During  the  struggle,  his  forces 
were  recruited  by  a  fresh  arrival  from  St.  Domingo,  which  caused 
the  natives  to  believe  that  the  Spaniards  whom  they  had  massa- 
cred were  come  to  life  again.  Struck  with  terror  by  this  impres- 
sion, they  submitted  again  to  the  yoke.  They  subsequently  met 
with  the  fate  of  the  natives  of  Hispaniola.  being  condemned  to 
the  mines,  where  they  all  miserably  perished. 


Moro  at  Havana. 

CUBA  was  the  next  island  occupied  by  the  Spaniards.  Diego 
de  Velasquez,  in  1511,  invaded  the  eastern  part  with  four  ships. 
This  district  was  under  the  government  of  a  cacique  named 
Hatuey,  a  native  of  Hispaniola,  who  had  fled  from  that  island  to 
escape  the  tyranny  of  the  conquerors.  A  number  of  his  country- 
men had  followed  him  in  his  retreat,  where  he  formed  a  little 
state  and  ruled  in  peace.  He  saw  at  a  distance  the  Spanish  sails, 
and  dreaded  their  approach.  He  called  his  people  around  him, 
and  exhorted  every  man  to  throw  all  the  gold  he  possessed  into 
the  sea.  "  Gold,"  said  he,  "  is  the  god  of  the  Spaniards,  and  we 


THE    WEST    INDIES.  169 

must  not  expect  any  happiness  as  long  as  the  Spaniard's  god 
remains  among  us.  They  seek  him  in  every  place.  Were  he 
hidden  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  they  would  discover  him. 
Were  we  to  swallow  him,  they  would  plunge  their  hands  into  our 
bowels  and  drag  him  out.  There  is  no  place  but  the  bottom  of 
the  ocean  that  can  elude  their  search  !"  Animated  by  this  ha- 
rangue, the  Indians  threw  all  their  gold  into  the  sea. 

The  Spaniards  landed  in  Cuba,  attacked  and  dispersed  the 
natives.  Hatuey  was  pursued,  taken,  and  condemned  to  be  burnt 
to  death.  When  he  was  fastened  to  the  stake,  and  waited  only 
for  the  application  of  the  torch,  a  priest  advanced  and  proposed 
to  baptize  him,  with  a  promise  of  the  joys  of  paradise.  "Are 
there  any  Spaniards  in  that  happy  abode?"  asked  the  cacique. 
"  Yes,"  replied  the  ghostly  comforter ;  "  but  none  except  good 
ones."  "  The  best  of  them,"  replied  the  savage,  "are  bad  enough. 
I  will  not  go  where  there  is  any  danger  of  meeting  one.  Leave 
me  alone  to  die!"  The  cacique  was  burned,  arid  Velasquez 
found  no  more  enemies  to  oppose  him ;  yet  this  easy  submission 
did  not  secure  the  tranquillity  of  the  unhappy  Cubans.  Wanton 
massacres,  the  labor  of  the  mines  and  the  small-pox,  soon  swept 
away  the  whole  population,  and  nearly  reduced  the  fertile  island 
of  Cuba  to  a  desert. 

Little  progress  was  made  in  the  settlement  till  1519,  when  the 
pilot  Alaminos  first  sailed  through  the  Bahama  channel,  carrying 
to  Europe  the  news  of  the  success  of  Cortez  in  Mexico.  It  was 
judged  that  this  would  be  the  most  convenient  route  for  the  ships 
sailing  between  Mexico  and  Europe,  and  it  was  desirable  to  pos- 
sess a  seaport  on  the  passage.  This  led  to  the  foundation  of  Ha- 
vana, which,  originating  with  the  Mexican  trade,  received  subse- 
quently a  great  augmentation  from  the  Porto  Bello  and  Carthagena 
traffic.  Cuba  continues  to  be  a  Spanish  colony  to  the  present  day. 

JAMAICA,  now  in  possession  of  the  British,  was  first  settled  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1509.  Diego  Columbus,  the  son  of  the  discov- 
erer, sent  to  that  island  from  St.  Domingo  a  body  of  seventy 
men,  under  Juan  de  Esquimel.  These  were  soon  after  joined  by 
other  adventurers,  the  whole  constituting  a  band  of  blood-thirsty 
wretches.  There  was  no  gold  in  Jamaica,  yet  these  barbarous 
invaders  never  sheathed  their  swords  while  one  of  the  inoffensive 
islanders  remained  alive.  The  settlement  of  the  island  went  on 
slowly,  and  it  contained  a  population  of  no  more  than  three  thou- 
sand, half  of  whom  were  slaves,  when,  in  1655,  a  British  force, 
under  Penn  and  Venables,  made  themselves  masters  of  it.  Since 
that  time  it  has  remained  a  British  colony. 

15  v 


War  in  the  West  Indies. 


Castle  in  Jamaica. 


Plantation  in  Jamaica. 


THE    WEST   INDIES. 

BARBADOES,  the  most  easterly  of  all  the  West  India  islands, 
appears  never  to  have  had  any  aboriginal  inhabitants.  In  1627, 
some  English  families  settled  there,  but  without  any  authority 
from  the  government.  Two  years  after,  a  regular  colony  was 
established  in  the  island  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle.  The  whole  sur- 
face was  covered  with  enormous  trees,  but  the  industry  and  perse- 
verance of  the  British  settlers  soon  cleared  the  soil  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  productive  territories  belong- 
ing to  that  nation  in  this  quarter. 

ANTIGUA  was  found,  totally  uninhabited,  in  1628,  by  some 
Frenchmen,  who  fled  from  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Christopher's. 
Hardly  any  attempt  at  a  settlement  was  made  there  till  1666,  when 
Lord  Willoughby,  to  whom  Charles  II.  had  granted  the  island, 
sent  a  colony  thither.  The  sugar-cane  was  first  planted  here  in 
16S9.  NEVIS  was  occupied  by  the  English  in  1023,  and  jVloNTsEK- 
RAT  in  1632. 

ST.  CHRISTOPHER'S  was  the  nursery  of  all  the  English  and 
French  colonies  in  the  West  Indies.  Both  nations  arrived  in  that 
island  on  the  same  day,  in  1625.  They  shared  the  island  between 
them,  signed  a  treaty  of  perpetual  neutrality  and  alliance  against 
their  common  enemy,  the  Spaniards.  Unfortunately  for  the  peace 
of  the  settlers,  many  things,  as  the  woods,  the  fishing,  the  harbors, 
and  the  salt-pits,  were  all  held  in  common,  which  soon  led  to 
jealousies,  encroachments  and  hostilities.  When  war  broke  out 
between  the  mother  countries,  the  islanders  fought  with  a  degree 
of  animosity  not  to  be  seen  elsewhere.  They  alternately  drove 
each  other  from  the  plantations,  but,  in  1702,  the  French  were 
totally  expelled,  and  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  confirmed  the  British 
in  the  possession  of  the  whole  island. 

The  VIRGIN  ISLANDS  are  about  sixty  in  number,  but  all  are  small. 
The  Spaniards  for  many  years  resorted  to  them  solely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  catching  turtle.  The  Dutch  made  a  small  settlement  at 
Tortola,  one  of  the  group,  but,  in  1666,  they  were  driven  from  it  by 
the  English,  who  soon  after  dispersed  themselves  over  the  neigh- 
boring islands  and  rocks.  There  they  lived,  during  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, in  a  semi-barbarous  state,  employed  solely  in  raising  cotton. 
After  the  peace  of  1748,  they  turned  their  attention  to  sugar. 
Before  this  period  there  was  no  form  of  regular  government  in  the 
islands.  They  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British. 

GRENADA  was  first  settled  by  the  French,  in  1651.  On  their 
arrival  they  gave  a  few  hatchets,  some  knives,  and  a  barrel  of 
brandy,  to  the  chief  of  the  Caribs  they  found  there ;  and  imagin- 
ing they  had  purchasedPthe  island  with  these  trifles,  assumed  the 
sovereignty,  and  soon  acted  as  tyrants.  The  savages,  unable  to 


172  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

contend  with  them  by  open  force,  murdered  all  whom  they  found 
alone  or  defenceless.  Troops  were  sent  from  France  to  defend 
the  settlement.  All  the  natives  were  exterminated  by  the  sword, 
except  a  small  remnant  who  escaped  to  a  steep  rock.  Here  they 
were  besieged  by  the  invaders,  and,  preferring  to  die  rather  than 
fall  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  they  leaped  from  the  preci- 
pice and  were  dashed  to  pieces.  A  subsequent  conquest,  con- 
firmed by  the  treaty  of  1763,  secured  this  island  to  Great  Britain. 

TOBAGO  received  a  Dutch  settlement  in  1632,  but  the  natives 
joined  with  the  Spaniards  of  the  neighboring  island  of  Trinidad, 
against  them.  Most  of  the  settlers  were  massacred,  and  the  rest 
abandoned  the  island.  The  Dutch  neglected  the  island  for 
twenty  years,  but,  in  1654,  sent  a  new  colony  thither.  The  Eng- 
lish and  French  afterwards  disputed  the  possession  of  it,  and  the 
French  prevailing,  Louis  XIV.  restored  it  to  the  Dutch.  These 
two  latter  nations  afterwards  being  at  war,  the  French  invaded 
the  island,  laid  it  completely  waste,  and  carried  away  all  the 
inhabitants.  They  did  not,  however,  replace  them  with  their 
own  people,  and  Tobago  lay  neglected  and  desolate  till  Great 
Britain  took  possession  of  it,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1763,  it  was 
confirmed  to  that  power. 

The  BAHAMA  ISLANDS  having  been  speedily  depopulated  by  the 
Spaniards  who  shipped  off  the  natives  to  work  in  the  mines  in 
other  places,  were  left  desert  and  abandoned  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury. In  1629  the  English  took  possession  of  New  Providence 
and  established  themselves  there  till  1641,  when  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  Spaniards,  who  murdered  the  governor  and  committed 
other  acts  of  cruelty.  In  1666,  the  English  again  settled  in  these 
islands,  and  remained  till  1703,  when  the  French  and  Spaniards 
again  expelled  them  and  destroyed  their  plantations.  The  Baha- 
mas then  became  a  rendezvous  for  pirates,  who  were  finally  sup- 
pressed by  the  English,  under  Captain  Woodes  Rogers,  who  became 
governor  of  New  Providence.  The  other  islands  were  then  colo- 
nized by  the  English,  and  remained  quietly  in  their  possession 
till  the  war  of  the  American  revolution,  when  they  were  attacked, 
in  1776,  by  the  American  squadron  under  Commodore  Hopkins, 
who  captured  New  Providence  and  carried  off  the  governor.  In 
1781  the  Spaniards  again  took  possession  of  these  islands,  but  they 
were  retaken  by  the  English  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty 
of  1783. 

The  BERMUDAS  were  discovered  in  1522  by  Juan  Bermudez,  a 
Spaniard,  who  found  them  uninhabited.  Sir  George  Somers  was 
wrecked  on  them  in  1609,  on  which  account  they  were  sometimes 
called  after  his  name.  He  built  a  small  vessel  of  cedar,  without 


THE   WEST    INDIES.  173 

any  iron  except  one  bolt  in  the  keel,  and  sailed  to  Virginia.  The 
islands  were  settled  shortly  after  by  the  English,  and  have  ever 
since  remained  in  their  possession. 

ST.  VINCENT'S  was  first  colonized  in  1719  by  the  French  from 
Martinique.  They  had  much  trouble,  even  at  that  late  period, 
in  subduing  the  fierce  Carib  natives.  The  British  acquired  the 
island  by  the  treaty  of  1763.  DOMINICA  was  settled  about  the 
same  time,  and  in  like  manner  came  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
ST.  LUCIA  received  a  colony  of  English  in  1639,  but  they  were 
all  massacred  by  the  Caribs.  The  French  next  began  a  settle- 
ment in  1650,  but  it  did  not  succeed.  The  island  changed  hands 
between  the  English  and  French  several  times,  but  was  finally 
established  under  the  British  dominion.  TRINIDAD  was  first  colo- 
nized by  the  Spaniards  in  1535.  Great  Britain  obtained  posses- 
sion of  it  in  1797,  and  still  holds  it. 

MARTINIQUE  and  GUADALOUPE  were  settled  by  the  French  in 
1635.  They  subsequently  obtained  possession  of  DESEADA,  MARIE 
GALANTE  and  ST.  MARTIN'S.  These,  with  the  small  islands  called 
the  SAINTS,  now  belong  to  the  French.  CURASAO  was  first  pos- 
sessed by  the  Spaniards  in  1527.  It  was  captured  by  the  Dutch 
in  1634.  This  nation  acquired  afterwards  ST.  EUSTATIA,  SABA 
and  half  of  ST.  MARTINS,  which  still  remain  in  their  power.  The 
Danes  obtained  possession  of  ST.  THOMAS,  ST.  JOHN,  and  ST. 
CROIX;  and  the  Swedes,  of  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW,  and  now  retain  them. 

While  we  deplore  the  cruelties  which  blotted  out  a  whole  race 
of  men  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  our  regrets  are  augmented  by 
the  contemplation  of  another  evil  which  grew  out  of  this  calamity, 
the  introduction  of  negro  slavery  into  America.  The  extermina- 
tion of  the  unfortunate  islanders  could  not  fail  to  excite  a  certain 
degree  of  sympathy  even  among  the  Spaniards :  and  a  philan- 
thropist arose  who  claimed  the  name  of  protector  of  the  Indians. 
This  was  Bartholomew  de  Las  Casas,  bishop  of  Chiapa,  who, 
smitten  with  compassion  for  the  wretched  Americans,  took  up 
their  cause,  and  used  every  exertion  to  check  the  oppressions  of 
the  conquerors.  He  openly  asserted  the  injustice  of  reducing 
them  to  servitude,  and  pleaded  the  cause  of  humanity  with  such 
effect  at  the  Spanish  court,  that  Cardinal  Ximenes,  the  regent, 
despatched  him,  with  four  associates,  to  America,  with  full  powers 
to  remedy  the  evil.  These  commissioners  set  all  the  natives  at 
liberty.  But  the  want  of  hands  to  till  the  soil,  drove  the  well- 
meaning  Las  Casas  to  an  expedient  which  drew  incalculable 
woes  upon  the  western  world.  He  proposed  to  purchase  negroes 
from  the  Portuguese  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  trans- 
port them  to  the  West  Indies.  Negroes  had  been  carried  to  St. 


174 


THE    WEST    INDIES. 


Domingo  as  early  as  1502 ;  but  these  were  few,  and  the  importa- 
tion was  soon  prohibited,  for  the  alleged  reason  that  they  taught 
the  natives  insubordination. 

The  scheme  of  Las  Casas,  unfortunately,  met  with  favor  at  the 
Spanish  court.     Charles  V.,  in  1517,  granted  a  patent  for  the 


Charles  V.  signing  a  patent  for  sending  negroes  to  America. 

exportation  of  four  thousand  negroes  annually  to  Hispaniola.  This 
patent  was  assigned  to  some  Genoese  merchants,  and  the  slave 
trade  became  from  that  time  a  regular  and  established  traffic. 
The  English  engaged  in  this  business  in  1562,  and  the  French 
and  Portuguese  in  1564.  The  latter  people  had  carried  slaves  from 
Guinea  to  Lisbon  as  early  as  1442.  The  project  of  Las  Casas, 
however,  gave  this  traffic  the  main  impulse,  and  organized  it  into 
a  permanent  system.  The  English  pursued  the  slave  trade  with 
great  ardor.  They  made  settlements  on  the  African  coast,  from 
which  they  not  only  furnished  their  own  West  India  colonies 
with  negroes,  but  so  far  monopolized  the  business  as  to  obtain,  in 
1689,  the  Asiento,  or  contract  from  the  Spanish  government  for 
supplying  the  colonies  of  that  nation,  also,  with  slaves.  As  late  as 
1770,  the  number  imported  into  America  by  the  English  exceeded 
forty-seven  thousand  in  a  single  year. 

In  this  manner  the  West  India  islands  became  filled  with  an 
African  population,  which  still  continue  in  a  state  of  servitude 
except  in  the  British  colonies  and  the  independent  island  of  Hayti. 
The  slave  trade  was  prohibited  by  the  British  government  in 
1805  ;  and  by  act  of  parliament,  all  the  slaves  in  the  British  West 
Indies  were  set  free  on  the  1st  of  August,  1834.  Twenty  millions 
sterling  were  paid  the  owners  of  the  slaves  as  an  indemnity. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


THE    BUCCANEERS. 

Origin  of  Ike  buccaneers. — Their  enmity  towards  the  Spaniards. — Their  expedi- 
tion to  California. — Their  mode  of  life. — They  become  formidable. — History  of 
the  buccaneer  Montbar. — Michael  de  Basco. — The  buccaneers  lake  Venezuela. — 
Exploits  of  Morgan. — Capture  of  Porto  Bello.- — Morgan's  expedition  to  Pa- 
nama.— His  treachery  towards  his  associates. —  Van  Horn,  Grammont,  Godfrey, 
Jonque  and  De  Graffe. —  Capture  of  Vera  Cruz. — Expeditions  to  the  South 
Sea. — Terror  of  the  Spaniards. — Grammont's  conquest  of  Campcachy. — Ex- 
travagance of  the  French  buccaneers. — Expedition  of  Pointis. — Capture  of 
Carthagena. — Sack  of  the  city. — Immense  booty  of  the  captors. —  Treachery  of 
Pointis. — Second  capture  of  Carthagena. — Final  extinction  of  the  buccaneers. 


Buccaneers  making  an  attack. 

BEFORE  the  English  had  made  any  settlement  at  Jamaica,  and 
the  French  at  St.  Domingo,  some  pirates  of  both  nations,  who 
have  since  been  so  distinguished  by  the  name  of  buccaneers,  had 
driven  the  Spaniards  out  of  the  small  island  of  Tortuga,  situated 
at  the  distance  of  two  leagues  from  St.  Domingo,  and  fortifying 
themselves  there,  had  made  incursions  with  amazing  intrepidity 
against  the  common  enemy.  They  formed  themselves  into  small 
companies,  consisting  of  fifty  or  a  hundred  each.  These  bands 
styled  themselves  "The  Brethren  of  the  Coast;"  but  they  soon 
became  famous  to  the  world  by  the  name  of  buccaneers  ;  a  werd 
of  dubious  etymology,  but  which  appears  to  have  been  derived 


176  THE    WEST   INDIES. 

from  the  practice,  adopted  by  these  adventurers,  of  drying  by 
smoke  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  they  killed  in  St.  Domingo, — a  prac- 
tice called  buccan  by  the  natives.  The  dress  of  a  buccaneer  at 
first  usually  consisted  of  a  shirt  dipped  in  the  blood  of  some 
animal  he  had  killed ;  a  pair  of  trowsers ;  a  leathern  girdle,  from 
which  hung  a  sabre  and  several  knives ;  a  hat  without  a  brim ; 
shoes  of  raw  hide,  and  no  stockings.  Armed  with  heavy  mus- 
kets, and  accompanied  by  dogs,  they  ranged  the  woods  and  sa- 
vannas of  St.  Domingo,  and  subsisted  upon  the  cattle  they  killed, 
selling  their  hides  to  such  vessels  as  touched  upon  the  coast.  As 
their  numbers  increased,  they  ventured  to  make  inroads  upon  the 
Spanish  settlements.  The  Spaniards,  unable  to  expel  these  trou- 
blesome neighbors,  adopted  the  expedient  of  starving  them  out. 
by  killing  all  the  cattle  in  the  island.  This  drove  the  buccaneers 
to  piracy.  Boats  were  all  their  naval  force.  These  were  scarcely 
large  enough  for  a  person  to  lie  down  in,  and  they  had  nothing 
to  shelter  them  from  the  heats  of  a  burning  climate,  nor  from  the 
rains  that  fall  in  these  torrid  regions.  They  were  often  in  want 
of  the  most  necessary  supports  of  life.  But  all  these  calamities 
were  forgotten  at  the  sight  of  a  vessel.  They  never  deliberated  on 
an  attack,  but  proceeded  immediately  to  board  the  ship,  of  what- 
ever size  she  might  be.  As  soon  as  they  threw  out  their  grap- 
pling-irons, the  vessel  was  easily  taken. 

In  cases  of  extreme  necessity,  the  buccaneers  attacked  the  people 
of  every  nation ;  but  they  fell  upon  the  Spaniards  at  all  times. 
They  thought  that  the  cruelties  they  had  exercised  on  the  Ameri- 
cans, justified  the  implacable  hostility  they  had  sworn  against 
them.  But  this  extraordinary  kind  of  humanity  was  heightened 
by  personal  resentment,  from  the  mortification  they  felt  in  seeing 
themselves  debarred  from  the  privilege  of  hunting  and  fishing, 
which  they  justly  considered  as  natural  rights.  Such  was  their 
infatuation,  that,  whenever  they  embarked  on  any  expedition, 
they  used  to  pray  to  Heaven  for  success ;  and  they  never  came 
back  from  their  plundering  excursions  without  constantly  thank- 
ing God  for  the  victory. 

The  ships  that  arrived  in  America  from  Europe,  seldom  tempted 
their  cupidity.  They  would  have  found  nothing  but  merchandise 
in  them,  the  sale  of  which  would  not  have  been  very  profitable, 
and  would  have  required  too  constant  an  attention.  They  always 
waited  for  the  ships  on  their  return,  when  they  were  laden  with 
the  gold  and  silver  of  Peru.  If  they  met  a  single  ship,  they  never 
failed  to  attack  her.  They  followed  the  large^fleets,  and  any  vessel 
that  straggled  or  remained  behind,  was  inevitably  lost.  The 
Spaniards,  who  trembled  at  the  sight  of  these  implacable  enemies. 


THE    BUCCANEERS.  177 

commonly  surrendered  without  resistance.  Life  was  granted 
to  them,  if  the  cargo  proved  a  rich  one;  but  if  the  conquerors 
were  disappointed  in  their  expectations,  the  crew  were  frequently 
thrown  into  the  sea. 

A  body  of  fifty-five  buccaneers,  who  had  sailed  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  proceeded  as  far  as  California.  To  return  into  the  Atlan- 
tic, they  were  obliged  to  sail  three  thousand  leagues  against  the 
wind,  in  a  canoe.  When  they  were  at  the  straits  of  Magellan, 
they  were  seized  with  rage  at  having  made  no  plunder  in  so  rich 
a  quarter  of  the  world.  They  steered  back  for  Peru.  Here  they 
were  informed  that  in  the  port  of  Yauca  was  a  ship,  the  cargo  of 
which  was  valued  at  several  millions  of  dollars.  They  imme- 
diately attacked  and  captured  her  with  all  this  enormous  treasure. 

When  the  buccaneers  had  gathered  a  considerable  booty,  they 
held  their  rendezvous  first  at  the  island  of  Tortuga,  in  order  to 
divide  the  spoil.  If  any  one  among  them  was  convicted  of  per- 
jury, which  seldom  happened,  he  was  left,  as  soon  as  an  opportu- 
nity offered,  upon  some  desert  island,  as  an  infamous  person. 
The  first  shares  of  the  booty  were  always  given  to  those  who  had 
been  maimed  in  battle.  If  any  one  had  lost  a  hand,  an  arm,  or  a 
leg,  he  received  two  hundred  crowns.  An  eye  or  a  finger,  lost  in 
fight,  was  valued  at  half  that  sum.  The  wounded  were  allowed 
half  a  dollar  a  day  for  two  months,  to  enable  them  to  have  their 
wounds  cured.  If  the  company  had  not  money  enough  to  enable 
them  to  fulfil  these  sacred  obligations,  the  whole  company  were 
bound  to  engage  in  some  fresh  expedition,  and  to  continue  it  till 
they  had  acquired  a  sufficient  stock  to  enable  them  to  satisfy  such 
honorable  duties. 

After  this  act  of  justice  and  humanity,  the  remainder  of  the 
booty  was  divided.  The  commander,  in  strictness,  could  only 
lay  claim  to  a  single  share  like  the  rest ;  but  they  complimented 
him  with  two  or  three,  in  proportion  as  they  were  satisfied  with 
his  skill  and  conduct.  When  the  vessel  in  which  they  cruised, 
was  not  the  property  of  the  company,  the  person  who  had  fitted 
it  out,  and  furnished  it  with  necessary  arms  and  provisions,  was 
entitled  to  a  third  of  the  prize-money.  Favor  had  never  any  in- 
fluence in  the  division  of  the  booty,  for  every  share  was  rigidly 
determined  by  lot.  This  probity  was  extended  even  to  the  dead. 
Their  share  was  given  to  their  families.  If  there  were  no  friends 
or  relatives,  it  was  distributed  to  the  poor  and  to  churches,  which 
were  to  say  masses  for  the  person  in  whose  name  these  benefac 
tions  were  given. 

They  afterwards  indulged  themselves  in  profusion  of  all  kinds* 
Unbounded  licentiousness  and  every  kind  of  debauchery  were 


178  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

carried  to  the  utmost  pitch  of  excess,  and  were  checked  only  when 
their  money  was  gone.  The  possessors  of  millions  were  often 
ruined  in  an  instant,  and,  destitute  of  clothes  and  provisions, 
they  returned  to  sea,  and  the  new  supplies  they  acquired  were 
soon  lavished  in  the  same  manner. 

The  Spanish  colonists  were  reduced  almost  to  despair  at  finding 
themselves  a  perpetual  prey  to  these  ruffians,  and  at  length  grew 
weary  of  venturing  to  sea.  They  gave  up  all  the  benefits  of 
commerce  and  mutual  intercourse,  and  kept  themselves  apart 
in  their  separate  states.  They  were  sensible  of  the  inconve- 
niences arising  from  such  conduct;  but  the  dread  of  falling  into 
the  hands  of  savage  and  rapacious  pirates  had  greater  influence 
over  them  than  the  dictates  of  honor,  interest  and  policy.  Such 
was  the  commencement  of  that  spirit  of  inactivity,  which  con- 
tinued in  Spanish  America  down  to  the  present  century. 

This  despondency  but  served  to  increase  the  boldness  of  the 
freebooters.  As  yet,  they  had  only  appeared  in  the  Spanish 
settlements,  in  order  to  carry  off  provisions ;  and  even  this  they 
had  done  very  seldom.  They  no  sooner  began  to  find  their  cap- 
tures diminish,  than  they  determined  to  recover  by  land  what 
they  were  losing  at  sea.  The  richest  and  most  populous  commu- 
nities of  the  continent  were  plundered  and  laid  waste.  The 
culture  of  lands  was  now  neglected  as  well  as  navigation,  and  the 
Spaniards  dared  no  more  appear  in  their  public  roads,  than  sail  in 
the  latitudes  frequented  by  their  enemies. 

Among  the  buccaneers  who  signalized  themselves  in  this  new 
species  of  excursions,  Montbar,  a  gentleman  of  Languedoc,  par- 
ticularly distinguished  himself.  Having  by  chance  in  his  infancy 
met  with  a  circumstantial  account  of  the  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards 
in  the  New  World,  he  conceived  an  aversion  for  them,  which  he 
carried  to  a  degree  of  frenzy  against  that  nation.  Upon  this  point, 
a  story  is  told  of  him,  that  when  he  was  at  college,  and  acting  in 
a  play  the  part  of  a  Frenchman,  who  quarrelled  with  a  Spaniard, 
he  fell  upon  the  person  who  personated  the  Spaniard  with  such 
fury  that  he  would  have  strangled  him,  had  he  not  been  rescued 
out  of  his  hands.  His  heated  imagination  continually  represented 
to  him  innumerable  multitudes  of  people  massacred  by  savage 
monsters  who  came  out  of  Spain.  He  became  animated  with  an 
irresistible  desire  to  avenge  so  much  innocent  blood.  The  enthu- 
siasm to  which  this  spirit  of  humanity  worked  him  up  was 
turned  into  a  rage  more  cruel  than  the  thirst  for  gold,  or  the 
fanaticism  of  religion,  to  which  so  many  victims  had  been  sacri- 
ficed. The  ghosts  of  these  unhappy  sufferers  seemed  to  rouse  him 
and  call  upon  him  for  vengeance.  He  had  heard  some  account 


THE    BUCCANEERS.  179 

of  the  Brethren  of  the  Coast,  as  the  buccaneers  were  then  called 
They  were  represented  as  the  most  inveterate  enemies  of  the 
Spanish  name ;  he  therefore  embarked  for  America  to  join  them. 

On  the  passage  he  met  with  a  Spanish  vessel,  attacked  her,  and 
as  was  usual  in  those  times,  immediately  boarded  her.  Montbar, 
with  a  sabre  in  his  hand,  fell  upon  the  enemy,  broke  through 
them,  and,  hurrying  twice  from  one  end  of  the  ship  to  the  other, 
levelled  everything  that  opposed  him.  When  he  had  compelled 
the  enemy  to  surrender,  leaving  to  his  companions  the  task  of 
dividing  so  rich  a  booty,  he  contented  himself  with  the  savage 
pleasure  of  contemplating  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Spaniards  lying 
in  heaps  upon  the  deck. 

His  savage  disposition,  as  well  as  that  of  the  other  buccaneers 
who  attended  him,  having  obliged  the  Spaniards  to  confine  them- 
selves within  their  settlements,  these  freebooters  resolved  to  attack 
them  there.  This  new  method  of  carrying  on  war,  required 
superior  forces,  and  their  associations  in  consequence  became  more 
numerous.  The  first  considerable  body  of  troops  was  formed  by 
Lolonois,  a  Frenchman,  who  derived  his  name  from  Sables  d'- 
Olonne.  the  place  of  his  birth.  From  the  abject  state  of  a  bonds- 
man, he  had  gradually  raised  himself  to  the  command  of  two 
canoes  and  twenty-two  men.  With  these,  he  was  so  successful 
as  to  take  a  Spanish  frigate  on  the  coast  of  Cuba.  A  slave,  hav- 
ing observed  that  all  the  men  who  were  wounded  were  put  to 
death,  and  fearing  lest  he  should  share  the  same  fate,  attempted 
to  save  himself  by  a  perfidious  declaration,  but  very  consistent 
with  the  part  he  had  been  destined  to  take.  He  assured  the  buc- 
caneers that  the  governor  of  Havana  had  put  him  on  board  to  serve 
as  executioner  to  all  the  buccaneers  he  had  sentenced  to  be  hung, 
not  doubting  in  the  least  that  they  would  all  be  taken  prisoners. 
The  savage  Lolonois,  fired  with  rage  at  this  declaration,  ordered 
all  the  Spaniards  to  be  brought  before  him,  and  cut  off  their  heads, 
one  after  another.  He  then  repaired  to  Port  au  Prince,  at  which 
place  were  four  ships,  fitted  out  purposely  to  sail  in  pursuit  of  him. 
He  took  them,  and  threw  all  the  crews  overboard  except  one  man, 
whom  he  saved.  This  person  he  sent  with  a  letter  to  the  governor 
of  Havana,  acquainting  him  with  what  he  had  done,  and  assuring 
him  that  he  would  treat  in  the  same  manner  all  the  Spaniards  that 
should  fall  into  his  hands.  After  this  expedition,  he  ran  his 
canoes  and  prize  ships  aground,  and  sailed  with  his  frigate  to  the 
island  o/  Tortuga. 

Here  he  met  with  Michael  de  Basco,  who  had  so  highly  distin- 
guished himself  in  capturing,  under  the  cannon  of  Porto  Bello,  a 
Spanish  ship,  with  a  cargo  valued  at  above  a  million  of  dollars, 


180  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

and  by  other  actions  equally  daring.  These  two  adventurers, 
gave  out  that  they  were  going  together  upon  an  important  expe- 
dition, and  they  were  joined  by  four  hundred  and  forty  men.  This 
corps,  the  most  numerous  which  the  buccaneers  had  yet  been  able 
to  muster,  sailed  to  the  Bay  of  Venezuela,  which  runs  up  into  the 
country  for  the  space  of  fifty  leagues.  The  fort  at  the  entrance 
was  taken,  the  cannon  spiked,  and  the  whole  garrison,  consisting 
of  two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  put  to  the  sword.  They  then  re-em- 
barked, and  proceeded  to  Maracaibo,  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
lake  of  the  same  name,  at  the  distance  of  ten  leagues  from  its 
mouth.  The  city,  which  had  become  rich  and  flourishing  by  its 
trade  in  skins,  tobacco  and  cocoa,  was  deserted.  The  inhabitants 
had  retired  with  their  effects  to  the  other  side  of  the  bay.  If  the 
buccaneers  had  not  lost  a  fortnight  in  riot  and  debauch,  they  would 
have  found  at  Gibraltar,  near  the  extremity  of  the  lake,  everything 
that  the  inhabitants  had  secreted,  to  secure  it  from  being  plun- 
dered. On  the  contrary,  they  met  with  fortifications  lately  erected, 
which  they  had  the  useless  satisfaction  of  capturing,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  a  great  deal  of  blood.  The  inhabitants  had  already 
removed  to  a  distance  the  most  valuable  part  of  their  property. 
Exasperated  at  this  disappointment,  they  set  fire  to  Gibraltar ;  and 
Maracaibo  would  have  shared  the  same  fate,  had  it  not  been 
ransomed.  Beside  the  sum  they  received  for  its  ransom,  they  also 
carried  off  all  the  crosses,  pictures,  and  bells  of  the  churches, 
intending,  as  they  said,  to  build  a  chapel  in  the  island  of  Tortnga, 
and  to  consecrate  this  part  of  their  spoils  to  sacred  purposes.  Such 
was  the  religion  of  these  barbarous  people,  who  could  make  no 
other  offering  to  Heaven  than  that  which  arose  from  their  robber- 
ies and  plunder ! 

While  they  were  idly  dissipating  the  spoils  they  had  captured 
on  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  Henry  Morgan,  the  most  renowned  of  the 
English  freebooters,  sailed  from  Jamaica  to  attack  Porto  Bello. 
His  plan  of  operations  was  so  well  contrived,  that  he  surprised 
the  city,  and  took  it  without  opposition.  In  order  to  secure  the 
fort  with  the  same  facility,  he  compelled  the  women  and  the  priests 
to  fix  the  scaling  ladders  to  the  walls,  from  a  full  conviction  that 
the  gallantry  and  superstition  of  the  Spaniards  would  never  suffer 
them  to  fire  at  the  persons  they  considered  as  the  objects  of  their 
love  and  reverence.  But  the  garrison  were  not  to  be  deceived  by 
this  artifice,  and  yielded  only  to  the  force  of  arms ;  the  treasures 
that  were  carried  away  from  this  famous  port  were  acquired  by 
the  buccaneers  at  the  expense  of  much  bloodshed. 

The  conquest  of  Panama  was  an  object  of  much  greater  impor- 
tance. To  secure  this,  Morgan  thought  it  necessary  to  sail  in  the 


THE    BUCCANEERS.  181 

latitudes  of  Costa-Rica,  and  to  procure  guides  in  the  island  of  St. 
Catharine,  to  which  the  Spaniards  transported  their  malefactors. 
This  place  was  so  strongly  fortified  that  it  might  have  stopped  the 
progress  of  the  most  intrepid  commander.  Notwithstanding  this, 
the  governor,  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  buccaneers,  sent 
privately  to  concert  measures  how  he  might  surrender  without 
incurring  the  imputation  of  cowardice.  The  result  of  this  consul- 
tation was  that  Morgan  in  the  night  time  should  attack  a  fort  at 
some  distance,  and  that  the  governor  should  sally  out  of  the  cita- 
del to  defend  this  important  post ;  that  the  besiegers  should  then 
attack  him  in  the  rear,  and  take  him  prisoner,  which  would  occa- 
sion a  surrender  of  the  place.  It  was  agreed  that  a  brisk  firing 
should  be  kept  up  on  both  sides,  without  doing  mischief  to  either. 
This  farce  was  admirably  carried  on.  The  Spaniards,  without 
being  exposed  to  any  danger,  appeared  to  have  done  their  duty; 
and  the  freebooters,  after  having  totally  demolished  the  fortifica- 
tions, and  put  on  board  their  vessels  a  prodigious  quantity  of  war- 
like stores,  which  they  found  at  St.  Catharine's,  steered  towards 
the  river  Chagres,  the  only  channel  by  which  they  could  proceed 
towards  Panama. 

At  the  entrance  of  this  river  s.tood  a  fort,  built  upon  a  steep  rock, 
against  which  the  waves  of  the  sea  constantly  beat.  This  bul- 
wark, very  difficult  of  access,  was  defended  by  an  officer,  whose 
extraordinary  abilities  were  equal  to  his  courage,  and  by  a  garri- 
son that  deserved  such  a  commander.  The  buccaneers  for  the  first 
time  met  with  a  resistance  that  could  only  be  equalled  by  their 
perseverance.  It  was  a  doubtful  point  whether  they  would  suc- 
ceed, or  be  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  when  an  accident  happened, 
that  proved  favorable  to  their  wishes  and  fortune.  The  comman- 
der was  killed,  and  the  fort  accidentally  took  fire.  The  besieg- 
ers, taking  advantage  of  this  double  calamity,  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  place. 

Morgan  left  his  vessels  at  anchor,  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
men  to  guard  them,  and  sailed  up  the  river  in  his  boats  for  thirty- 
three  miles,  till  he  came  to  Cruces,  where  the  stream  ceased  to  be 
navigable.  He  then  proceeded  by  land  to  Panama,  which  was 
only  five  leagues  distant.  Upon  a  wide  plain  thafrlies  before  the 
city,  he  met  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  whom  he  put  to  flight 
with  the  greatest  ease,  and  entered  into  the  place,  which  was  now 
abandoned. 

Here  were  found  prodigious  treasures,  concealed  in  the  wells 

ar.d   caves.      Some   valuable  commodities  were  taken  from  the 

boats  that  were  left  aground  at  low  water.     In  the  neighboring 

forests  were  also  rich  deposites.     But  the  party  of  buccaneers  wha 

16 


182  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

were  making  excursions  into  the  country,  little  satisfied  with  their 
booty,  exercised  the  most  shocking  tortures  on  the  Spaniards, 
negroes  and  Indians,  to  oblige  them  to  confess  where  they  had 
secreted  their  riches.  A  beggar,  accidentally  going  into  a  castle 
which  had  been  deserted  through  fear,  found  some  fine  clothes, 
which  he  put  on.  He  had  scarcely  dressed  himself,  when  he  was 
perceived  by  the  invaders,  who  demanded  where  his  gold  was. 
The  unfortunate  man  showed  them  the  ragged  clothes  he  had  just 
thrown  off.  He  was  instantly  put  to  the  torture,  but,  as  he  made 
no  discovery,  he  was  given  up  to  some  slaves,  who  put  an  end  to 
his  life.  Thus  the  treasures  the  Spaniards  had  acquired  in  the 
New  World  by  massacres  and  tortures,  were  extorted  from  them 
in  the  same  manner.  Panama  was  burnt,  and  the  buccaneers  set 
sail  with  a  great  number  of  prisoners,  who  were  ransomed  a  few 
days  after.  The  expedition  proceeded  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cha- 
gres  with  a  prodigious  booty. 

Before  the  dawn  of  the  day  that  had  been  fixed  upon  for  the 
division  of  the  plunder,  Morgan,  with  most  of  the  Englishmen  of 
the  band,  while  the  rest  of  the  pirates  were  in  a  deep  sleep,  stole 
away  silently  from  the  rendezvous  and  sailed  to  Jamaica  in  a 
vessel  which  they  had  laden  with  all  the  spoils  of  the  enterprise. 
This  instance  of  treachery,  the  first  of  its  kind  that  had  happened, 
excited  a  rage  and  resentment  not  to  be  described.  The  remaining 
English  pursued  the  robber,  in  hopes  of  wresting  from  him  the 
booty,  but  without  success.  The  French,  the  sharers  in  the  loss, 
retired  to  the  island  of  Tortuga,  from  whence  they  made  several 
expeditions.  But  they  were  all  trifling,  till,  in  the  year  1683. 
they  attempted  one  of  greater  importance. 

The  plan  of  this  expedition  was  formed  by  Van  Horn,  a  native 
of  Ostend,  though  he  had  served  all  his  life  among  the  French. 
His  intrepidity  would  never  let  him  suffer  the  least  signs  of  cow- 
ardice among  those  who  were  associated  with  him.  In  the  heat 
of  an  engagement  he  went  about  his  ship,  and  immediately  killed 
those  who  shrunk  at  the  sudden  report  of  a  gun  or  pistol.  This 
extraordinary  discipline  had  made  him  the  terror  of  the  coward, 
and  the  idol  of  the  brave.  In  other  respects,  he  readily  shared 
with  the  men  of  spirit  and  bravery  the  immense  riches  that  were 
acquired  by  so  fierce  and  warlike  a  disposition.  When  he  ventur- 
ed upon  his  expeditions,  he  generally  sailed  in  a  ship  which  was 
his  own  property.  But  these  new  designs  requiring  greater  means 
to  carry  them  into  execution,  he  took  to  his  assistance  Grammont, 
Godfrey  and«Jonque.  three  Frenchmen,  distinguished  by  their 
'exploits,  and  Lawrence  de  Graff,  a  Dutchman,  who  had  signalized 


THE    BUCCANEERS.  183 

himself  still  more.  Twelve  hundred  buccaneers  joined  these 
famous  commanders,  and  sailed  in  six  vessels  for  Vera  Cruz. 

The  darkness  of  the  night  favored  their  landing,  which  was 
effected  at  three  leagues  from  the  place,  at  which  they  arrived  with- 
out being  discovered.  The  governor,  the  fort,  the  barracks,  and 
the  posts  of  the  greatest  consequence, — everything,  in  a  word,  that 
could  occasion  any  resistance,  was  taken  by  break  of  day.  All 
the  citizens,  men,  women  and  children,  were  shut  up  in  the 
churches,  whither  they  fled  for  shelter.  At  the  door  of  each 
church  were  placed  barrels  of  gunpowder  to  blow  up  the  building. 
A  freebooter  with  a  lighted  match  was  to  set  fire  to  it  upon  the 
least  appearance  of  an  insurrection. 

While  the  city  was  kept  in  such  terror  it  was  easily  pillaged; 
and  after  the  buccaneers  had  carried  off  what  was  most  valuable, 
they  made  a  proposal  to  the  citizens,  who  were  kept  prisoners  in 
the  churches,  to  ransom  their  lives,  by  a  contribution  of  two 
millions  of  dollars.  These  unfortunate  people,  who  had  neither 
eaten  nor  drank  for  three  days,  cheerfully  accepted  the  terms. 
Half  the  money  was  paid  the  same  day;  the  other  part  was 
expected  from  the  inland  part  of  the  country ;  when  there  ap- 
peared, on  an  eminence,  a  considerable  body  of  troops  advanc- 
ing, and  near  the  port,  a  fleet  of  seventeen  ships  from  Europe. 
At  the  sight  of  this  armament,  the  buccaneers,  without  any  marks 
of  surprise,  retreated  quietly  with  fifteen  hundred  slaves  they  had 
carried  off  as  a  trifling  indemnification  for  the  money  they  ex- 
pected. The  final  settlement  of  the  account  they  deferred  to  a 
more  favorable  opportunity.  These  rufiians  sincerely  believed 
that  whatever  they  pillaged  or  exacted  by  force  of  arms  upon  the 
coasts  where  they  made  a  descent,  was  their  lawful  property ; 
and  that  religion,  as  well  as  custom,  sanctioned  the  right  not 
only  to  what  they  had  already  received,  but  even  the  interest  of 
that  part  of  the  sum  that  was  not  yet  paid. 

Their  retreat  was  equally  daring  and  successful.  They  boldly 
sailed  through  the  midst  of  the  Spanish  fleet,  which  allowed 
them  to  pass  without  firing  a  gun !  The  Spaniards,  in  fact,  were 
rather  afraid  of  being  attacked  and  beaten.  They  would  not 
probably  have  escaped  so  easily,  if  the  vessels  of  the  pirates  had 
not  been  laden  with  riches,  or  if  the  Spanish  fleet  had  been 
freighted  with  any  other  effects  than  such  merchandise  as  was 
little  valued  by  the  buccaneers. 

A  year  had  scarcely  elapsed,  when,  on  a  sudden,  they  were 
seized  with  the  desire  to  invade  Peru.  They  expected,  undoubt- 
edly, to  find  greater  treasures  upon  a  sea  hitherto  little  frequented 
by  them.  Four  thousand  men  directed  their  course  to  this  part 


184  .  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

of  the  ne\v  hemisphere.  Some  of  them  came  by  the  continent, 
others  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  If  the  intrepidity  of  these  bar- 
barians had  been  directed  by  a  skilful  and  respectable  com- 
mander, to  one  single  uniform  end,  this  important  colony  would 
have  been  lost  to  Spain.  But  their  natural  character  was  an 
invincible  obstacle  to  such  a  result.  They  always  formed  them- 
selves into  several  distinct  bodies,  sometimes  so  small  as  ten  or 
twelve  in  number,  who  acted  together  or  separately,  as  the  most 
trifling  caprice  directed.  Grognier,  L'Ecuyer,  Picard  and  Le 
Sage,  were  the  most  distinguished  officers  among  the  French; 
David,  Samms,  Peter,  Wilner  and  Townley,  among  the  English. 
Such  of  these  adventurers  as  arrived  in  the  South  Sea  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  seized  upon  the  first  vessels  they  found  along 
the  coast.  Their  associates,  who  had  sailed  in  their  own  vessels, 
were  but  poorly  provided.  Weak,  however,  as  they  were,  the  ad- 
venturers defeated,  sunk,  or  took  all  the  ships  that  were  fitted  out 
against  them.  The  Spaniards  then  suspended  their  navigation. 
The  buccaneers  were  forced  to  make  descents  upon  the  coasts  to 
get  provisions,  or  to  go  by  land  and  plunder  those  cities  where 
the  booty  was  secured. 

Universal  terror  prevailed  throughout  Spanish  America;  the 
approach  of  the  freebooters,  and  even  the  fear  of  their  arrival  dis- 
persed the  people.  The  Spaniards,  grown  effeminate  by  the 
most  extravagant  luxury,  enervated  by  the  peaceful  exercise  of 
their  tyranny,  and  reduced  to  the  state  of  their  slaves,  never 
waited  for  the  enemy,  unless  they  surpassed  them  in  numbers  at 
least  twenty  to  one ;  and  even  then  they  commonly  suffered  defeat. 
They  retained  nothing  of  the  pride  and  nobility  of  their  origin. 
They  were  so  much  degenerated,  that  they  had  lost  all  notions  of 
the  art  of  war,  and  were  even  scarcely  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
fire-arms.  They  were  little  better  than  the  native  Americans 
whom  they  trampled  upon.  This  extraordinary  cowardice  was 
increased  by  the  idea  they  had  conceived  of  the  ferocious  men 
who  attacked  them.  Their  monks  had  depicted  them  in  the  same 
hideous  colors  with  which  they  portrayed  evil  spirits ;  and  they 
themselves  had  overcharged  the  picture.  Such  representations, 
the  offspring  of  a  wild  and  terrified  imagination,  imprinted  on 
every  mind  the  utmost  aversion  and  terror. 

Notwithstanding  the  excess  of  their  resentment,  the  Spaniards 
only  wreaked  their  revenge  upon  their  foes  when  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  inspire  terror.  As  soon  as  the  buccaneers  had 
quitted  the  place  they  had  plundered,  if  any  one  of  them  had  been 
killed  in  the  attack,  his  body  was  dug  up,  mutilated,  or  made  to 
pass  through  the  various  kinds  of  torture,  that  would  have  been 


THE   BUCCANEERS.  185 

practised  upon  the  man  had  he  been  alive.  This  abhorrence  of 
the  freebooters  was  extended  even  to  the  places  on  which  they 
had  exercised  their  cruelties.  The  cities  they  had  taken  were 
excommunicated ;  the  very  walls  and  soil  of  the  cities  which  had 
been  laid  waste,  were  anathematized,  and  the  inhabitants  aban- 
doned them  forever. 

While  such  piracies  were  committed  on  the  Southern  Ocean,  the 
northern  seas  were  threatened  with  the  same  outrages  by  Gram- 
mont.  He  was  a  native  of  Paris,  by  birth  a  gentleman,  and  had 
distinguished  himself  in  a  military  capacity  in  Europe ;  but  his 
passion  for  wine,  gaming  and  debauchery,  had  induced  him  to 
join  the  buccaneers.  His  virtues  were  almost  sufficient  to  have 
atoned,  in  some  measure,  for  his  vices.  He  was  affable,  polite, 
generous  and  eloquent;  he  was  endued  with  a  sound  judgment, 
and  was  a  person  of  approved  valor,  which  soon  made  him  the 
chief  of  the  French  buccaneers.  As  soon  as  it  was  known  that 
he  had  taken  up  arms,  he  was  immediately  joined  by  a  number  of 
brave  associates.  Grammcnt's  design  was  to  attack  Campeachy. 
The  governor  of  St.  Domingo,  who  had  at  length  prevailed  upon 
the  king  of  France  to  approve  of  a  project  for  fixing  tbe  bucca- 
neers in  some  place,  and  inducing  them  to  become  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  was  desirous  to  prevent  the  concerted  expedition,  and 
therefore  forbade  it  in  the  king's  name.  Grammont,  who  had  a 
greater  share  of  sense  than  his  associates,  was  not  on  that  ac- 
count inclined  to  comply,  and  sternly  refused  obedience  to  this 
order.  His  answer  greatly  pleased  all  the  freebooters,  who  im- 
mediately embarked  for  Campeachy.  This  occurred  in  1685. 

They  landed  without  opposition.  At  some  distance  from  the 
coast  they  were  attacked  by  eight  hundred  Spaniards.  These 
they  defeated  and  pursued  to  the  town,  where  both  parties  entered 
at  the  same  time.  The  cannon  they  found  were  immediately 
levelled  by  the  invaders  against  the  citadel.  As  these  had  little 
effect,  they  were  contriving  some  stratagem  to  enable  them  to 
become  masters  of  the  place,  when  intelligence  was  brought  that 
it  was  abandoned.  There  remained  in  it  only  a  gunner,  an  Eng- 
lishman, and  an  officer  of  such  signal  courage  that  he  chose 
rather  to  expose  himself  to  the  greatest  danger  than  basely  fly 
with  the  rest.  The  commander  of  the  buccaneers  received  him 
with  marks  of  distinction,  generously  released  him,  gave  him  all 
his  effects,  and  besides,  complimented  him  with  some  valuable 
presents.  Such  influence  have  courage  and  fidelity,  even  on  the 
minds  of  those  who  seem  to  violate  all  the  laws  of  society. 

The  conquerors  of  Campeachy  spent  two  months  in  searching 
the  environs  of  the  city  for  twelve  or  fifteen  leagues  round,  carry- 
16*  x 


186  THE   WEST    INDIES. 

ing  off  everything  of  value  that  the  inhabitants  had  secreted. 
When  all  the  treasure  collected  from  every  quarter  was  deposited 
in  the  ships,  a  proposal  was  made  to  the  governor  of  the  province, 
who  still  kept  the  field,  with  nine  hundred  men,  to  ransom  his 
capital.  His  refusal  determined  the  buccaneers  to  burn  it,  and 
demolish  the  citadel.  The  French  portion  of  them,  on  the  fes- 
tival of  St.  Louis,  were  celebrating  the  anniversary  of  their  king ; 
and,  in  the  transports  of  their  patriotism  and  intoxication,  they 
burnt  stores  of  logwood  to  the  value  of  two  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars. After  this  extravagant  instance  of  folly,  which  Frenchmen 
alone  could  practise,  the  buccaneers  returned  to  St.  Domingo. 

A  few  enterprising  men  had  fitted  out,  in  1697,  in  the  ports  of 
France,  and  under  the  sanction  of  government,  seven  ships  of  the 
line  and  a  proportional  number  of  smaller  vessels.  This  fleet, 
commanded  by  Commodore  Pointis,  conveyed  troops  for  the  land 
service;  their  destination  being  against  Carthagena,  one  of  the 
richest  and  best  fortified  towns  of  the  New  World.  The  French 
expected  that  this  expedition  would  be  attended  with  great  diffi- 
culties ;  but  they  hoped  these  would  be  surmounted,  if  the  bucca- 
neers would  assist  them,  which  in  fact  they  engaged  to  do,  out  of 
complaisance  to  Ducasse,  governor  of  St.  Domingo,  a  man  highly 
esteemed  by  them. 

Carthagena  was  accordingly  attacked  by  the  united  forces,  and 
the  buccaneers,  whose  boldness  could  not  be  restrained,  did  even 
more  than  was  expected  from  them.  No  sooner  had  they  per- 
ceived a  small  breach  in  the  walls  of  the  lower  town,  than  they 
stormed  the  place,  and  planted  their  standards  upon  the  ramparts. 
They  carried  the  other  works  with  the  same  intrepidity.  The 
town  surrendered,  its  capture  being  attributable  to  the  buccaneers. 

All  kinds  of  enormities  followed  the  surrender.  The  French 
general,  who  was  an  unprincipled,  greedy  and  cruel  man,  broke 
every  article  of  the  capitulation.  Although  the  apprehensions  of 
an  army,  that  was  collecting  in  the  inland  country,  had  made  him 
consent  that  the  inhabitants  should  keep  half  their  movable 
effects,  yet  everything  was  given  up  to  indiscriminate  plunder. 
The  officers  were  the  first  thieves ;  and  it  was  not  till  they  had 
gorged  themselves  with  the  spoils,  that  the  soldiers  were  suffered 
to  ransack  the  houses.  As  for  the  buccaneers,  they  were  kept  in 
employment  out  of  the  town  while  the  treasures  were  seized. 
Pointis  pretended  that  the  spoils  did  not  exceed  a  million  and  a 
half  or  two  millions  of  dollars.  Ducasse  valued  them  at  six  mil- 
lions, and  others  at  eight  millions.  The  buccaneers,  according  to 
agreement,  were  to  receive  one  quarter  of  the  whole.  They  were, 
however,  given  to  understand  that  their  profit  would  amount 
to  but  foity  thousand  crowns. 


THE   BUCCANEERS.  187 

The  ships  had  set  sail  when  this  statement  was  made  to  these 
intrepid  men,  who  had  decided  the  victory.  Exasperated  at  this 
treatment,  they  resolved  immediately  to  board  the  general's  ship, 
which,  at  that  time,  was  too  far  distant  from  the  rest  of  the  fleet 
to  receive  assistance.  This  infamous  commander  was  upon  the 
point  of  being  massacred,  when  one  of  the  malecontents  cried  out, 
"Brethren,  why  should  we  attack  this  rascal?  He  hath  carried 
off  nothing  that  belonged  to  us.  He  hath  left  our  share  at  Car- 
thagena,  and  there  we  must  go  to  recover  it."  This  proposal 
was  received  with  general  applause.  A  savage  joy  at  once  suc- 
ceeded that  gloomy  melancholy  which  had  seized  them,  and 
without  further  deliberation,  all  the  ships  of  the  buccaneers  sailed 
back  to  Carthagena,  again  took  possession  of  the  city,  and  having 
imprisoned  all  the  men  in  the  cathedral,  demanded  a  million  of 
dollars  as  their  ransom.  One  of  the  priests  mounted  the  pulpit, 
and  made  use  of  all  the  influence  that  his  character,  his  authority 
and  his  eloquence  gave  him,  to  persuade  his  hearers  to  give  up  all 
their  gold,  silver  and  jewels.  The  collection  made  after  this  ser- 
mon not  furnishing  the  sum  required,  the  buccaneers  again  fell  to 
plundering  the  city.  From  the  houses  they  proceeded  to  pillage 
the  churches  and  even  the  tombs,  but  with  no  great  success ;  and 
the  instruments  of  torture  were  at  length  produced.  Four  citi- 
zens, of  the  greatest  distinction,  were  seized,  to  extort  a  confession 
where  the  money  was  concealed.  They  all  protested  their  igno- 
rance with  so  much  sincerity  and  firmness,  that  avarice  itself  was 
disarmed.  Some  muskets  were,  however,  fired  off,  to  induce  a 
belief  that  these  unfortunate  men  had  been  shot.  Every  one  ap- 
prehended the  same  fate ;  and  that  very  evening  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  were  produced.  The  following  days  produced 
also  something  more.  Despairing,  at  length,  to  add  anything  to 
what  they  had  already  amassed,  the  buccaneers  set  sail.  On  their 
voyage  homeward,  they  fell  in  with  a  fleet  of  Dutch  and  English 
ships,  both  those  nations  being  then  in  alliance  with  Spain.  Sev- 
eral of  their  smaller  vessels  were  either  taken  or  sunk ;  the  rest 
escaped  to  St.  Domingo. 

Such  was  the  last  memorable  event  in  the  history  of  the  bucca- 
neers. They  subsequently  dispersed  and  settled  in  various  parts 
of  the  West  Indies.  History  will  preserve  their  memory  as  a 
most  remarkable  race  of  men.  Without  any  regular  and  fixed 
system  of  government,  without  revenues,  without  any  degree  of 
subordination,  they  ravaged  extensive  countries,  and  became  the 
terror  of  Spanish  America  and  the  astonishment  of  the  age  in 
which  they  lived.  Had  they  been  animated  with  the  spirit  "of 
conquest,  as  they  were  with  that  of  rapine,  they  would  have  sub*- 
dued  the  whole  of  the  Western  World. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

Depopulation  of  St.  Domingo. — Settlement  of  Tortuga. — Establishment  of  the 
French  in  St.  Domingo. — Effect  of  the  French  revolution  on  the  island. —  The 
mulattoes  petition  for  political  privileges.— ^Enfranchisement  of  the  colored  popu- 
lation.—  Vincent  Oge  attempts  a  revolt. —  General  insurrection  of  the  slaves. — 
Massacre  of  the  inhabitants. — Landing  of  the  British. — Arrival  of  a  French 
army. — Toussaint  L'Ouverture. — Expedition  of  Le  Clerc. — Destruction  of  his 
army. — Independence  of  Hayti. — Reign  of  Dessalines. —  Christophe. — Petion. — 
Civil  war. —  Christophe  crowned  king. — His  reign  and  overthrow. —  Union  of 
all  parts  of  the  island  under  President  Boyer. 


Christophe  crowned  king  of  Hayti. 

THE  Spaniards  having,  in  about  half  a  century,  exterminated 
the  whole  native  population  of  St.  Domingo,  estimated  at  more 
than  two  millions,  remained  the  sole  masters  of  this  beautiful 
island.  The  gold  mines  being  exhausted,  the  whole  territory 
became  little  better  than  an  abandoned  waste,  and  they  remained 
the  undisputed  and  useless  possessors  of  this  fertile  soil,  till  1630, 
when  some  English  and  French,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  St. 
Christopher's,  took  refuge  there  and  established  themselves  on  the 
northern  coast.  The  little  island  of  Tortuga,  two  leagues  from 
the  shore,  offered  them  a  secure  retreat.  From  this  spot  they 
issued  to  hunt  wild  animals  in  St.  Domingo,  and  sold  their  hides 


ST.    DOMINGO.  189 

to  the  Dutch.  The  culture  of  tobacco  increased  their  means  of 
subsistence,  and  the  colony  received  great  augmentations  from 
various  quarters.  Out  of  this  establishment  grew  the  celebrated 
band  of  freebooters,  whose  history  we  have  just  related. 

This  settlement  alarmed  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  they  gave 
orders  for  its  destruction.  The  commander  entrusted  with  this 
commission,  took  the  opportunity  when  the  Tortugans  were  mostly 
abroad,  hunting  and  fishing,  and  hanged  or  put  to  the  sword  all 
he  found  in  the  island.  The  others  stood  upon  their  defence,  and, 
placing  at  their  head  an  Englishman  named  Willis,  retook  the 
island  in  1638,  and  fortified  it  strongly.  "Willis  collected  recruits 
of  his  own  nation,  and  soon  found  himself  strong  enough  to  give 
law  to  the  whole  band.  He  began  to  act  the  tyrant,  which  dis- 
gusted particularly  the  French  portion  of  his  subjects,  and  they 
called  in  their  countrymen  from  St.  Christopher's.  The  English 
were  expelled,  and  the  Tortugans  continued  to  be  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  the  Spaniards,  who  drove  them  from  the  island 
three  times  successively,  but  the  French  as  often  recovered  it. 
The  court  of  Versailles  at  length  acknowledged  this  colony,  and 
sent  Bertrand  D'Ogeron  to  establish  laws  and  superintend  the 
government.  D'Ogeron  carried  women  to  Hispaniola,  who  were 
sold  for  wives  to  the  planters.  The  settlement  began  to  flourish, 
and  was  increased  by  the  acquisition  of  a  great  number  of  slaves 
which  the  French  captured  from  the  Spaniards  and  English. 

The  Spanish  government,  after  many  ineffectual  attempts  to 
expel  the  French,  at  length  consented  to  their  stay,  and  at  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1691,  Spain  formally  ceded  to  France  the 
western  half  of  the  island.  In  1776,  a  new  boundary  line  was 
agreed  upon,  and  a  liberal  commerce  opened  between  the  two  na- 
tions. The  French  portion  of  the  island  far  surpassed  the  Spanish 
in  productiveness  and  wealth.  The  former  increased  rapidly  in 
population  and  culture,  while  the  latter  declined  in  both ;  and  it 
was  not  till  the  year  1765,  that  it  began  to  show  any  symptoms 
of  prosperity.  The  political  convulsions  of  Europe,  however, 
were  destined  to  exercise  a  most  important  influence  upon  this 
island. 

When  the  French  revolution  broke  out,  the  colony  of  St.  Do- 
mingo had  attained  the  summit  of  prosperity.  It  was  the  boast 
of  the  French  that  their  half  of  this  fertile  island  was  worth  all 
the  remainder  of  the  West  Indies.  The  political  enthusiasm  of 
the  mother  country  spread  to  the  colonies,  and  the  revolutionary 
frenzy  seized  upon  the  minds  of  the  more  wealthy  part  of  the 
colonists.  In  the  midst  of  a  population  of  slaves,  who  outnum- 
bered the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  proportion  of  seven  to  one, 


190  THE    WEST   INDIES. 

they  planted  the  tree  of  liberty,  deposed  the  existing  authorities, 
and  preached  the  doctrine  of  equality  and  the  rights  of  man. 
The  conduct  o.f  the  white  colonists,  however,  seemed  to  create 
but  little  sensation  among  the  negroes ;  but  the  mulattoes,  who 
were  already  free,  and  at  least  equal  in  number  to  the  white 
population,  soon  set  up  their  claim  to  an  equality  of  rights  for 
their  whole  class.  A  mulatto,  by  the  name  of  Lacombe.  presented 
a  petition  to  the  proper  authorities,  in  which  he  demanded  "  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  man."  The  petition  was  voted  to  be 
treasonable,  and  the  author  sentenced  to  the  gallows.  At  Petit 
Goave,  a  planter  was  torn  in  pieces,  without  trial,  for  having  pre- 
sented a  petition  in  favor  of  the  people  of  color,  and  all  who  had 
signed  it  were  banished  from  the  colony. 

These  violent  measures  against  the  mulattoes,  who  were  in 
general  a  wealthy  and  respectable  body  of  men,  were  followed  by 
a  declaration,  on  the  part  of  a  self-constituted  general  assembly 
of  the  whites,  "  that  they  would  rather  die  than  share  their  politi- 
cal rights  with  a  spurious  and  degenerate  race."  This  race,  how- 
ever, had  powerful  advocates  of  their  own  class  in  France,  who, 
through  the  means  of  Brissot,  La  Fayette  and '  Robespierre,  the 
leading  members  of  the  society  called  "  Friends  of  the  Blacks," 
ultimately  procured  the  decree  of  the  15th  of  May,  1791,  by  which 
all  people  of  color,  resident  in  the  French  colonies,  born  of  free 
parents,  were  entitled  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  privileges 
of  French  citizens.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Robespierre 
uttered  that  memorable  exclamation,  which  at  once  put  an  end  to 
all  the  hopes  and  intrigues  of  the  colonial  planters  resident  in 
Paris, — "  Perish  the  colonies  rather  than  sacrifice  one  iota  of  our 
principles!"  There  had  been  in  Paris,  the  preceding  year,  a 
young  mulatto,  named  Vincent  Oge,  whose  widowed  mother  held 
a  coffee  plantation  in  St.  Domingo.  This  youth  determined  by 
force  of  arms  to  cause  the  rights  of  his  class  to  be  respected.  He 
landed  secretly  at  Cape  Francois,  reached  his  mother's  dwelling, 
and  was  joined  by  about  three  hundred  of  his  own  color ;  but 
they  were  soon  dispersed  or  made  prisoners.  Oge  escaped  into  the 
Spanish  part  of  the  island,  but  having  been  betrayed,  was  tried, 
condemned  and  executed.  More  than  twenty  others  shared  the 
same  fate. 

These  judicial  massacres  created  the  utmost  horror  among  the 
mulattoes,  and,  by  changing  the  guilty  into  martyrs  of  liberty, 
separated  forever  the  class  of  mulattoes  from  that  of  the  Creoles. 
The  revolutionary  spirit  continued  to  increase  among  the  whites ; 
the  constituted  authorities  were  insulted  or  overthrown ;  and  at 
length  the  slaves  began  to  display  symptoms  of  disorder.  In 


ST.  DOMINGO.  191 

August,  1791,  on  the  occasion  of  a  fire  at  a  plantation  in  the 
north,  and  an  attempt  made  by  a  slave,  at  another  place,  on  the  life 
of  the  bailiff,  all  the  negroes  on  these  two  plantations  were  seized  as 
criminals  and  made  the  victims  of  creole  justice.  In  a  few  days, 
a  general  insurrection  of  the  slaves  broke  out;  the  negroes  set 
fire  to  the  plantations ;  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  island  was 
in  flames  and  all  the  whites  that  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insur- 
gents were  put  to  death  without  distinction  of  sex  or  age.  Those 
who  escaped,  fled  into  the  town  of  Cape  Francois,  where  a  gene- 
ral consternation  prevailed.  The  domestic  blacks  -were  locked 
up;  a  great  fury  was  excited  against  the  mulattoes,  as  the  sup- 
posed instigators  of  the  insurrection,  and  numbers  of  innocent 
men  of  this  class  were  put  to  death.  The  population  flew  to 
arms,  and  all  hands  were  employed  in  fortifying  Jhe  town,  which 
the  negroes  approached  in  detached  parties,  carrying  fire,  piiiage 
and  massacre  all  over  the  surrounding  country.  In  four  days, 
the  whole  French  part  of  the  island  lay  in  ashes.  The  fire 
which  they  set  to  the  plantations  of  canes,  the  sugar-mills,  the 
dwelling-houses  and  stores,  covered  the  face  of  heaven  during  the 
day  with  volumes  of  smoke.  In  the  night  the  horizon  was  in  a 
blaze  like  that  of  volcanoes,  which  communicated  to  every  object 
the  glowing  tint  of  blood. 

The  whites,  on  the  other  hand,  tortured  and  massacred  all 
the  negroes,  whether  guilty  or  innocent,  that  fell  into  their  hands. 
After  a  while  they  attempted  conciliation,  but  the  negroes  had 
become  organized  under  leaders,  and  refused  submission.  In  this 
terrible  war,  blood  was  poured  forth  in  torrents.  Within  two 
months  after  the  revolt  began,  upwards  of  two  thousand  whites, 
of  all  ages  and  conditions,  were  massacred.  One  hundred  and 
eighty  sugar  plantations,  and  nine  hundred  coffee,  cotton  and 
indigo  settlements  were  destroyed,  and  twelve  hundred  Christian 
families  reduced  from  opulence  to  such  a  state  of  misery  as  to 
depend  for  food  and  clothing  on  charity.  Of  the  insurgents  up- 
wards of  two  thousand  perished  by  the  sword  or  famine,  and 
some  hundreds  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner.  An  insurrection 
followed  in  the  west ;  all  the  country  for  thirty  miles  round  Port 
au  Prince  was  burnt  and  laid  waste. 

Meantime  the  decree  of  the  15th  of  May  was  repealed  by  the 
National  Assembly  at  Paris.  When  this  intelligence  reached  St. 
Domingo,  the  mulattoes,  believing  themselves  betrayed  by  the 
whites,  flew  to  arms ;  the  most  bloody  conflicts  ensued.  Three 
commissioners  had  been  sent  from  France  with  an  armed  force  to 
regulate  the  affairs  of  the  colony  and  carry  into  effect  the  decree 
of  the  National  Assembly.  Their  arrival  caused  the  utmost  terror 


192  THE   WEST    INDIES. 

among  the  whites,  from  the  suspicion  of  a  design  to  declare  a  gen- 
eral emancipation  of  the  negro  slaves.  The  commissioners  acted 
in  a  most  arbitrary  manner,  cashiered  three  governors,  and  finally 
quarrelled  among  themselves.  All  was  confusion  and  uproar. 
Terrified  at  these  scenes,  and  apprehensive  of  still  more  dreadful 
ones,  thousands  of  persons,  of  all  descriptions,  embarked  with  the 
wrecks  of  their  fortunes  for  the  United  States.  Some  of  the 
planters  repaired  to  England,  and  made  such  representations  to  the 
government  that  an  expedition  under  General  Whitelocke  was  sent 
from  Jamaica  to  occupy  such  parts  of  the  island  as  might  be  wil- 
ling to  put  themselves  under  British  protection.  On  the  19th  Sep- 
tember he  took  possession  of  Jeremie,  and  a  few  days  afterward  of 
the  port  and  harbor  of  St.  Nicholas ;  but  the  town  refused  to  sub- 
mit and  joined  the  republican  army  raised  by  the  three  jacobin 
commissioners.  This  army  consisted  of  the  troops  brought  from 
France,  the  national  guards  and  the  militia,  amounting  to  fourteen 
thousand  whites ;  to  which  were  added  a  motley  band  of  slaves 
who  had  deserted  their  masters,  and  negroes  from  the  jails ;  making 
altogether  a  force  of  twenty-five  thousand  men.  The  commis- 
sioners, not  thinking  this  army  sufficient  to  repel  the  attack  of  the 
British,  proclaimed  the  total  abolition  of  negro  slavery.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand  blacks  fled  to  the 
mountains  and  possessed  themselves  of  the  natural  fortresses  of 
the  interior.  A  desperate  band  of  thirty  or  forty  thousand  armed 
negroes  and  mulattoes  ravaged  the  whole  of  the  northern  districts, 
more  intent  on  plunder  than  on  opposing  the  progress  of  the 
English,  who,  "after  several  skirmishes,  became  masters  of  the 
western  coast  of  the  island. 

On  the  capture  of  Port  au  Prince  by  the  English,  the  republican 
commissioners  retired  towards  the  mountains,  but  finding  the. 
mulattoes  and  blacks  in  possession  of  the  heights,  under  the  mulatto 
general,  Rigaud,  and  a  negro  by  the  name  of  Toussaint  L'O.uver- 
ture,  they  deemed  it  necessary  to  abandon  a  country  which  their 
own  rash  precipitation  had  plunged  into  ruin. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture  soon  became  the  leader.  This  man  was 
born  a  slave,  and  continued  so  for  nearly  fifty  years.  When 
the  insurrection  broke  out  he  refused  to  join  in  it,  and  assisted  in 
procuring  his  master  a  passage  to  the  United  States.  After  this, 
he  joined  the  French  forces,  and  rose  by  successive  steps  to  the, 
rank  of  brigadier  general.  He  obtained  such  influence  that  all 
the  proceedings  of  the  French  commissioners  were  directed  by 
him.  The  Directory  at  Paris  became  jealous  of  him,  and  sent  out 
General  Hedouville  to  observe  his  conduct  and  restrain  his  ambi- 
tion. Toussaint,  however,  refused  to  submit  to  his  management. 


ST.  DOMINGO.  193 

Bonaparte,  on  becoming  lirst  consul,  confirmed  him  as  comman- 
der-in-chief,  and  Toussaint  succeeded  in  freeing  the  island  from 
the  English.  He  introduced  order  and  discipline  into  the  gov- 
ernment, and  under  his  sway  the  colony  advanced,  as  if  by 
enchantment,  towards  its  ancient  splendor.  The  lands  were  again 
put  under  cultivation ;  all  the  people  appeared  to  be  happy,  and 
considered  Toussaint  as  their  guardian  angel;  both  blacks  and 
whites  regarded  him  with  esteem  and  confidence. 

The  general  enthusiasm  which  he  had  excited  was  sufficient  to 
instil  vanity  into  the  strongest  mind,  and  he  had  some  excuse  for 
saying  he  was  the  Bonaparte  of  St.  Domingo  !  He  had  in  early 
life  stored  his  memory  with  an  incoherent  jumble  of  Latin  phrases 
from  the  psalter,  of  which  he  made  a  whimsical  use  after  his  ele- 
vation. Sometimes  a  negro  or  mulatto  would  apply  to  be  made 
a  magistrate  or  judge:  ''Certainly,"  he  would  reply; — "you  un- 
derstand Latin,  of  course?  " — "  No,  General." — "  How  ! — wish  to 
be  a  magistrate,  and  not  know  Latin !" — and  then  he  would  pour 
forth  a  torrent  of  Latin  jargon,  which  sent  the  sable  candidate  away 
with  the  opinion  that  the  general  was  a  most  portentous  scholar. 

The  prosperity  of  the  colony  was  unfortunately  of  short  con- 
tinuance. After  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Bonaparte,  urged  on  by 
the  expelled  planters  and  mercantile  speculators,  determined  to 
recover  the  colony,  reinstate  the  former  proprietors  and  subjugate 
the  emancipated  slaves.  For  this  purpose  he  despatched  his  bro- 
ther-in-law, General  Le  Clerc,  with  a  force  of  twenty-five  thousand 
men.  On  the  appearance  of  the  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Samana, 
Toussaint  exclaimed,  "We  shall  all  perish; — all  France  is  come 
to  St.  Domingo."  The  army  landed,  and  several  desperate  battles 
were  fought.  Le  Clerc  at  last  found  himself  under  the  necessity 
of  proclaiming  liberty  and  equality  to  all  the  inhabitants,  with 
the  reservation,  however,  of  the  approval  of  the  French  govern- 
ment. The  negroes,  tired  of  the  war,  deserted  their  leaders,  and 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  by  which  the  sovereignty  of 
France  over  the  island  was  acknowledged  and  a  general  amnesty 
granted.  In  direct  violation  of  this  agreement,  Toussaint  was 
seized  by  Le  Clerc  and  carried  to  France,  where  he  died  in  prison. 

This  outrage  on  the  person  of  their  favorite  chief  exasperated 
the  blacks  to  a  high  degree.  They  flew  to  arms,  and  organized 
themselves  under  leaders,  among  whom  Dessalines  and  Christophe 
soon  became  conspicuous.  They  spread  slaughter  and  devasta- 
tion among  the  French,  who  could  offer  little  resistance  against 
them  on  account  of  the  excessive  heat  of  the  summer — 1802. 
Le  Clerc  and  most  of  his  officers  were  attacked  by  sickness,  and, 
all  the  reinforcements  sent  from  France  suffered  successively  from 
17  T 


194  THE    WEST   INDIES. 

the  pestilence.  Yet  they  continued  to  practise  great  barbar- 
ities towards  the  unfortunate  blacks.  In  the  midst  of  these  scenes 
of  horror,  Le  Clerc  died,  and  the  command  devolved  on  General 
Rochambeau,  who  fought  several  battles  with  varied  success;  but 
the  losses  sustained  in  these  actions,  added  to  disease,  reduced 
the  French  to  the  necessity  of  shutting  themselves  up  in  their 
strong  holds,  while  the  blacks  were  daily  increasing  in  number 
and  confidence.  By  the  end  of  the  year  1802,  no  less  than  forty 
thousand  Frenchmen  had  perished. 

Dessalines,  now  commander-in-chief  of  the  negro  army,  advanc- 
ed to  the  plain  of  Cape  Francois,  to  besiege  the  French  in  their 
head-quarters.  A  bloody  battle  followed,  in  which  neither  could 
claim  the  victory.  The  French  were  said  to  have  tortured  their 
prisoners,  and  then  put  to  death  five  hundred  of  them.  Dessalines, 
hearing  of  this,  caused  five  hundred  gibbets  to  be  erected,  and 
after  selecting  all  the  French  officers,  made  up  the  number  out  of 
the  other  prisoners,  and  hung  them  up  at  break  of  day  in  sight  of 
the  French  army.  The  misery  of  the  French  was  completed  by 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  England,  in  1803.  A  British 
squadron  blockaded  Cape  Frangois;  the  town  was  reduced  by 
famine,  and  Rochambeau  surrendered  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

On  the  first  of  January,  1804,  the  independence  of  theasland 
was  formally  proclaimed,  and  it  resumed  its  aboriginal  name  of 
Hayti.  Jean  Jacques  Dessalines  was  appointed  governor-general 
for  life.  His  first  act  was  to  encourage  the  return  of  those  blacks 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  United  States.  He  next  excited  the 
people  to  a  horrible  massacre  of  the  whites,  which  took  place  on 
the  28th  of  April.  By  a  series  of  cruelties  and  perfidies  he  got 
rid  of  all  whom  he  conceived  to  be  his  enemies,  and  on  the  8th 
October,  1804,  procured  a  Capuchin  missionary  to  crown  him  em- 
peror, by  the  name  of  Jacques  I.  On  this  occasion  he  signed  a 
constitution  declaring  the  empire  of  Hayti  to  be  a  free,  sovereign 
and  independent  state.  It  proclaimed  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the 
equality  of  rank,  the  equal  operation  of  the  laws,  the  inviolability 
of  property,  &c.  Under  this  government  the  island  rapidly  ad- 
vanced to  prosperity.  Dessalines,  though  a  cruel  and  sanguinary 
tyrant,  was  not  without  skill  in  the  art  of  government.  When 
emperor,  he  appointed  his  ancient  master  to  the  office  of  butler  to 
his  household,  which  he  said  was  precisely  what  the  old  man 
wished  for,  as  his  love  for  wine  made  up  for  the  abstemiousness 
of  Dessalines,  who  drank  only  water. 

Dessalines  closed  his  bloody  career  on  the  17th  October,  1806, 
being  assassinated  by  the  mulatto  soldiers  of  Petion.  At  his  death 
Christophe  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  government,  and  a  con- 


ST.  DOMINGO.  195 

stitution  projected  which  should  guarantee  the  safety  of  persons  and 
property.  A  proclamation  was  issued,  denouncing  the  crimes  of 
which  Dessalines  had  been  guilty,  and,  among  other  things,  accused 
him  of  having  robbed  the  public  treasury  of  twenty  thousand 
dollars  for  each  of  his  twenty  mistresses.  Christophe,  however, 
deplored  the  fate  of  Dessalines,  and  affirmed  that  he  had  been  put 
to  death  by  the  mulattoes  without  inquiry  into  his  conduct.  The 
blacks,  always  jealous  of  the  mulattoes,  attacked  Petion,  who  with 
his  adherents  escaped  into  the  southern  and  western  districts, 
where  a  new  constitution  was  prepared,  and  on  the  27th  Decem- 
ber, 1806,  Petion  was  proclaimed  president  of  the  republic  of 
Hayti.  A  civil  war  now  sprang  up  between  the  partisans  of  the 
two  chiefs,  till  at  length,  by  a  sort  of  tacit  agreement,  the  mulatto 
president  fixed  himself  in  the  south  and  west,  while  Christophe 
established  himself  in  the  north,  where,  on  the  2d  of  June,  1811, 
the  royal  crown  was  placed  on  his  head  and  he  was  proclaimed 
Henry  I.,  king  of  Hayti. 

King  Henry  established  his  court  and  government  in  all  the 
pomp  of  an  European  monarchy.  He  maintained  an  army  of 
twenty-five  thousand  men.  He  created  orders  of  nobility,  with 
princes,  dukes,  earls,  barons  and  chevaliers,  knights  of  the  grand 
cross,  &c.  He  set  up  a  sort  of  feudal  system,  partitioning  out  the 
vacant  lands  among  his  retainers.  He  founded  a  royal  college, 
established  schools,  endowed  an  academy  for  music  and  painting, 
built  a  theatre,  patronised  the  arts,  and  encouraged  magnificence 
in  dress.  He  was  born  a  slave  in  the  island  of  St.  Christopher's, 
from  whence  he  took  his  original  name;  yet  his  literary  acquire- 
ments were  respectable,  and  he  spoke  French  and  English  well. 
The  country  prospered  under  his  administration,  and  for  a  time 
he  ruled  in  tranquillity. 

Petion,  the  president  of  the  republic,  was  a  native  mulatto  of 
the  island,  and  received  an  education  at  the  military  academy  of 
Paris.  His  manners  were  shy,  but  his  disposition  was  gentle  and 
conciliatory.  He  appears  to  have  governed  with  equity  and  mod- 
eration, and  enjoyed  the  full  confidence  of  his  people.  He  was 
evidently  much  superior  to  the  men  by  whom  he  was  surrounded ; 
and  it  is  believed  that  he  died  of  chagrin,  on  finding  his  schemes 
of  philanthropy  and  political  improvements  impracticable  among 
the  barbarous  population  of  Hayti.  His  death  took  place  in  1818. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Jean  Pierre  Boyer,  who  is  still  at  the  head 
of  the  government. 

Christophe  reigned  nine  years;  but,  in  the  midst  of  apparent 
peace  and  prosperity,  he  lived  in  continual  suspicion  of  plots 
against  his  life.  He  distrusted  his  officers  and  the  persons  about 


196  THE    WEST    INDIES. 

hini.  His  palace  was  defended  with  all  possible  care,  and  he 
never  journeyed  without  strict  precautions  for  his  safety,  carrying 
loaded  pistols,  and  surrounding  himself  with  his  body-guard. 
His  fears  were  not  entirely  groundless;  numerous  circumstances 
had  diminished  his  popularity,  and  prepared  the  way  for  his 
downfall.  He  became  severe,  arbitrary  and  tyrannical ;  he  no 
longer  consulted  his  nobles  and  principal  officers  on  public  affairs ; 
he  displaced  and  degraded  them,  from  ill-humor  and  caprice,  and 
at  length  losing  all  the  affections  and  confidence  of  his  people,  he 
became  as  much  the  object  of  their  dread  as  he  had  formerly  been 
of  their  admiration.  At  length,  a  burst  of  passion  impelled  him 
to  order  a  barbarous  massacre  of  a  number  of  mulatto  women. 
This  extinguished  the  last  spark  of  attachment  that  lingered  in 
the  breast  of  the  people.  A  mutiny  of  the  soldiers  broke  out 
shortly  afterwards.  Christophe  gave  orders  to  put  the  ringlead- 
ers to  death.  The  soldiery,  instead  of  executing  this  order,  took 
sides  with  the  mutineers,  and  Christophe,  in  despair,  shot  himself 
through  the  head  with  a  pistol,  in  October,  1820. 

This  was  the  end  of  the  Haytian  monarchy.  An  attempt  in- 
deed was  made  by  the  conspirators  to  maintain  the  old  govern- 
ment, and  one  of  Christophe's  nobles,  Romaine,  the  prince  of 
Limbe,  endeavored  to  get  himself  proclaimed  king.  He  was  foiled 
in  his  attempt,  and  the  people  invited  Boyer  into  their  territory. 
Boyer  marched  to  Cape  Francois,  at  the  head  of  twenty  thousand 
men,  and  was  proclaimed  the  sole  aiUhorized  chief  of  Ha.yti.  The 
Spanish  portion  of  the  island  voluntarily  placed  itself  under  his 
government  in  1821.  Since  this  event  the  three  governments 
have  remained  united.  In  1825.  a  treaty  was  concluded  with 
France,  by  which  the  independence  of  Hayti  was  acknowledged 
on  condition  of  the  payment  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of 
francs,  in  five  annual  instalments.  This  treaty  has  been  censured 
as  imprudent  and  highly  prejudicial  to  the  Haytians,  by  draining 
their  country  of  an  enormous  sum  of  money,  which  they  could 
not  pay  without  the  most  ruinous  sacrifices,  and  for  which  they 
received  no  equivalent.  Hayti,  at  present,  has  little  commerce, 
but  being  free  from  intestine  commotions,  the  island  may  in  time 
recover  a  portion  of  its  former  prosperity.  A  fatality,  however, 
seems  to  hang  constantly  over  this  fair  territory.  On  the  7th  day 
of  May,  1842,  the  whole  island  was  shaken  by  an  earthquake, 
which  destroyed  the  town  of  Cape  Haytien,  formerly  Cape  Fran- 
9ois,  with  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  leaving  scarcely  a  third  of  the 
population  remaining. 


SPANISH   SETTLEMENTS, 

CHAPTER    XX  . 

PERU. — Insurrection  of  Tupac  Amaru. —  Character  of  this  leader. — His  attempts 
in  favor  of  the  Peruvians. — Becomes  the  patron  of  the  Indians. — Apprehensions 
of  the  Spaniards. — Commencement  of  the  insurrection. — Trial  and  execution  of 
Arriaga. — Policy  of  Tupac  Amaru. — Conquest  of  Quispicancha  by  the  Indians. — 
They  advance  upon  Cuzco. — Battle  of  Sangarara. — Slaughter  of  the  Spaniards. 
— Triumphs  of  Tupac. — He  assumes  the  crown  of  Peru. — Expedition  against 
Puno. — Defeat  of  the  Indians. — Siege  of  Puno. — Invasion  of  Chucuito. — Ad- 
ventures of  Tomas  Catari. — Rebellion  in  Chayanta. — Arrival  of  a  Spanish  army 
from  Buenos  Ayres. — Defeat  of  the  Indians. — Cruelties  of  the  Spaniards. — 
Oruro  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Indians. — Furious  excesses  of  the  insurgents. 
—  War  of  extermination. — The  whole  of  Peru  raised  in  arms. — Tupac  marches 
upon  Cuzco. — Defence  of  the  city  by  the  cacique  Pomacagua. —  The  siege  of 
Cuzco  raised. — Retreat  of  Tupac. 

THE  native  Peruvians,  after  their  subjugation,  quietly  submit- 
ted, for  more  than  two  centuries,  to  the  yoke  of  their  conquerors. 
To  a  casual  observer,  all  memory  of  their  ancient  independence 
and  the  glories  of  the  empire  of  Manco  Capac  appeared  to  be  lost. 
But  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  events  occurred, 
which  proved,  in  the  most  striking  manner,  that  the  national  spirit 
was  not  extinct  among  the  Peruvians,  nor  the  remembrance  of 
their  better  days  entirely  out  of  their  thoughts.  Groaning  under 
the  severest  bondage,  their  minds  still  dwelt  upon  the  days  of 
their  independence,  and  they  wanted  only  a  leader  to  encourage 
them  to  burst  their  fetters,  and  rise  in  rebellion  against  their 
tyrannical  masters. 

Such  a  leader  they  found  in  Jose  Gabriel  Condorcanqui,  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  Tupac  Amaru,  which  he  took  upon 
himself  by  right  of  his  maternal  descent  from  the  Inca  of  that 
name,  the  last  of  the  sovereigns  of  Peru,  put  to  death  by  the 
Spaniards.  This  celebrated  individual  first  attracted  attention  in 
Peru,  by  .assuming  the  Peruvian  name,  proving  his  descent  from 
Manco  Capac,  and  urging  his  pretensions,  before  the  court  of 
Lima,  to  the  vacant  marquisate  of  Oropesa,  which  had  been 
granted  to  Sayri  Tupac,  his  ancestor.  Of  a  noble  physiognomy 
and  a  robust  frame,  vast  designs,  vehement  passions,  firmness  of 
enterprise,  and  intrepidity  amid  dangers,  but  with  only  the  impel, 
feet  education  which  he  could  acquire  by  a  few  years'  study  at 
the  colleges  of  Cuzco  and  Lima,  he  conceived  the  bold  design  of 
17* 


Overseer  of  a  royal  Peruvian  mine.        Fighter  at  a  bull  feast. 

•tiki 


Huaylas,  an  Indian  giant  of  Peru. 


Servants — Natives  of  Peru.  Festive  costumes  of  Indians. 


INSURRECTION   OF    TUPAC    AMARU.  199 

delivering  his  countrymen  from  the  tyranny  under  which  they 
groaned. 

Tupac  Amaru,  in  the  first  place,  endeavored  to  procure  some 
mitigation  of  these  unparalleled  burdens,  by  gaining  the  coopera- 
tion of  several  eminent  dignitaries  in  the  church,  led  by  the 
Bishop  of  Cuzco,  a  noble  Peruvian,  and  using  their  influence  with 
the  government  in  behalf  of  the  oppressed  Indians.  Yet,  foresee- 
ing that  persuasion  would  avail  but  little  with  their  avaricious 
and  cruel  masters,  he  resorted  to  other  means  of  redress,  by 
assiduously  courting  popularity  among  his  countrymen,  exhibit- 
ing himself  as  the  protector  of  the  injured,  alleviating  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  distressed  by  pecuniary  aid,  and  thus  gradually 
leading  the  whole  nation  to  regard  him  as  the  descendant  and 
rightful  representative  of  their  ancient  sovereigns. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Peruvians,  who  sympathized  in  the 
miseries  of  the  Indians,  urged  upon  the  advisers  of  the  crown  the 
necessity  of  a  reform  in  the  internal  administration  of  the  country, 
in  such  strong  terms,  and  expressed  so  decided  a  belief  that  some 
fearful  political  crisis  was  impending,  that  the  Spanish  court  began 
to  listen  to  their  representations.  Accordingly,  two  noble  Peru- 
vians, Don  Ventura  Santelices  and  Don  Bias  Tupac  Amaru,  were 
called  to  Spain,  to  aid  the  council  of  the  Indies  in  devising  means 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Indians.  Probably  they  would 
have  succeeded,  had  they  not  prematurely  perished  by  chance 
or  by  assassination, — the  one  at  Madrid,  the  other  on  his  passage 
back  to  Peru.  Tupac  Amaru  now  came  forward  in  person,  and 
made  new  exertions.  But  his  zeal  only  seemed  to  draw  upon  him 
the  animosity  of  the  petty  despots  of  the  provinces,  who  lorded  it 
over  his  subject  race.  These  men,  seeing  that  the  failure  of  San- 
telices and  of  Don  Bias  Tupac  Amaru  had  not  cooled  the  Inca's 
ardor,  now  doubled  the  burdens  of  his  countrymen,  and  think- 
ing thereby  to  crush  the  rising  spirit  of  resistance,  pushed  their 
tyranny  beyond  the  verge  of  human  endurance.  Their  madness 
hastened  the  crisis  which  they  strove  to  avert.  The  Indians  grew 
desperate,  and  now  first  breaking  forth  into  a  determined  insur- 
rection, rallied  round  the  Inca.  The  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lution was  signalized  by  an  act  of  vengeance,  performed  with  all 
the  solemnity  of  the  law,  and  therefore  the  better  calculated  to 
strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  Spaniards,  and  to  arouse  the 
courage  of  the  Peruvians.  Don  Antonio  Arriaga,  corregidor  of 
Tinta,  was  infamous  for  the  cruelty  and  rapacity  which  he  exer- 
cised on  the  Indians  of  his  province.  Tupac  Amaru  brought  him 
to  Tunja  Tuca,  under  pretext  of  a  sedition,  and  then  instituting 
his  trial  with  his  own  official  registers,  caused  him  to  be  con- 


200  PERU. 

demned  as  a  public  robber,  and  executed  on  the  gallows,  in  the 
name  of  the  king  of  Spain,  on  the  10th  of  November,  1780.  All 
the  odious  forms  of  taxation  and  bondage  were  abolished  from  this 
instant,  and  the  flames  of  civil  war  burst  out  in  Peru. 

Tupac  Amaru  was  cautious  and  wary  in  the  introductory 
scenes  of  the  revolution,  because  he  wished  to  conciliate  the  timid 
among  his  nation,  and  lull  his  enemies  into  security,  by  making 
them  regard  his  proceedings  in  the  light  of  a  mere  local  tumult. 
Hence,  all  his  proclamations,  decrees  and  other  formalities  atten- 
dant on  the  opening  of  his  insurrection,  appeared  in  the  name  of 
the  king.  Adhering  to  this  plan,  and  pretending  to  be  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  king's  mandates,  he  passed  rapidly  into  the  province 
of  Quispicancha,  with  the  intention  of  causing  the  corregidor 
Cabrera  to  undergo  the  fate  of  Arriaga;  but  Cabrera,  anticipa- 
ting his  purpose,  escaped  by  a  hasty  flight,  leaving  his  rich  maga- 
zines and  the  treasures  of  the  government  to  be  distributed  among 
the  Indians.  By  these  movements,  the  neighboring  provinces 
were  now  thrown  into  general  consternation,  and  Tupac  Amaru, 
actively  extended  the  flame,  disseminating  his  edicts,  wherein, 
calling  on  the  names  of  the  Incas  and  of  liberty,  he  sought  to 
awaken  the  national  enthusiasm  of  the  Peruvians. 

The  consternation  soon  spread  to  the  city  of  Cuzco,  and  meas- 
ures were  taken  to  oppose  the  Inca's  progress.  A  body  of  troops, 
amounting  to  about  six  hundred  Spaniards,  Creoles  and  Indians, 
marched  out  and  encamped  at  Sangarara,  not  far  from  Cuzco. 
They  were  immediately  attacked  by  a  much  superior  body  of 
Indians,  and  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  church.  Tupac 
Amaru  proposed  to  them  to  submit  on  honorable  terms,  which 
were  disdainfully  rejected.  The  situation  of  the  besieged  was 
rendered  hopeless  by  an  unexpected  accident.  Their  powder- 
magazine  exploded,  .blew  off  a  part  of  the  roof  of  the  church,  and 
opened  a  breach  in  the  walls.  Still  these  determined  men  main- 
tained their  resolution  with  all  the  heroism  to  which  their  nation 
owes  its  wonderful  conquests.  Discharging  a  cannon  through  the 
breach,  they  killed  seven  of  the  Indians  near  the  person  of  Tupac. 
After  which,  they  threw  open  the  doors  of  the  church,  and  trusted 
their  fate  to  the  desperate  attempt  of  forcing  a  way  through  the 
surrounding  multitude  of  enemies.  In  this  they  failed.  Of  six 
hundred  and  four  combatants,  who  had  occupied  the  church,  all 
died  heroically,  sword  in  hand,  except  about  sixty  Creoles  and 
Indians. 

The  result  of  this  victory  was  of  the  utmost  consequence  to 
the  Inca.  Success  had  now  crowned  his  arms,  and  he  dexter- 
ously took  advantage  of  the  respect  and  terror  which  it  inspired. 


INSURRECTION   OF    TUPAC   AMARU.  201 

In  most  places  where  the  intelligence  reached,  nothing  was  now 
heard  among  the  Indians  but  acclamations  in  favor  of  the  deliverer 
of  Peru.  He,  therefore,  assumed  the  symbols  of  the  ancient  gran- 
deur of  his  progenitors,  and  bound  around  his  temples  the  imperial 
borla  of  the  Incas.  Elated  by  his  recent  triumphs,  after  an  inef- 
fectual attempt  on  Cuzco,  he  directed  the  principal  division  of  his 
forces  towards  Puno.  He  himself,  having  received  letters  from 
his  wife,  informing  him  that  his  exploits  had  excited  attention  in 
Lima,  and  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  collect  all  his  strength, 
retraced  his  steps  towards  Tinta.  The  expedition  against  Puno, 
was  unsuccessful.  The  Indians  displayed  the  greatest  resolution 
and  obstinacy  in  their  attack  on  the  place,  as,  if  they  succeeded 
in  the  capture  of  Puno,  there  would  have  been  nothing  to  inter- 
rupt their  march  toward  the  important  city  of  La  Paz.  In  one 
engagement,  the  Indians,  to  the  number  of  five  thousand,  were 
beaten  by  about  eight  hundred  Spaniards.  They  penetrated, 
however,  to  Puno,  and  besieged  the  city,  eighteen  thousand 
Indians  occupying  the  eminences  which  commanded  the  district ; 
but  they  were  finally  repulsed ;  on  which,  exasperated  rather 
than  disheartened  by  defeat,  they  suddenly  turned  away  from 
Puno,  and  poured  themselves,  like  a  torrent,  over  the  unprotected 
province  of  Chucuito. 

No  province  adhered  to  Tupac  Amaru  more  devotedly  than 
Chayanta.  This  arose  from  the  commotion  in  which  it  was 
already  involved,  from  the  following  causes : — There  lived  in 
Chayanta,  an  Indian  named  Tomas  Catari,  who  felt  the  liveliest 
sensibility  to  the  wrongs  of  his  countrymen,  and  before  the  rising 
of  Tupac  Amaru,  had  protested  against  some  extraordinary  acts 
of  oppression  perpetrated  by  the  corregidor  Don  Joaquin  De  Aloz. 
Placing  no  confidence  in  the  court  of  Charcas,  which  was  noto- 
riously corrupt,  Catari  carried  his  complaints  directly  to  the 
viceroy.  Buenos  Ayres  was  at  this  lime  governed  by  Don  Juan 
De  Vertiz, — a  man  of  unimpeachable  integrity,  and  of  mild,  pacific 
and  amiable  virtues.  He  saw  with  disgust  the  abuses  which 
custom  authorized,  but  he  could  afford  no  other  relief  than  to 
order  the  royal  audience  to  examine  the  matter  judicially. 
Catari  returned  to  his  province,  concealing  his  dissatisfaction, 
and  giving  out,  in  mysterious  language,  that  redress  was  about  to 
be  afforded  by  a  superior  power.  His  real  object  was  to  prepare 
his  nation  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  servitude. 

Shortly  after  his  return,  Catari  was  thrown  into  prison  by  Aloz, 
under  the  false  pretext  of  his  having  killed  a  partisan  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  Indians  immediately  released  him  by  force.  From 
that  time  forward,  he  experienced  the  greatest  vicissitudes  of  for- 


202  PERU. 

tune- :  at  one  moment  persecuted  by  Aloz ;  at  another,  protected 
by  the  Indians.  While  his  exertions  were  suspended  by  imprison- 
ment, his  brothers,  Damaso  and  Nicolas,  zealously  promoted  his 
designs.  The  Indians  were  to  assemble  in  the  village  of  Pocoata, 
to  prepare  the  subscription  list  for  the  mita  of  Potosi.  Aloz, 
apprehending  the  meeting  might  end  in  some  popular  tumult, 
hastily  collected  a  guard  of  two  hundred  men  for  his  defence,  but 
Damaso,  nevertheless,  demanded  the  release  of  his  brother,  who 
was  then  confined  in  the  jail  of  Chuquisaca.  This  demand 
brought  on  an.  altercation,  in  the  course  of  which,  Aloz  shot  an 
Indian  with  his  pistol.  The  incensed  natives  instantly  marched 
from  all  quarters  to  the  public  square,  where  Aloz  awaited  them 
with  his  troops  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  They  attacked  him 
with  an  enthusiasm  which  supplied  every  defect  of  arms  and  dis- 
cipline, and  after  a  sanguinary  contest,  killed  or  routed  the  whole 
Spanish  force,  and  made  Aloz  himself  prisoner.  The  audience  of 
Charcas  were  filled  with  dismay.  They  gladly  released  Tomas 
Catari,  trusting  to  his  influence  for  the  preservation  of  Aloz,  whom 
the  Indians  compelled  as  the  price  of  his  life,  to  send  an  order  for 
the  seizure  of  a  cacique,  named  Lupa,  odious  on  account  of  his 
subserviency  to  the  government.  The  cacique  was  put  to  death 
by  them,  and  his  head  was  affixed  on  the  gates  of  Chuquisaca. 

But  the  misfortunes  of  Tomas  Catari  were  not  yet  finished. 
At  the  moment  when  his  reputation  and  seeming  security  were 
the  greatest,  he  was  made  prisoner.  The  whole  population  of  the 
country  flew  to  his  rescue,  but  too  late ;  for  he  was  immediately 
put  to  death.  The  rage  of  the  Indians  now  passed  all  bounds ; 
and  the  manifestoes  of  Tupac  Amaru,  proclaiming  independence, 
and  the  empire  of  their  ancient  monarchs,  reaching  them  at  the 
very  height  of  this  popular  resentment,  they  seized  upon  the 
occasion  with  inconceivable  ardor,  to  signify,  by  acclamation, 
their  unanimous  adhesion  to  the  Inca. 

The  disturbances  in  Chayanta  had  before  this  obliged  the  vice- 
roy of  Buenos  Ayres  to  send  a  force  to  quell  them,  commanded 
by  Don  Ignacio  Flores,  who,  for  that  purpose,  was  invested  with 
very  ample  powers.  Stimulated  by  the  presumption  of  the 
Indians,  who  were  now  proclaiming  the  new  Inca,  and  still 
more  by  the  complaints  of  the  audience  of  Charcas,  who  censured 
the  slowness  of  his  operations,  Flores  waited  not  for  the  veteran 
troops  speedily  expected  from  Buenos  Ayres,  but  attacked  the 
Indians  without  delay,  and  gained  a  complete  victory.  He  took 
sixty  prisoners,  and  with  the  view  of  inspiring  the  vanquished 
with  greater  terror,  put  them  all  to  torture  and  death.  This  pre- 
cipitate act  inflamed  the  Indians  with  such  furious  hatred  of  the 


INSURRECTION   OF   TUPAC   AMARU.  203 

Spaniards,  that  all  were  now  ready  to  throw  away  their  lives,  as 
martyrs  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  the  insurrection  raged  more 
violently  than  ever. 

In  the  meantime,  a  succession  of  the  most  tragical  events  was 
taking  place  in  the  rich  town  of  Oruro,  the  capital  of  a  district 
of  that  name.  In  Carabaya  and  Paria,  too,  the  Indians  were  all 
in  arms,  and  had  killed  some  of  the  principal  Spaniards,  and  sent 
their  heads  to  Tupac  Amaru.  The  corregidor,  fearing  a  hostile 
irruption  into  the  town,  enlisted  a  corps  of  four  hundred  men,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Cholos,  the  offspring  of  whites  and  mestizoes, 
esteemed  the  hardiest  and  most  active  class  of  the  population. 
Everything  was  then  apparently  tranquil ;  but  never  was  repose 
more  fallacious.  The  new  recruits,  practising  the  most  profound 
dissimulation,  determined  to  take  advantage  of  their  situation 
to  enrich  themselves  out  of  the  pillage  of  the  town.  To  obtain 
arms,  which  were  not  yet  delivered  to  them,  they  first  spread 
a  rumor  that  the  European  Spaniards  designed  to  assassinate 
them  in  their  quarters.  The  next  night,  they  raised  a  cry 
that  the  insurgent  Indians  were  approaching.  On  their  arms 
being  given  them,  their  true  object  was  developed.  A  part 
remained  in  their  quarters;  the  rest  took  post  on  a  hill,  and 
sounding  their  trumpets,  gave  the  signal  for  the  Indians  of 
the  mines  to  rush  into  the  town  and  begin  the  plunder.  The 
European  Spaniards  were  the  first  objects  of  their  fury.  They 
had  taken  refuge  in  the  house  of  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  their 
number,  and  there  collected  their  silver  for  safe  keeping.  The 
Indians  and  Cholos,  finding  the  house  fortified,  set  fire  to  it,  and 
thus  compelling  the  unfortunate  Spaniards  to  come  forth,  put 
them  all  to  the  sword.  They  found  in  the  house  upwards  of 
seven  hundred  thousand  dollars.  But  this  rich  plunder  served 
only  to  sharpen  their  avarice  the  more.  To  crown  the  miseries 
of  this  devoted  town,  the  Indians  of  other  provinces,  amounting 
to  twenty  thousand  in  number,  now  flocked  into  it,  and  for  ten 
days  Oruro  wore  the  aspect  of  a  city  taken  by  storm.  Not  a 
commercial  house  in  the  place  but  was  pillaged.  The  churches 
were  profaned,  the  female  population  driven  into  the  convents; 
dead  bodies  scattered  over  the  public  squares.  Such  was  the  dis- 
astrous spectacle  which  the  rich  city  of  Oruro  exhibited.  In- 
toxicated with  their  success,  the  insurgents  would  have  reduced 
it  entirely  to  ashes,  but  for  the  interposition  of  a  noble  Indian,  Don 
Lope  Chungara,  who  united  with  the  inhabitants  to  rescue  it  from 
complete  destruction,  and  thus  diverted  the  fury  of  the  Indians 
Into  a  different  channel. 

Similar  excesses  were  committed  elsewhere,   particularly  in 


2<)4  PERU. 

Sicasica  and  Cochabamba.  The  Indians  of  this  latter  district 
conspired  to  cut  off  every  Spaniard,  whether  European  or 
American.  They  pursued  this  war  of  extermination  for  some 
time,  unresisted,  sparing  neither  age,  sex,  nor  condition.  The 
proclamation  of  Tupac  Amaru  had  here  fallen  among  men  whose 
native  ferocity,  hardened  by  oppression  and  confirmed  by  igno- 
rance, displayed  itself  in  acts  of  savage  violence,  at  which 
humanity  shudders.  But  their  courage  was  not  equal  to  their 
cruelty.  They  were  repeatedly  routed  by  a  small  Spanish  force 
and  compelled  to  fly  to  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  insurrection  soon  made  it  necessary 
for  the  viceroy  of  Peru  to  put  in  motion  the  troops  of  Lima.  The 
theatre  of  the  war  was  now  so  far  extended,  as  to  require  the 
exertion  of  the  whole  military  force  of  the  country.  Tupac  Amaru 
U">ed  the  greatest  diligence  in  raising  recruits,  and  then  marched  for 
Cuzco,  causing  himself  to  be  received  on  the  way,  under  a  pavilion, 
with  all  the  ostentation  of  sovereignty.  He  halted  on  the  heights 
of  Yauriquez,  a  few  leagues  from  Cuzco,  and  summoned  the  city 
to  surrender.  His  enterprise  had  been  encouraged  by  several  of 
its  noblest  citizens ;  and  it  was  in  reliance  upon  their  cooperation, 
that  he  hoped  to  gain  possession  of  Cuzco.  But  his  faithless 
friends  hesitated  for  a  few  days,  and  all  was  lost.  Pomacagua, 
the  celebrated  cacique  of  Chincheros,  and  other  caciques,  who 
adhered  to  the  Spaniards,  led  their  followers  to  the  defence  of  the 
city.  The  threatened  danger  inspired  even  the  clergy  with  war- 
like ardor.  While  the  dean  of  the  church  was  proceeding  to  cele- 
brate the  publication  of  the  bull,  he  was  forced  to  assume  the 
military  garb,  and  place  himself  in  front  of  his  squadron.  The 
friendly  Indians  sallied  out  alone  to  attack  the  besiegers,  but  suf- 
fered great  slaughter.  The  Spaniards,  however,  with  the  cholos, 
speedily  joined  in  the  engagement,  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day, 
and  compelled  Tupac  Amaru  to  raise  his  camp,  and  fall  back 
upon  Tinta. 


Virgin  of  the  sun.  Female  Indian,  as  the  Minerva  of  Peru. 


Persons,  of  the  middle  class  of  Peru. 


18 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

PERU  CONTINUED. — Progress  of  the  insurrection  of  Tupac  Amaru. — Adventures  of 
Juan  Apasa. — His  extravagant  conduct. — He  attempts  the  total  extirpation  of 
the  Spaniards. — His  authority  over  the  Indians. — Atrocities  perpetrated  by  his 
command. —  The  Indians  assault  La  Paz. — Desperate  baltks. — Siege  of  La  Paz. 
—Defeat  of  the  Indians  by  Valle. — Capture  of  Tupac  Amaru. — His  brother 
Diego,  assumes  the  command  of  the  Peruvians. — Siege  of  Puno. — Expedition  of 
Valle  for  its  relief. — Desperation  of  the  Indians. —  The  Spaniards  abandon  Puno. 
— Pillage  of  that  town  by  the  Indians. —  Cruelties  of  Tupa  Catari. — Siege  of 
La  Paz. — Arrival  of  a  Spanish  force  under  Flores. — The  siege  raised  and 
recommenced. —  Trial  and  execution  of  Tupac  Amaru. — Barbarous  cruelty  of  the 
Spaniards. —  Vindictive  spirit  of  the  Indians. — Exploits  of  Miguel  Bastidas. — 
Siege  of  Sorata. — The  Indians  inundate  the  place. — Sorata  taken  and  sacked. — 
The  Indians  press  the  siege  of  La  Paz. — Desperate  condition  of  the  place. — Arri- 
val of  Reseguin,  and  relief  of  the  city. — Defeat  of  the  Indians  by  Reseguin. — 
Consternation  of  the  Indians. — Submission  of  their  leaders. — Trial  and  execution 
of  Tupa  Catari. — Narrow  escape  of  the  Spaniards. — Obstinate  warfare  of  the 
Indians  of  Los  Yungos. — Battle  of  Hucumarimi. — Defeat  of  the  Indians,  and 
termination  of  the  insurrection. 

A  NEW  personage  now  began  to  make  a  figure  in  these  impor- 
tant scenes,  who  soon  rendered  himself  no  less  terrible  to  the 
Spaniards  of  La  Paz,  than  Tupac  Amaru  and  the  Cataris  were 
in  other  provinces.  •  This  was  an  Indian  called  Juan  Apasa,  who, 
having  intercepted  a  courier  sent  by  Tupac  Amaru  to  Tomas 
Catari,  when  the  latter  no  longer  lived,  deceived  the  Indians  with 
the  belief  that  it  was  directed  to  himself,  assumed  the  name  of 
Tupa  Catari,  and  the  state  and  pretensions  of  the  inca's  viceroy. 
He  was  a  baker  by  trade,  and  as  ignorant  as  presumptuous.  He 
succeeded  in  attaining  the  authority  of  a  Peruvian  Masaniello. 
Extravagance,  madness,  effrontery,  vanity,  sagacity  and  fertility 
of  expedients  and  ideas  adapted  to  his  situation,  went  to  make  up 
the  character  of  this  adventurer.  The  great  city  of  La  Paz  was 
the  centre  of  his  operations.  He  began  by  sending  orders  in 
every  direction,  having  for  their  object  the  revival  of  the  usages 
of  the  ancient  Peruvians.  He  commanded  the  Indians  to  hold 
assemblies  on  the  mountain  tops ;  to  eat  no  bread ;  to  drink  no 
water  from  the  springs;  to  burn  the  churches,  and  abjure  the 
Christian  faith.  Every  Spaniard  indiscriminately,  or  in  the  com- 
prehensive language  of  the  proclamation,  every  one  who  wore  a 
shirt,  was  doomed  to  death.  Charged  with  these  instructions,  an 


INSURRECTION   OF   TUPAC   AMARU.  207 

Indian  mr.de  his  appearance  at  Tiguina,  whose  exterior  was  well 
calculated  to  inspire  alarm.  His  neck  was  bound  with  a  rope, 
and  he  bore  a  knotted  cord  in  his  hand.  Calling  thrice  with  a  loud 
voice,  he  summoned  the  Indians  together,  and  explained  the 
meaning  of  the^e  symbols.  The  cord  around  his  neck  denoted 
that  he  would  be  hung  if  he  departed  from  truth.  The  knot  on 
the  cord  intimated  that  as  he  was  forbidden  to  unloose  this  on  the 
way,  so  was  it  unlawful  to  open  the  message  of  his  Inca,  king 
Tupa  Catari.  After  these  preliminaries  he  untied  the  mysterious 
knot,  and  published  in  the  name  of  the  king,  a  peremptory  decree, 
imposing  the  rights  of  his  new  legislation,  and  commanding  the 
instant  execution  of  the  proscribed  Spaniards. 

The  tumultuary  voices  of  the  concourse  signified  prompt  obedi- 
ence. They  ran  to  the  church,  where  the  Spaniards  had  sought 
refuge ;  forced  them  out  by  setting  it  on  fire,  and  killed  them  all 
without  mercy.  From  thence  they  proceeded  to  the  sanctuary  of 
Cobacabana,  and  repeated  the  same  act,  killing  all  but  the 
priests.  These  atrocities  portended  the  storm  which  was  speedily 
to  break  upon  La  Paz.  The  protection  of  this  important  pass 
had  been  committed  to  Don  Sebastian  de  Segnrola,  an  officer  of 
great  military  talents.  He  attempted  to  dislodge  a  small  party  of 
eighty  Indians,  who  annoyed  him  with  their  slings,  from  a  neigh- 
boring height.  Thrice  did  the  Spaniards  gain  the  summit,  each 
succeeding  time  with  fresh  assailants;  and  thrice  were  they  driven 
back  with  loss,  before  they  could  overpower  this  handful  of  brave 
men.  Discomfiture  under  such  circumstances  was  more  useful 
to  the  Indians  than  victory.  It  taught  them  their  strength. 
Accordingly,  in  his  next  enterprise,  Segurola  sustained  a  signal 
defeat.  Ascertaining  that  some  auxiliaries  sent  from  Sorata.  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  who  were  masters  of  the 
heights  of  La  Paz,  he  resolved  to  attack  them  on  three  sides. 
But  the  incessant  flights  of  stones  from  the  slings  of  the  Indians, 
and  the  huge  masses  of  rock,  which  they  rolled  down  the  sides 
of  the  mountain,  drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  field.  Segurola 
made  another  attempt,  with  four  field-pieces  and  a  larger  force 
than  before.  The  Spaniards  succeeded  in  ascending  about  half 
way  up  the  eminence,  but  were  again  repulsed  by  the  Indians, 
who  fought  with  enthusiastic  energy,  routed  the  Spaniards,  pre- 
cipitated themselves  down  the  mountain  with  the  rapidity  of 
a  torrent,  pursued  their  flying  enemies  to  the  gates  of  La  Paz,  and 
laid  close  siege  to  the  city. 

Meantime,  Valle,  at  the  head  of  sixteen  thousand  men,  had 
marched  in  quest  of  Tupac  Amaru,  and  although  meeting  with 
constant  resistance,  at  last  penetrated  to  Tungasuca.  Sound 


208  PERU, 

policy  would  have  dictated  to  Tupac  Amaru  the  plan  of  avoiding 
pitched  battles  in  the  open  plain.  In  this  mode  of  warfare  the 
Spaniards  had  every  advantage,  hy  the  superiority  of  their  arms, 
their  discipline,  and  the  skill  of  their  leaders.  If  the  Indians  had 
confined  themselves  chiefly  to  the  highlands,  of  which  they  had 
the  entire  command,  they  might,  by  repeated  short  incursions  into 
the  plains,  have  prolonged  the  war  at  pleasure.  Instead  of  this, 
they  risked  all  their  strength  in  a  general  engagement,  and  were  de- 
feated, leaving  the  field  of  battle  covered  with  their  dead.  Tupac 
Amaru  himself  narrowly  escaped  by  flight,  and  was  not  long 
afterwards  taken  prisoner,  with  his  wife  and  sons.  It  was  imag- 
ined that  the  capture  of  the  Inca  would  put  an  end  to  the  insur- 
rection; but  the  Indians  rallied  again  under  his  half  brother, 
Diego  Cristobal  Tupac  Amaru,  who  prosecuted  the  war  with 
unabated  vigor.  They  were  extremely  anxious  to  reduce  the 
town  of  Puno,  from  which  they  had  been  once  repulsed.  Diego 
Cristobal  renewed  the  attempt  with  greater  obstinacy,  and  with 
talents  which,  under  more  propitious  circumstances,  must  have 
ensured  success.  He  invested  the  town  on  all  sides,  and  after 
several  skirmishes  at  the  outposts,  made  a  simultaneous  assault 
at  several  different  points.  The  divisions  of  his  troops,  all  acting 
in  concert,  drove  the  besieged  up  the  streets,  into  the  heart  of  the 
town;  but  here  the  Spaniards  made  a  desperate  stand,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  day  forced  the  Indians  to  retire.  Four  days  in  suc- 
cession were  these  animated  assaults  repeated  with  the  most 
obstinate  courage,  before  Diego  abandoned  the  enterprise  in  de- 
spair, and  retreated  into  Carabaya. 

While  these  events  were  passing,  Yalle  was  endeavoring  to 
relieve  Puno.  In  his  progress  thither,  he  was  repeatedly  attacked 
by  the  Indians,  who  resolutely  disputed  every  inch  of  the  way, 
and  who,  although  repeatedly  vanquished,  yet  yielded  most  dear- 
bought  victories  to  the  Spaniards.  On  one  occasion,  a  small  body 
of  eighty  Indians,  when  attacked,  chose  a  voluntary  death,  by 
throwing  themselves  over  a  high  precipice,  rather  than  surrender 
to  the  .Spaniards.  In  consequence  of  these  delays,  before  Yalle 
reached  Puno,  it  was  again  invested  by  Tupa  Catari,  with  a  host 
of  ten  thousand  Indians.  They  prepared  for  battle,  and  Valle  had 
the  fairest  prospect  of  success ;  but,  fearful  of  losing  the  fruit  of 
his  late  victories,  he  imprudently  ordered  Puno  to  be  evacuated, 
and  fell  back  upon  Cuzco.  Nothing  could  have  been  more  ill- 
judged  than  this  movement.  The  Indians  were  enriched  by  the 
pillage  of  Puno,  and  its  dependent  villages,  where  they  found  a 
hundred  thousand  head  of  cattle,  together  with  other  valuable 
spoil.  Shortly  afterwards,  they  completely  routed  a  large  body 


INSURRECTION   OF    TUPAC   AMARU.  209 

of  Spaniards  in  Sicasica.  Elated  by  success,  Tupa  Catari  now 
concentrated  all  his  forces,  and  bent  his  whole  strength  to  the 
reduction  of  La  Paz. 

Here  it  was  that  this  extraordinary  adventurer  held  his  court. 
His  actions  were  indicative  of  mad  caprice,  which  sudden  eleva- 
tion from  the  lowest  condition  to  the  exercise  of  unlimited  power, 
usually  engenders  in  the  human  breast.  Surrounded  with  all  the 
pomp  of  an  Asiatic  despot,  he  ruled  the  submissive  Indians  with 
an  Asiatic  despot's  prodigality  of  life.  To  secure  obedience  to 
his  mandates  by  the  influence  of  terror,  he  established  twenty- 
four  places  of  execution  in  the  circumference  of  the  blockading 
lines.  Never  was  the  gallows  unemployed.  Indians,  who  de- 
serted from  the  city ;  those  of  his  own  soldiers  and  captains,  who 
betrayed  the  least  sign  of  cowardice  or  of  despondence ;  all  who 
in  any  way  thwarted  his  hurnor,  were  condemned  to  death,  and 
their  execution  was  precipitated  to  take  away  the  chance  of 
repentance.  No  ties  of  religion  or  decency  controlled  his  will, 
and  the  Indians  were  at  length  shocked  by  his  sacrilege  and 
impiety.  Their  murmurs  induced  him,  therefore,  to  assume  a 
devout  exterior.  He  caused  a  temporary  chapel  to  be  erected,  in 
which,  sitting  beneath  a  canopy  at  the  side  of  his  queen,  sur- 
rounded by  ambassadors,  and  by  his  principal  officers,  he  cele- 
brated mass  with  the  most  imposing  ceremonials. 

Nevertheless,  the  Indians  still  yielded  him  implicit  obedience, 
and  prosecuted  the  siege  of  La  Paz,  under  his  orders,  with  a  con- 
tempt of  death,  an  assiduity,  and  a  patience  of  fatigue,  never  sur- 
passed. Segurola  had  contracted  his  entrenchments  within  the 
narrowest  limits,  leaving  out  all  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  on 
account  of  the  smallness  of  the  garrison.  His  only  hope  was  in 
holding  out  until  Don  Ignacio  Flores,  who  was  collecting  troops 
for  that  purpose  in  the  province  of  Tucuman,  should  come  to  his 
relief.  The  Indians  kept  La  Paz  closely  besieged  for  one  hundred 
and  nine  days,  and  scarcely  a  day  passed  without. a  vigorous 
assault  on  their  part,  or  a  desperate  sally  of  the  Spaniards.  The 
besiegers  had  six  pieces  of  artillery,  which  caused  the  city  great 
damage ;  but,  impatient  of  delay,  and  enraged  at  the  determined 
resistance  they  met  with,  they  attempted  to  set  fire  to  the  place. 
When  this  and  all  other  expedients  failed,  and  they  saw  that  the 
assaults  and  sallies  only  produced  mutual  carnage,  without  bring- 
ing the  siege  any  nearer  to  a  close,  they  promised  themselves  final 
success  from  the  all-conquering  power  of  famine.  The  besieged 
were  now  reduced  to  the  utmost  extremity  of  distress,  and  must 
speedily  have  surrendered  the  smoking  ruins  of  the  city,  had  not 

A  2 


210  PERU. 

Flores  arrived  at  this  very  conjuncture,  and  saved  La  Paz  from 
total  destruction. 

We  will  not  stop  to  describe  the  march  of  Flores  and  his  troops 
from  Tucuman.  The  name  and  influence  of  Tupac  Amaru  had 
extended  to  the  ridges  of  Salta  and  Jujui,  and  the  whole  Indian 
population  was  in  arms  for  the  Inca.  The  route  to  La  Paz  was  a 
continued  succession  of  battles.  Even  after  passing  the  city  of 
Chuquisaca,  five  sanguinary  engagements  took  place,  in  one  of 
which  Tupa  Catari  himself  commanded,  and  was  routed  with 
great  slaughter.  Finally,  Flores  reached  La  Paz,  and  forced  the 
Indians  to  raise  the  siege,  but  the  relief  which  he  afforded  was  of 
short  duration.  A  considerable  body  of  Indians  encamped  on  a 
hill  near  the  city;  Flores  and  Segurola  attempted  to  dislodge 
them.  The  Spaniards  marched  to  the  assault  in  three  columns, 
commanded  by  their  best  officers,  but  were  repulsed  in  such  con- 
fusion, that  scarcely  a  single  man  escaped  uninjured.  Flores, 
therefore,  retreated  to  a  post  about  four  leagues  from  the  city,  and 
the  vigilant  Indians  instantly  resumed  their  old  stations  on  the 
heights  of  La  Paz.  A  portion  of  the  Spanish  forces,  contending 
that  their  term  of  service  had  expired,  deserted  and  separated  to 
their  respective  homes.  All  these  circumstances  compelled  Flores 
to  go  in  quest  of  new  auxiliaries,  and  in  the  meanwhile  to  aban- 
don La  Paz  to  its  fate. 

.During  the  progress  of  the  first  siege  of  La  Paz,  the  trial  and 
execution  of  Tupac  Amaru  and  his  family  had  taken  place. 
When  tortured,  to  compel  him  to  disclose  his  accomplices,  he 
nobly  replied,  "Two,  only,  are  my  accomplices ;  myself  and  you 
who  interrogate  me;  you,  in  continuing  your  robberies  on  the 
people,  and  I,  in  endeavoring  to  prevent  you :"  a  short  sentence, 
which  defines  the  nature  of  the  Spanish  government.  The  sen- 
tence of  death  was  executed  on  him  with  a  studied  cruelty  dis- 
graceful to  the  Spaniards.  His  judges  seem  to  have  indulged  in 
a  spirit  of  personal  vengeance,  while  pronouncing  the  doom  of  the 
law.  He  was  forced  to  look  on  and  behold  the  death  of  his  wife, 
his  children  and  his  kindred ;  his  tongue  was  next  plucked  out  by 
the  hands  of  the  hangman,  and  he  was  then  torn  asunder  limb 
from  limb,  by  four  wild  horses.  Such  was  the  fate  of  a  patriot 
and  hero,  who  was  only  goaded  into  his  attempt  to  vindicate  the 
rights  of  his  nation  by  arms,  after  the  failure  of  reiterated  efforts 
to  procure  an  improvement  of  their  condition  by  peaceable  means. 
He  did  not  fall  unavenged.  The  savage  vindictiveness  displayed 
in  the  manner  of  his  execution,  produced  an  effect  directly  con- 
trary to  that  which  the  Spaniards  anticipated.  The  Indian*1 
fought,  after  this  event,  as  if  each  individual  had  the  death  of  his 


INSURRECTION  OF   TUPAC   AMARU.  211 

dearest  kinsman  to  revenge ;  and  the  survivors  of  the  family  of 
Tupac  Amaru  imbibed  new  hatred  toward  their  oppressor.  His 
brother,  Diego  Cristobal,  united  and  sustained  the  interest  of  the 
Indians  no  less  effectually  than  he  had  done,  and  a  new  adven- 
turer arose, — Miguel  Bastidas,  otherwise  named  Andres  Tupac 
Amaru,  claiming  to  be  the  son,  but  being  in  fact  the  nephew  of 
Jose  Gabriel.  The  superior  talents  and  sanguinary  character  of 
this  individual  made  him  still  more  terrible  to  the  Spaniards. 
He  was  at  this  time  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  but  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  above  all  the  Indian  chiefs,  by  the  siege  and 
destruction  of  Sorata. 

The  Spaniards  of  the  province  of  Larecaja  had  collected  all 
their  treasures  in  Sorata,  where  they  entrenched  themselves,  and, 
being  well  supplied  with  provisions  and  ammunition,  courage- 
ously awaited  the  Indians.  Andres  Tupac  Amaru,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  name  he  bore,  gathered  an  army  of  fourteen  thousand 
men,  and  beleagured  the  town.  The  Spaniards,  unintimidated  by 
his  threats,  made  a  brave  defence,  but  were  subdued  at  last  by 
the  laborious  ingenuity  of  the  Indians.  A  ridge  of  lofty'  moun- 
tains, called  Tipuani,  overlooked  Sorata.  Availing  himself  of  the 
great  number  of  men  at  his  command,  Andres  dug  a  spacious 
dam  on  the  side  of  the  town,  and  conducted  into  it  all  the  numer- 
ous mountain  torrents  of  Tipuani,  now  swelled  by  the  melting  of 
the  snows.  When  his  artificial  lake  was  filled,  he  poured  out 
upon  Sorata  the  whole  immense  body  of  water,  which  tore  up  the 
entrenchments,  washed  away  the  houses,  and  submerged  the 
whole  town  beneath  an  irresistible  deluge.  There  was  no  longer 
any  barrier  to  oppose  the  impetuosity  of  the  Indians.  They 
rushed  into  the  place  as  the  water  subsided,  and  in  a  sack  of  six 
days'  duration,  gained  possession  of  an  immense  booty,  and  glut- 
ted their  rage  in  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  the  Spaniards. 

After  gathering  the  fruits  of  this  important  victory,  Andres 
marched  his  forces  to  assist  in  the  protracted  siege  of  that  ill- 
starred  city.  Tupa  Catari  was  much  dissatisfied  with  the  move- 
ments of  Andres,  who,  he  foresaw,  would  thus  divide  with  him 
the  glory  of  success,  without  having  participated  in  half  the  labors 
of  the  siege.  But  after  some  altercation,  they  agreed  to  bury  their 
jealousy  in  the  common  zeal  for  assuring  the  triumph  of  their 
nation.  The  new  siege  presents  a  repetition  of  the  same  scenes 
which  marked  the  former,  except  that  the  ardor  and  obstinacy 
of  the  parties  seem  to  have  been  augmented  by  the  greater  hope 
of  success  entertained  by  the  one,  and  the  increased  peril  of  the 
other. 

Flores,  in  the  meantime,  was  diligently  engaged  in  assembling 


212  PERU. 

forces  at  Oruro,  where  an  army  of  five  thousand  men  was  at 
length  formed,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  Don  Jose  de 
Reseguin.  This  officer  was  brave,  prudent,  and  indefatiga- 
ble. He  set  forth  on  his  march  to  La  Paz  without  delay,  and, 
fortunately  for  the  city,  his  march  was  not  much  impeded;  for 
La  Paz  was  on  the  very  point  of  yielding  to  the  Indians.  In- 
structed by  the  advantage  they  had  obtained  from  the  inundation 
of  Sorata,  they  threw  a  strong  dam  across  the  river  Chuquiaco,  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  main  branch  of  the  Amazon,  which  flows 
through  the  middle  of  La  Paz.  This  huge  mole  was  fifty  yards 
high,  a  hundred  and  twenty  long,  and  twelve  thick  at  the  founda- 
tion. Only  two  days  before  the  arrival  of  Reseguin,  the  water 
burst  the  embankment,  and  rose  so  high  as  to  inundate  the  three 
bridges  of  the  city.  The  terror  which  this  artificial  flood  inspired, 
and  the  probability  of  its  being  repeated  with  still  worse  effects, 
presented  to  the  inhabitants  the  alternative  of  abandoning  the 
city,  or  remaining  exposed  to  the  horrible  catastrophe  of  Sorata. 
Such  was  the  perilous  condition  of  La  Paz,  when  the  waving  of 
the  Spanish  banners  on  the  distant  heights,  and  the  murmur  of 
martial  sounds  announced  to  the  joyful  inhabitants  the  approach 
of  Reseguin. 

The  Indians,  conscious  of  their  inability  to  cope  with  these  new 
enemies,  precipitately  fled  before  them.  Reseguin  halted  at  La 
Paz  three  days  to  refresh  his  troops,  and  then  marched  in  pursuit. 
He  overtook  them,  drawn  up  as  usual  on  the  upper  side  of  a 
sloping  ground,  and  joined  battle  without  hesitation.  He  com- 
pelled them,  after  an  obstinate  struggle,  to  retreat  and  save  them- 
selves among  the  ravines  of  the  mountains. 

After  Reseguin's  victory,  universal  consternation  and  despon- 
dency took  possession  of  the  Indians,  in  the  place  of  their  former 
energy  and  patriotism.  Persuaded  that  all  was  lost,  if  they 
contended  further,  since  every  combat  afforded  fresh  triumph  to 
their  enemies,  they  still  distrusted  the  proffered  clemency  of  the 
Spanish  government.  But,  finally,  allured  by  the  promises  of 
Reseguin,  Tupa  Catari  and  Andres  Amaru  wrote  letters  to  him 
from  the  place  of  their  retreat,  embracing  the  proposed  conditions. 
Diego  Cristobal  sent,  at  the  same  time,  to  claim  the  benefit  of  the 
amnesty  published  at  Lima.  Reseguin,  fearing  some  treachery, 
dexterously  required  these  chiefs  to  make  their  submission  in 
person.  Tupa  Catari  was  unwilling  to  do  this  without  a  safe 
conduct,  but  Andres  came  in  with  his  principal  adherents,  and 
being  very  cordially  received  by  Reseguin,  made  a  formal  capitu- 
lation, and  swore  allegiance  anew  to  the  king,  as  the  condition  of 
his  own  and  his  companion's  pardon. 


INSURRECTION   OF   TUPAC   AMARU.  213 

Although  Reseguin  possessed  a  robust  constitution,  his  health 
had  sunk  beneath  the  hardships  of  the  active  service,  and  he  now 
labored  under  severe  illness ;  nevertheless,  having  set  out  for  the 
districts  which  still  maintained  a  show  of  war,  he  persisted  in 
marching  thither,  and  entered  the  villages  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
Indians,  who,  as  basely  humble  in  adversity  as  they  were  fiercely 
proud  in  prosperity,  greeted  his  entry  with  their  acclamations. 
While  these  Indians  were  prostrating  themselves  at  the  feet  of 
Reseguin,  Tupa  Catari  was  exciting  others  to  continue  the  war. 
Reseguin,-  considering  the  machinations  of  this  chief  the  only 
obstacle  to  peace,  resorted  to  artifice  to  obtain  possession  of  his 
person.  He  corrupted  Tupa  Catari's  most  intimate  friend,  and 
by  this  means  succeeded  in  making  him  prisoner.  He  was  tried, 
condemned,  and  sentenced  to  the  same  punishment  which  Tupac 
Amaru  had  suffered.  After  being  torn  asunder  by  horses,  his 
head  was  sent  to  La  Paz,  and  his  limbs  were  distributed  in 
various  places  as  a  terror  to  the  Indians. 

The  auditor  of  Chili,  Don  Francisco  de  Medina,  was  attache^ 
to  Reseguin,  in  quality  of  judicial  adviser.  He  began  by  the 
premature  imprisonment  of  Andres  and  his  chiefs,  who  had  sur- 
rendered under  a  solemn  pledge  of  free  pardon.  This  act  was 
regarded  by  Diego  Cristobal  as  a  violation  of  the  public  faith,  and 
he  lost  no  time  in  stirring  up  the  Indians  anew.  Had  he  improved 
this  opportunity  for  attacking  Reseguin,  the  attack  must  have 
been  fatal  to  the  Spanish  general,  for  he  was  extremely  sick,  and 
his  army,  reduced  to  three. hundred  and  ninety-four  men  by  the 
desertion  of  the  militia,  was  in  no  condition  to  withstand  the 
Indians.  But  Diego  let  slip  the  propitious  moment,  and  it  never 
again  recurred.  The  Indians  were  grown  weary  of  the  contest, 
and  in  almost  all  the  provinces  about  La  Paz,  claimed  the  benefit 
of  the  indulgence  and  delivered  up  their  chiefs.  Diego  soon 
followed  their  example.  Persuaded  that  the  cause  of  his  nation 
was  hopeless,  he  sent  a  memorial  to  Don  Jose  del  Talle,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1782,  praying  for  the  royal  pardon. 

The  flame  of  the  revolution  was  nearly  extinct,  but  it  still  sent 
forth  a  few  broken  flashes  in  the  remote  provinces.  The  Indians 
of  Los  Yungas,  especially,  and  those  of  a  valley  called  the  Q,ue- 
brada  of  the  river  Abaxo,  in  Sicasica  and  Chulumani,  held  out 
with  great  obstinacy.  Arrogant  with  their  many  victories  over 
the  small  detachments  sent  against  them,  they  maintained  a  fierce 
and  savage  independence.  At  length,  Flores  assembled  a  powerful 
force  and  commissioned  Reseguin  to  finish  the  war.  This  expe- 
dition was  memorable  for  the  many  bloody  victories  gained  over 
the  Indians,  who  were  entirely  ignorant  of  military  discipmie,  had 


214  PERU, 

but  few  fire-arms,  and  were  principally  armed  with  slings.  The 
royal  army  from  Tucuman,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Cochabamba,  con- 
sisted  of  regular  troops.  The  Buenos  Ayreans  were  armed  and 
equipped  like  European  soldiers;  the  Tucumans  composed  the 
cavalry,  and  were  armed  with  butcher-knives,  and  ropes  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  yards  long,  which  they  used  in  catching  wild  cattle. 
The  arms  of  the  Cochabambians  were  short  clubs,  loaded  with 
lead,  to  which  a  rope  of  two  or  three  yards  in  length  was  fastened, 
and  which  were  used  like  slings,  and  were  very  deadly  weapons. 
The  Indians  were  scattered  all  over  the  plains,  in  no  regular 
order  or  rank,  and  were  nothing  more  than  an  undisciplined 
rabble.  The  Tucuman  horsemen  first  rode  among  the  Indians, 
and  threw  them  down  with  their  ropes,  and  the  Cochabambians 
followed  and  despatched  them  with  their  clubs. 

The  battle  of  Hucumarimi,  being  the  most  obstinately  disputed 
of  all  that  were  fought  during  the  revolution,  and  the  most  suc- 
cessful for  the  Spaniards,  acquired  the  name  of  the  decisive.  The 
country  here  was  broken  into  precipices  and  irregular  acclivities, 
among  which,  on  the  side  of  a  mountain,  the  Indians  had 
encamped.  The  impediments  w,hich  they  threw  in  the  way  of 
an  attack,  were  enough  to  appal  the  stoutest  hearts.  Scarcely 
had  the  Spaniards  begun  the  ascent,  when  showers  of  stones, 
mingled  with  great  masses  of  rock  broken  off  by  levers,  and 
rolled  down  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  filled  the  assailants  with 
consternation.  In  spite  of  all  this,  by  great  exertion,  climbing 
from  cliff  to  clifF,  they  succeeded  in  driving  the  Indians  from  their 
seemingly  impregnable  post.  The  Indians  were  struck  with 
superstitious  dread.  They  thought  the  Spaniards  fought  by  en- 
chantment. No  longer  making  any  systematic  resistance,  they 
were  hunted  like  wild  beasts  from  mountain  to  mountain.  Every- 
thing now  conspired  to  put  an  end  to  the  insurrection.  Leaders 
were  no  more,  except  Diego  Cristobal,  who,  although  he  submitted 
under  the  formal  guarantee  of  an  amnesty,  and  continued  to  live 
tranquilly  in  his  family,  was  afterwards  arrested,  under  the  pretext 
of  a  new  conspiracy,  and  executed  in  the  same  cruel  way  with 
his  brother  and  Tupa  Catari.  The  great  body  of  the  Indian 
population  quietly  returned  to  vassalage,  and  resumed  the  yoke 
of  slavery. 

Such  was  the  issue  of  an  insurrection,  which  filled  Peru  with 
bloodshed  and  misery  for  the  space  of  two  years,  and  of  a  war  in 
which,  if  we  may  believe  the  authority  of  Don  Vincente  Pazos, 
himself  a  native  of  La  Paz,  one  third  of  the  population  of  Peru 
perished  by  the  hand  of  violence.  Twenty  years  after  these 
events,^his  writer  saw  the  plains  of  Sicasica  and  Calamaca,  for 


INSURRECTION    OF    TUPAC    AMARU. 


215 


an  extent  of  fourteen  leagues,  covered  with  heaps  of  unburied 
human  bones,  lying  in  the  places  where  the  wretched  Indians  fell, 
to  bleach  in  the  tropical  sun.  Their  unfortunate  attempt  produced 
no  permanent  or  important  change  in  their  condition ;  none  of 
their  grievances  were  abolished  except  the  repartos.  They  were 
rigidly  prohibited  the  use  of  arms.  The  tribute  pressed  more 
heavily  afterwards,  and  was  more  strictly  levied ;  and  the  unfor- 
tunate Peruvians  were  treated  more  contemptuously,  in  revenge 
of  their  unsuccessful  and  disastrous  rebellion. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

PERU  CONTINUED.- — Conspiracy  of  Ubalde. — State  of  public  feeling  in  Peru. — 
Neglect  of  the  government  of  Madrid. — Invasion  of  Spain  by  Napoleon. — In- 
trigues of  the  French  emissaries. — Character  of  the  South  American  viceroys. — 
Temper  of  the  people. — Revolutionary  movements  in  1809.- — Interference  of  the 
neighboring  provinces. — Chilian  affairs. — Blockade  of  the  Peruvian  ports  by 
Lord  Cochrane. — Invasion  of  Peru  by  San  Martin. — Pusillanimous  behavior 
of  the  viceroy . — Capture  of  a  Spanish  frigate  at  Callao. — San  Martin  advances 
upon  Lima. — Flight  of  the  viceroy. — The  liberating  army  enters  Lima. — 
Independence  of  Peru  proclaimed. — Movements  of  the  royalists. — Surrender 
of  Callao. — Arrival  of  the  Colombian  troops. — Departure  of  San  Martin  from 
Peru. — Disasters  of  the  country. — The  congress  dissolved. — Lima  retaken  by 
the  Spaniards. — Arrival  of  Bolivar  in  Peru. — He  is  appointed  dictator . — Imbe- 
cility of  the  Peruvians. — Lima  revisited  by  the  royalists. — Second  campaign  of 
Bolivar  in  Peru. — Battles  of  Junin  and  Ayacucho. — Final  defeat  of  the  Span- 
iards, and  liberation  of  Peru. — Factions  and  disturbances  in  the  country. — Es- 
tablishment of  the  republic  of  BOLIVIA. —  The  Bolivian  constitution  introduced 
into  Peru. — Discontent  of  the  people. — Insurrection  of  1827. — Distracted  state 
of  the  country. — Conspiracies  and  revolutions. — Transactions  of  Gamarra  and 
Salaverry. — General  character  of  this  portion  of  South  American  history. 

THE  suppression  of  Tupac  Amaru's  insurrection  completed  the 
subjugation  of  the  Peruvian  Indians,  who,  from  that  period  to  the 
present  day,  have  remained  quiet.  Ideas  of  national  indepen- 
dence, however,  appear  to  have  taken  root  in  the  country,  and  it 
was  not  long  before  they  began  to  manifest  themselves  openly. 
As  early  as  1805,  Ubalde,  an  eminent  jurist  of  Cuzco,  excited  the 
alarm  of  the  government  by  his  revolutionary  designs.  He 
gained  a  large  party  of  adherents,  but  before  their  schemes  could 
be  put  in  operation,  they  were  betrayed.  Ubalde  and  eight 
others  were  put  to  death  at  Cuzco,  and  more  than  a  hundred  of 
his  party  were  exiled.  The  particulars  of  this  plot  are  not  dis- 
tinctly known,  but  independence  was  the  main  object.  Ubalde, 
on  the  scaffold,  predicted  that  the  Spanish  dominion  in  South 
America  would  soon  be  overthrown.  It  was  impossible  that  he 
could,  at  this  early  period,  have  foreseen  the  occurrences  in  Spain, 
•which  shortly  after  paved  the  way  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
Spanish  American  colonies ;  and  his  dying  declaration  affords  us 
reason  to  believe  that  the  project  of  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the 
mother  country  had  been  cherished  in  Peru  to  a  greater  extent 
than  has  generally  been  imagined. 


INTRIGUES    OF   FRENCH   EMISSARIES.  217 

The  revolt  of  Peru  took  place  at  a  later  period  than  that  of  most 
of  the  other  Spanish  American  states.  Yet  in  order  not  to  inter- 
nipt  the  continuity  of  our  narrative,  we  shall  pursue  the  thread  of 
Peruvian  history  unbroken  to  the  end.  The  dominion  of  Spain 
was  maintained  in  America  by  a  very  small  number  of  Spanish 
troops.  From  the  year  1805,  nothing  material  happened  to  lead 
the  way  to  a  revolution  for  some  years.  Not  that  the  people  were 
well  satisfied  with  their  condition;  on  the  contrary  they  were 
highly  discontented,  and  every  year  petitions  and  details  of  their 
grievances  were  sent  to  Spain.  These  the  court  of  Madrid  knew 
perfectly  well  how  to  evade,  and  no  redress  ever  was  granted. 
How  long  this  state  of  things  would  have  continued  without  pro- 
ducing a  new  Tupac  or  Ubalde,  more  fortunate  than  the  first,  we 
can  only  conjecture.  But  the  desire  for  a  new  state  of  things  was 
quickened  in  a  wonderful  manner  by  unforeseen  events  in  Europe. 
The  seizure  of  the  Spanish  crown  by  Napoleon,  in  1808,  loosened 
at  once  those  ties  which  united  the  Spanish  Americans  to  the 
mother  country,  roused  them  from  the  apathy  in  which  they  ha.d 
languished  for,  three  centuries,  and  produced  a  revolution  which 
utterly  overthrew  the  empire  of  Spain  in  the  west. 

Napoleon,  having  placed  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  throne  of 
Spain,  designed  to  transfer  the  American  colonies  in  the  same 
manner.  Such  was  his  contempt  for  the  sluggish  temper  and 
want  of  national  spirit  which  appeared  in  all  the  Spanish  race, 
that  no  serious  obstacle  seemed  to  present  itself  in  the  way  of 
this  design.  He  despatched  emissaries  to  all  parts  of  Spanish 
America.  These  were  men  of  powerful  talents,  and  well  skilled 
in  the  business  of  intrigue.  Under  assumed  characters,  and  by  all 
sorts  of  artful  practices,  they  used  their  influence  to  widen  the 
breach  between  Spain  and  the  colonies,  in  the  expectation  that  by 
dividing  the  Spanish  empire  into  fragments,  it  would  be  more  easily 
transferred  piecemeal  to  a  new  master.  The  Spanish  Americans, 
instigated  by  such  advisers,  and  finding  themselves  cut  off  from 
all  communication  with  Spain,  as  that  kingdom  was  now  solely 
intent  on  its  own  preservation,  were  in  great  doubt  how  to  act. 
At  first  the  mass  of  the  population  appeared  to  reject  all  idea  of 
throwing  off  their  allegiance,  and  would  not  listen  to  any  proposal 
for  transferring  their  country  to  French  control.  The  Spanish 
American  rulers,  however,  showed  a  different  spirit ;  all  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  viceroy  of  Mexico,  were  willing  to 
acknowledge  Napoleon  and  declare  their  allegiance  to  him.  But 
they  were  borne  down  by  the  popular  will.  The  colonies  never 
acknowledged  the  French  authority.  Napoleon,  for  several  years", 
waged  a  sanguinary  war  with  the  Spanish  people,  in  vain  attempts 
19  B2 


218  PERU. 

to  establish  his  dominion  over  them.  The  colonies,  of  necessity, 
were  led  by  gradual  steps  to  assume  their  own  government. 

When  the  intelligence  of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Spain  reached 
Peru,  in  the  summer  of  1809,  a  popular  movement  took  place,  and 
provincial  juntas  were  established  at  Quito  and  La  Paz.  This 
revolutionary  design,  however,  was  at  once  defeated  by  the  vice- 
roys of  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  New  Granada,  who  sent  armies 
and  dissolved  the  juntas.  Peru  remained  tranquil  for  ten  years, 
while  the  neighboring  provinces  were  engaged  in  the  war  of  their 
independence.  At  length  the  Chilians',  having  defeated  the  Span- 
ish army  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Maypu,  in  1818,  conceived  the 
design  of  securing  their  independence  by  expelling  the  Spanish 
from  Peru.  A  naval  armament  was  fitted  out  in  1819,  and  com- 
menced hostilities  by  blockading  the  Peruvian  ports  and  captur- 
ing their  ships.  This  fleet  consisted  of  three  heavy  frigates  and 
four  smaller  vessels.  It  was  commanded  by  Lord  Cochrane,  aa 
English  adventurer ;  and  a  great  portion  of  the  crew  were  English 
and  Americans. 

In  August,  1820,  an  army  of  about  five  thousand  men,  called  the 
"liberating  army,"  under  General  San  Martin,  embarked  at  Val- 
paraiso for  the  invasion  of  Peru.  They  landed  at  Pisco,  about  a 
hundred  miles  south  of  Lima,  on  the  11  th  of  September.  A  Span- 
ish army  had  taken  post  near  this  place,  with  the  design  of  oppos- 
ing the  landing  of  the  Chilians,  but  they  fell  back  to  Lima  with- 
out risking  a  battle.  The  viceroy  of  Peru  attempted  to  gain  time 
by  negotiation,  and  an  armistice  of  eight  days  was  agreed  upon, 
during  which  a  conference  was  held  by  commissioners  appointed 
by  both  parties.  Nothing,  however,  resulted  from  the  negotiations, 
and  the  Chilian  army  moved  forward  in  the  direction  of  Lima. 
A  detachment  of  a  thousand  men,  under  Colonel  Arenales, 
defeated  a  Spanish  force  sent  to  oppose  him,  and  many  districts 
declared  in  favor  of  the  invaders.  On  the  3d  of  December,  the 
disaffection  among  the  Spanish  troops  had  proceeded  so  far  that 
a  whole  regiment,  with  its  officers,  went  over  to  the  liberating 
army. 

Callao,  the  seaport  of  Lima,  was  at  that  time  defended  by 
strong  batteries  and  a  Spanish  squadron,  comprising  a  frigate,  two 
sloops  of  war,  and  fourteen  gunboats.  On  the  night  of  the  5th  of 
November,  Cochrane,  with  the  boats  of  his  fleet,  cut  the  frigate  out 
of  the  harbor.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  capture  the  place, 
but  continued  to  hold  it  blockaded.  In  the  mean  time,  San  Mar- 
tin, finding  his  army  too  weak  for  assaulting  or  besieging  Lima, 
took  post  near  the  port  of  Huacho,  about  seventy-five  miles  north 
of  that  capital.  For  six  months  he  occupied  this  post,  recruiting 


REVOLUTIONARY   MOVEMENTS.  219 

his  forces  and  cutting  off  the  supplies  of  the  enemy.  Further 
attempts  were  made  to  accommodate  affairs  by  negotiations ;  but 
after  another  unavailing  truce,  the  Chilian  army,  early  in  July, 
1821,  advanced  upon  Lima.  The  viceroy,  more  alarmed  for  his 
own  safety  than  mindful  for  the  preservation  of  his  capital,  imme- 
diately fled  from  the  city  at  the  head  of  his  troops.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  thrown  into  the  greatest  consternation ;  part  escaped 
to  Callao ;  the  women  and  children  took  refuge  in  the  convents,  or 
scattered  themselves  over  the  neighboring  country.  Those  of  the 
inhabitants  who  remained,  held  a  meeting,  and  resolved  to  make 
terms  with  the  invaders.  A  deputation  was  sent,  inviting  San 
Martin  to  enter  the  city.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  an- 
nounced that  he  came,  not  as  a  conqueror,  but  as  a  liberator.  By 
these  means  the  apprehensions  of  the  people  were  dissipated,  and 
those  who  had  deserted  the  city  returned  to  their  homes. 

On  the  12th  of  July,  1821,  San  Martin  made  his  entry  into 
Lima,  where  he  was  received  with  acclamations;  and  on  the 
28th,  the  independence  of  Peru  was  formally  proclaimed.  San 
Martin  took  the  title  of  Protector  of  Peru.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment was  organized,  and  measures  were  taken  to  establish  the 
affairs  of  the  country  on  a  permanent  basis.  The  whole  course 
of  this  portion  of  our  history  will  show,  however,  that  the  govern- 
ments of  Spanish  America  seem  destined  to  know  nothing  of  per- 
manency. Early  in  September,  the  royalist  army,  which  had  fled 
to  the  interior,  made  its  appearance  again  near  Lima.  A  battle  was 
expected,  but  the  Spaniards  marched  to  Callao,  possessed  them- 
selves of  the  treasure  lodged  in  the  castle,  and  then  retreated. 
Shortly  after,  Callao  surrendered  to  the  patriots.  Nothing  more  of 
consequence  took  place  for  nearly  a  year;  but  in  July,  1822,  San 
Martin  proceeded  to  Guayaquil,  where  he  had  an  interview  with 
Bolivar,  who  then  commanded  the  Colombian  armies.  Bolivar 
detached  a  portion  of  his  troops  to  reinforce  the  liberating  army, 
but  no  military  operations  followed  for  several  months.  On  the 
20th  of  September,  the  first  Peruvian  congress  convened,  and 
appointed  an  executive  junta  of  three  persons  to  administer  the 
government.  San  Martin  declined  the  office  of  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Peruvian  armies,  and  left  that  country  for  Chili 

The  departure  of  this  general  was  the  commencement  of  a  long 
train  of  disasters  for  the  new  republic  of  Peru. .  In  January,  1823, 
an  army,  despatched  on  an  expedition  to  the  south,  was  defeated 
and  dispersed.  General  discontent  among  the  people  followed, 
and  everything  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  illegal  dissolu- 
tion of  the  congress  in  February.  The  royalists  took  advantage 
of  these  troubles,  and  in  June  a  strong  Spanish  force,  under  Gen- 


PERU. 

eral  Canterac,  appeared  before  Lima.  The  patriots  abandoned 
the  place  and  took  refuge  in  Callao.  The  royalists  took  posses- 
sion of  Lima,  and  levied  contributions  upon  the  inhabitants.  The 
patriots  were  unable  to  raise  an  army  sufficient  to  oppose  the 
enemy,  and  the  rising  spirit  of  independence  appeared  to  be 
effectually  crushed. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  when  Bolivar,  who  had  brought 
the  war  of  independence  in  the  northern  provinces  nearly  to  a 
close,  received  an  invitation  from  the  Peruvians  to  interfere  in 
their  behalf.  He  acceded  to  the  proposal,  and  having  a  strong 
force  under  his  command,  quickly  made  his  way  to  Lima.  The 
Spanish  army  fled  before  him ;  he  entered  the  city  in  triumph, 
and  was  appointed  dictator  until  the  Spaniards  should  be  ex- 
pelled. The  Peruvians,  however,  were  utterly  incapable  of  acting 
in  concert,  or  devising  means  for  the  defence  of  the  country. 
Factions  and  dissensions  distracted  all  their  counsels.  Insurrec- 
tions arose  against  the  government  of  Bolivar  and  the  congress, 
and  in  February,  1824,  Canterac,  with  a  royal  army,  again  took 
possession  of  Lima,  while  Bolivar  was  absent  in  Colombia,  rais- 
ing reinforcements.  In  June,  Bolivar  again  crossed  the  Andes,  at 
the  head  of  an  army  of  three  thousand  five  hundred  men,  defeated 
a  Spanish  force  sent  to  check  his  approach,  and  on  the  6th  of 
August  encountered  the  main  body  of  the  royalist  cavalry  on  the 
plains  of  Junin.  A  severe  battle  was  fought  at  this  place,  in 
which  Bolivar's  troops  were  victorious.  Nearly  all  the  Spanish 
cavalry  were  destroyed,  and  the  liberating  army  pursued  the 
fugitives  towards  the  valley  of  Jauja. 

The  united  forces  of  Colombia  and  Peru,  amounting  to  six 
thousand  men,  were  now  placed  under  the  command  of  General 
Sucre.  In  December,  1824,  he  took  post  at  Ayacucho,  near  the 
encampment  of  the  enemy.  The  royal  force  under  Canterac, 
amounted  to  nine  thousand  men.  On  the  9th  of  December,  the 
two  armies  joined  battle,  and  after  great  slaughter,  the  royalists 
were  defeated  so  thoroughly,  that  those  of  them  who  survived  the 
battle,  capitulated  on  the  spot.  A  treaty  was  signed  by  Canterac 
and  Sucre,  by  which  all  the  royal  troops  in  Peru,  all  the  military 
posts,  artillery,  magazines,  and  territory  occupied  by  the  Spaniards 
in  the  country,  were  surrendered  to  the  victors  of  Ayacucho. 
This  overthrow  completely  prostrated  the  Spanish  power  in  Peru. 
On  the  10th  of  December,  the  Peruvian  congress  was  again  in- 
stalled. Bolivar  was  declared  anew  the  political  and  military 
head  of  the  republic,  and  a  gift  of  a  million  of  dollars  tendered 
him  for  his  services,  which  he  declined  accepting.  Lower  Peru 
being  thus  liberated,  Sucre  marched  into  Upper  Peru,  where 


INSTABILITY   OF    THE    SOUTH   AMERICAN   GOVERNMENTS.  22J 

General  Olaneta  still  held  out  against  the  patriots,  in  defiance  of 
the  treaty  of  Ayacucho.  His  force  was  soon  dispersed,  and 
the  revolutionary  government  established.  The  royalist  general, 
Rodil,  who  had  thrown  himself  into  the  castle  of  Callao,  surren- 
dered in  January,  1826,  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  months,  and  not 
a  Spanish  soldier  remained  in  Peru. 

The  country  was  now  entirely  free  from  foreign  rule ;  but  the 
Spanish  Americans  have  never  understood  the  art  of  self-govern- 
ment, and  the  whole  history  of  their  independent  communities  is 
little  else  than  a  narrative  of  factions,  dissensions  and  constantly 
recurring  political  changes,  presenting  a  never-ending  scene  of 
confusion,  out  of  which  it  is  seldom  possible  to  extract  anything 
worthy  of  the  reader's  attention.  A  comprehensive  outline  of  the 
remaining  history  of  Peru,  is  all  that  will  be  necessary.  Boli- 
var exercised  much  influence  at  the  head  of  the  government. 
Through  his  exertions,  the  district  of  Upper  Peru  was  erected  into 
an  independent  state,  and  named  BOLIVIA.  A  constitution  was 
formed  under  his  auspices,  and  he  was  appointed  president  of 
Bolivia  for  life.  In  1826,  Bolivar  managed  to  procure  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution  in  Peru,  where  it  added  greatly  to  his 
power,  as  it  not  only  confirmed  him  in  the  government  of  the 
country  for  life,  but  likewise  allowed  him  to  appoint  his  successor, 
and  released  him  from  all  responsibility  for  his  actions.  This 
arbitrary  government  proved  highly  distasteful  to  the  Peruvians, 
and  they  seized  the  occasion,  when  Bolivar  was  absent  in  Colom- 
bia, to  rise  in  insurrection.  Accordingly,  in  January,  1827,  a  com- 
plete revolution  was  effected  in  Peru.  The  Bolivian  constitution 
was  annulled,  and  a  new  government  organized,  combining  the 
properties  of  a  federal  and  a  central  system,  with  a  president  cho- 
sen for  four  years,  a  national  congress  and  separate  provincial 
governments. 

The  republic  of  Peru,  however,  has  never  yet  possessed  a  gov- 
ernment adapted  to  the  taste  and  capacities  of  the  people.  The 
country  has,  ever  since  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  been 
constantly  distracted  by  parties  struggling  for  power,  and  by  civil 
wars  and  revolutions,  caused  by  the  conflicts  of  these  parties. 
Scarcely  has  there  been  a  temporary  lull  of  peace  for  this  ill-fated- 
country  during  the  whole  of  this  period.  In  1835,  four  chiefs  in 
arms  were  striving  for  the  supremacy.  When  one  of  them  suc- 
ceeded in  making  himself  powerful,  the  others  united  against 
him;  but  as  soon  as  they  were  victorious,  they  fell  again  to  hos- 
tilities with  each  other.  During  the  four  years'  administration  of 
General  Gamarra,  there  were  no  less  than  fourteen  conspiracies* 
against  his  person  and  government,  all  which  he  had  the  good 
19* 


PERU. 

fortune  to  detect  and  crush.  But  Gamarra,  who  had  obtained  his 
office  by  his  intrigues  and  the  ruin  of  his  predecessor,  had  no 
sooner  closed  his  administration,  in  January >  1834,  than  he  was 
Seen  to  raise  the  standard  of  rebellion,  and  hasten  the  ruin  of  his 
country,  by  authorizing  insurrections  against  the  government 
with  his  example.  Although  frustrated  in  this  treasonable  pro- 
c  reding,  in  the  course  of  the  year  following  he  was  again  at  the 
h  ?ad  of  an  armed  faction,  in  open  and  sanguinary  rebellion.  But 
h  s  partisans  were  totally  dispersed  at  the  battle  of  Yanacocha, 
ty"  the  President  Orbegoso,  and  Gamarra  was  sent  into  banish- 
m  ?nt. 

Rapacious  upstarts,  struggling  for  ascendency,  continued  to 
fill  the  country  with  tumult,  confusion  and  bloodshed.  Lima 
suffered  from  the  depredations  of  a  formidable  band  of  freebooters, 
led  by  a  negro,  named  Escobar,  who  kept  the  city  in  terror.  The 
foreign  property  owed  its  protection  to  the  English,  French  and 
American  marines,  from  the  ships  of  war  in  the  port.  General 
Vidal  delivered  Lima  from  the  plunderers,  and  Escobar  was  shot 
in  the  public  square.  A  spurious  president.  General  Salaverry, 
conies  next  upon  the  scene,  and  on  the  7th  of  February,  1836,  the 
battle  of  Socabaya  witnessed  his  downfall.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  by  a  court  martial,  and  shot  with  his  adherents  at 
Arequipa,  on  the  18th  of  February,  1836. 

General  Santa  Cruz,  the  president  of  Bolivia,  interposed  his 
influence  for  the  regulation  of  the  affairs  of  Peru.  Insurrections 
and  revolutions  in  the  Spanish  American  states  now  excite  so 
little  attention  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  that  no  one  has  been 
found  to  record  the  more  recent  convulsions  and  changes  in  Peru. 
The  reader  will  judge,  from  the  picture  of  that  country  which  has 
already  been  offered  him  in  these  pages,  whether  a  more  detailed 
history  of  these  events  would  repay  him  for  the  perusal. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

13 u EN os  AYRES,  OR  THE  UNITED  PROVINCES  OK  Rio  DE  LA  PLATA. — Invasion 
of  South  America  by  the  British. — Expedition  of  Bercsford  and  Popham 
against  Buenos  Ayres. — Capture  of  the  city. — Exultation  in  England. —  Oppo- 
sition of  the  Spanish  Americans. — Exertions  of  Linicrs. — Insurrection  at 
Buenos  Ayres. — Liniers  attacks  Uie  city. — Defeat  and  capture  of  the  British 
army. —  Capture  of  Maldonado  and  Monte  Video,  by  the  fleet. — Expedition  of 
General  Whitelocke  against  Buenos  Ayres. —  Obstinate  defence  of  the  city  by 
the  inhabitants. — Slaughter  and  repulse  of  the  British. — Proposal  for  a  capitu- 
lation.— Anecdote  of  the  Spanish  sailors. — The  British  forces  evacuate  the 
country. — Liniers  appointed  viceroy.— Parties  at  Buenos  Ayres. — A  French 
envoy  from  Napoleon  arrives  in  the  country. — Proclamation  of  Liniers  in  favor 
of  Napoleon. — Proceedings  of  Elio  at  Monte  Video. — Liniers  displaced  and 
restored. — Arrival  of  Goyeneche  from  Spain. — Ferdinand  VII.  acknowledged  at 
Buenos  Ayres. — Arrival  of  Cisneros,  the  new  viceroy. — Banishment  of  Liniers. 
— Spirit  and  feeling  of  the  people. — Ideas  of  independence  circulated. — Embar- 
rassments of  Cisneros. — He  convenes  a  congress. —  Cisneros  deposed. — A  pro- 
vincial junta  established. — Affairs  in  Monte  Video  and  the  interior. —  Civil  ivar. 
— Liniers  defeated  and  put  to  death. — Independence. — An  army  despatched  to 
revolutionize  Chili. — Affairs  in  Peru  and  Paraguay. — BANDA  ORIENTAL. — 
Elio,  Captain  General. — War  between  Banda  Oriental  and  Buenos  Ayres.— 
Proceedings  of  Artigas  and  Rondeau. — Siege  of  Monte  Video. — Interference 
of  the  Portuguese  of  Brazil. — Dangers  of  the  Buenos  Ayrean  government. — 
Treaty  with  the  Portuguese. — Troubles  and  conspiracies. — The  constituent 
congress. — San  Martin. — Surrender  of  Monte  Video. — Artigas  chief  of  Banda 
Oriental. — Capture  of  Santa  Fe. — Formal  declaration  of  independence. — 
Conquest  of  Banda  Oriental  by  the  Portuguese. — Constitution  of  the  United 
Provinces. — Intrigues  of  the  French. — General  character  of  the  recent  transac- 
tions in  this  country. 

THE  Spanish  Americans  who  made  the  earliest  demonstrations 
of  a  wish  to  throw  off  the  government  of  the  mother  country,  were 
those  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  1806,  war  existed  between  Spain  and 
Great  Britain,  and  the  neglected  state  of  the  province  of  La  Plata 
offered  strong  temptations  for  an  invasion  on  the  part  of  the  Eng- 
lish. The  Spanish  government  maintained  only  a  few  wretched 
troops  at  Buenos  Ayres  and  Monte  Video,  and  a  feeble  naval  force 
at  the  latter  place.  The  viceroy,  Sobremonte,  was  a  person  des- 
titute of  energy  and  capacity ;  Spain  was  absorbed  in  European 
politics ;  her  marine  had  been  annihilated  by  the  fatal  defeat  of 
Trafalgar,  and  everything  invited  the  cupidity  of  the  English; 
yet  the  invasion  was  undertaken  without  orders  from  the  govern- 


224  PROVINCES   OF   RIO   DE   LA   PLATA. 

ment.  A  fleet  and  army,  under  Commodore  Popham  and  General 
Beresford,  which  had  been  despatched  against  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  after  effecting  the  conquest  of  that  colony,  proceeded  to 
Buenos  Ayres,  in  1806,  and  on  the  8th  of  June,  arrived  in  the 
mouth  of  the  river  La  Plata.  A  general  consternation  seized  the 
inhabitants  of  Buenos  Ayres  when  the  squadron  appeared  in  sight 
of  that  city.  Not  more  than  three  hundred  muskets  could  be 
found  for  the  defence  of  the  place,  and  these  the  inhabitants  had 
not  the  skill  to  use.  A  show  of  defence  was  attempted  by  the 
viceroy,  but  the  only  military  movement  was  made  by  a  single 
troop  of  cavalry  who  undertook  to  harass  the  British  army  of  two 
thousand  men,  on  their  march  to  Buenos  Ayres.  The  viceroy, 
panic-struck,  fled  for  safety  to  Cordova,  and  the  British  took  pos- 
session of  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  28th  of  June. 

When  the  news  of  this  conquest  reached  England,  it  excited 
the  greatest  exultation  both  in  the  government  and  the  people. 
It  was  believed  that  Great  Britain  had  made  a  permanent  acqui- 
sition of  a  most  valuable  colony,  and  councils  were  immediately 
held  to  devise  means  to  turn  it  to  immediate  profit.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  country  was  represented  as  deeply  disaffected  towards 
the  Spanish  rule,  and  moreover  too  effeminate  and  slothful  to  offer 
any  resistance  to  the  arms  of,  the  invaders.  The  British  govern- 
ment immediately  took  measures  for  the  regulation  of  the  colony, 
as  if  their  authority  had  been  completely  established  and  the  peo- 
ple had  become  quiet  British  subjects.  The  most  extravagant 
expectations  were  indulged  of  commercial  profits  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  British  manufactures  into  the  market  of  this  rich  and 
thriving  country. 

Never  were  sanguine  hopes  more  severely  contradicted.  Instead 
of  conquering  the  whole  province,  the  British  forces  had,  in  fact, 
only  made  themselves  masters  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The 
neighboring  villages  submitted  only  from  the  fear  of  military 
execution,  and  the  invaders  dared  not  penetrate  into  the  interior. 
The  Spaniards,  too,  when  the  first  moments  of  panic  were  over, 
appeared  to  rouse  as  from  a  dream  or  lethargy,  and  exhibited  a 
degree  of  energy  and  resolution  which  astonished  their  enemies. 
Inflamed  with  indignation  at  the  unmanly  conduct  of  their  leader, 
and  chagrined  at  seeing  foreigners  in  possession  of  their  capital, 
they  began  to  meditate  upon  the  means  of  driving  them  out  of 
the  country.  An  active  and  resolute  leader  was  found  in  Liniers, 
a  French  officer  in  the  Spanish  service.  He  exerted  himself  with 
great  industry,  in  the  districts  north  of  the  river,  in  collecting  and 
arming  the  people.  A  secret  correspondence  was  set  on  foot 
between  him  and  certain  persons  within  the  city.  Arms  were 


CAPITULATION    OF    THE    BRITISH    AT    BUENOS    AYRES.  225 

distributed  and  secreted  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  a  regular  insurrec^ 
tion  organized  under  the  guidance  of  Puyrredon,  a  magistrate, 
and  a  person  of  great  talent  and  address. 

Liniers  having  collected  a  considerable  force  at  Colonia,  oppo- 
site the  city,  the  British  attempted  to  drive  him  from  this  post, 
but  without  success,  and,  on  the  1st  of  August,  Liniers  crossed  the 
river  with  his  whole  army,  arid  marched  to  the  attack  of  the  city. 
Buenos  Ayres  was  a  large  open  place,  difficult  to  defend  with  the 
force  commanded  by  Beresford.  He,  therefore,  judged  it  more 
advisable  to  meet  his  enemy  at  a  distance ;  and  a  smart  action, 
took  place  the  next  day,  in  which  the  British  had  the  advantage; 
but  this  was  only  a  temporary  check  to  the  Spaniards,  for  torrents 
of  rain,  which  continued  to  fall  for  three  days  afterward,  disabled 
the  English  troops,  which  were  all  infantry,  from  active  operations. 
The  Spaniards,  on  the  contrary,  being  abundantly  supplied  with 
horses,  found  the  bad  roads  no  great  impediment,  and  approached 
the  city  in  various  directions.  On  the  evening  of  the  10th  they 
had  occupied  all  the  avenues  to  the  place.  The  townsmen  then 
took  up  arms,  rose  in  insurrection,  and  the  house-tops  were 
covered  with  people  ready  to  cooperate  in  the  attack  upon  the 
British  troops.  Surrounded  with  enemies,  the  British  commander 
saw  at  once  that  his  post  was  untenable,  and  would  have  escaped 
across  the  stream  of  the  Chello,  buf  a  violent  storm  rendered  this 
impossible. 

On  the  morning  of  the  12th  the  combined  attack  began.  The 
British  occupied  the  castle  and  great  square,  and  planted  their 
cannon  towards  the  principal  streets  which  led  to  those  points. 
The  Spaniards  advanced  with  their  artillery  along  the  avenues, 
while  the  roofs  of  the  houses  were  covered  with  musketeers,  who 
could  pour  their  fire  upon  all  below  without  any  hazard  to  them- 
selves. •  The  attacking  columns  in  the  streets  were  repeatedly 
checked  in  their  advance,  but  the  fire  from  the  house-tops  made 
dreadful  havoc  and  threatened  the  British  with  utter  destruction. 
The  British  commander  had  now  no  choice,  but  to  surrender  or 
see  his  army  slaughtered  to  the  last  man.  A  capitulation  was 
therefore  proposed,  and  immediately  accepted ;  the  whole  army 
surrendered  prisoners.  The  Spaniards  engaged  in  this  action 
were  computed  at  above  twenty  thousand,  seven  hundred  of 
whom  were  killed  and  wounded.  The  British  loss  was  stated  at 
one  hundred  and  sixty-five.  Thus,  after  a  turbulent  and  preca- 
rious possession  of  Buenos  Ayres  for  fifteen  days,  the  city  proved 
only  a  trap  for  the  British  army;  and  their  ministry  at  home  were 
occupied  in  framing  regulations,  for  its  government,  and  despatch- ' 
ing  valuable  cargoes  to  supply  the  demands  of  its  commerce, 

c2 


PROVINCES    OF    RIO    DE    LA    PLATA. 

several  months  after  the  Spaniards  were  established  in  quiet  re- 
possession of  the  place. 

The  squadron,  however,  continued  in  the  river,  and  being 
shortly  after  reinforced,  made  an  attempt  on  Monte  Video.  This 
proving  unsuccessful,  they  took  possession  of  Maldonado,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  they  found  a  secure  port  for  their 
shipping.  Being  strengthened  by  additional  reinforcements,  the 
attack  on  Monte  Video  was  repeated  a  year  afterwards,  and  on 
the  3d  of  February,  1807,  after  a  close  siege  and  great  slaughter, 
Monte  Video  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  The  hostile 
temper  of  the  Spaniards  prevented  them,  for  some  time,  from 
attempting  to  regain  their  lost  footing  at  Buenos  Ayres ;  but  early 
in  the  summer,  they  received  large  reinforcements  of  troops,  and 
on  the  25th  of  June,  an  army  of  twelve  thousand  men,  under 
General  Whitelocke,  proceeded  from  Monte  Video  up  the  river,  and 
disembarked  about  thirty  miles  from  Buenos  Ayres.  They  drove 
a  body  of  Spanish  troops  before  them,  and  on  the  30th,  arrived 
before  the  city.  There  were  no  walls  or  fortifications  to  repel  the 
assault  of  the  British,  and  the  Spanish  troops  were  few  and  undis- 
ciplined The  inhabitants,  nevertheless,  determined  to  make  an 
obstinate  defence,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  city  is  built  ena- 
bled them  to  do  this  with  remarkable  success.  Buenos  Ayres  is 
divided  pretty  equally  into  squares  of  four  or  five  hundred  feet 
each.  The  walls  of  the  houses  are  built  up  in  a  solid  manner, 
with  flat  roofs,  so  that  the  whole  city  may  be  considered  an 
assemblage  of  fortresses.  The  inhabitants  were  animated  with 
intense  animosity  against  the  British.  The  master  of  each  house, 
surrounded  with  his  children  and  slaves,  was  posted  on  its  roof 
and  amply  supplied  with  arms  and  ammunition.  The  doors  were 
strongly  barricaded,  and  the  main  avenues  of  the  city  obstructed  by 
ditches  cut  across  them.  The  whole  male  population,  and  a  great 
portion  of  the  females  of  Buenos  Ayres,  were  engaged  in  the  defence. 

The  British  army  moved  to  the  attack  on  the  5th  of  July. 
The  troops  marched  in  separate  columns,  each  having  its  distinct 
point  to  assail.  As  the  columns  entered  the  city,  they  were 
greeted  with  a  furious  and  overwhelming  fire  from  the  roofs  and 
windows.  At  every  step  they  encountered  a  fresh  storm  of  shot 
and  missiles.  Grape-shot  were  poured  upon  them  from  every 
corner;  musketry,  hand-grenades,  bricks  and  stones  rained  from 
the  house-tops.  Every  dwelling  was  a  fortress,  and  all  its  tenants 
were  indefatigable  in  its  defence.  For  ten  hours  the  battle  raged 
without  diminishing  the  ardor  and  obstinacy  of  the  combatants 
on  either  side.  Some  of  the  detachments  were  totally  destroyed 
by  the  fire  of  the  citizens.  Others  had  their  retreat  cut  off,  and 


REPULSE   OF   THE   RRITISH   AT   BUENOS   AYRES.  227 

were  forced  to  surrender  in  the  streets.  Others  took  shelter  in 
convents  and  churches,  and  after  terrible  slaughter,  yielded  to 
overwhelming  numbers.  Only  two  of  the  posts  assailed  by  the 
British  remained  in.  their  hands  at  the  end  of  the  conflict,  and 
after  a  loss  of  twenty-five  hundred  men  in  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners. 

Notwithstanding  the  disastrous  issue  of  the  attempt,  the  British 
commander  determined  to  repeat  the  attack  on  the  following  day ; 
but  he  was  deterred  by  a  communication  from  the  Spanish  com- 
mander, Liniers,  who  proposed  to  deliver  up  his  prisoners  on 
condition  that  the  British  should  immediately  evacuate  the 
country.  Extraordinary  as  this  proposal  may  seem,  General 
Whitelocke  found  himself  compelled  to  listen  to  it  by  the  follow- 
ing singular  circumstances.  When  the  British  fleet  arrived  in  the 
river,  the  commodore,  Sir  Home  Popham,  with  equal  inhumanity 
and  impolicy,  turned  ashore,  on  the  desolate  island  of  Lobos,  two 
hundred  Spaniards,  the  crews  of  some  vessels  which  had  fallen 
into  his  hands.  These  men  were  exposed  to  the  danger  of  star- 
vation on  a  barren  rock,  that  the  British  might  not  be  encumbered 
with  their  prisoners.  They  lived  for  some  time  on  the  flesh  of 
seals  and  shell-fish ;  and  at  length  some  of  them  contrived  to  form 
a  sort  of  raft  with  bags  of  seal-skins  inflated  with  air,  and  by  the 
help  of  this,  floated  themselves  to  the  main  land.  A  vessel  was 
despatched  to  Lobos,  which  brought  away  the  remainder.  Some 
of  these  men  were  carried  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  the  relation  of 
their  story  inspired  the  inhabitants  with  horror  and  indignation 
against  the  British,  and  these  feelings  were  by  no  means  dimin- 
ished at  the  period  of  the  attack  on  the  city.  Liniers  represented 
to  General  Whitelocke  that  the  prisoners  were  in  danger  of  a 
general  massacre,  as,  from  the  exasperated  state  of  the  populace, 
he  could  not  answer  for  their  safety,  should  the  British  persist  in 
their  attack.  These  representations  had  so  much  effect  with 
Whitelocke,  who  appears  not  to  have  possessed  an  uncommon 
degree  of  firmness,  that,  after  a  slight  hesitation,  he  agreed  to  the 
terms,  and  signed  a  treaty  agreeing  to  withdraw  all  the  British 
forces  from  Buenos  Ayres  in  ten  days,  and  from  South  America  in 
two  months,  leaving  at  Monte  Video  the  artillery  and  stores  uncon- 
sumed,  which  \vere  found  there.  Thus  a  wanton  act  of  cruelty 
on  the  part  of  the  invaders,  led  the  way  to  their  overthrow  and 
disgrace  in  the  end.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  repulse  of  the 
British  at  Buenos  Ayres,  resembles,  in  many  circumstances,  the 
defence  of  New  Orleans.  Both  cities  were  attacked  by  regular 
troops,  and  defended  by  irregulars.  Both  attacking  armies  com- 
prised about  the  same  number  of  men,  and  the  loss  of  the  as- 


PROVINCES    OF    RIO    DE    LA    PLATA. 

sailants  was  of  similar  amount  on  both  occasions.  General 
Whitelocke,  at  his  return  to  England,  was  tried  by  a  court- 
martial,  and  cashiered. 

Thus,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  British  were  completely  ex- 
pelled from  a  territory  over  which  they  imagined  they  had  estab- 
lished a  firm  dominion.  Liniers  became  the  popular  idol,  and 
was  appointed  Viceroy  of  the  province.  He  appears  to  have 
behaved,  at  first,  with  prudence  and  moderation,  and  at  the  same 
time  with  inflexible  fidelity  to  the  king  of  Spain.  But  the  most 
embarrassing  troubles  soon  arose.  Napoleon  seized  the  throne  of 
Spain,  and  attempted  to  possess  himself  of  her  colonies.  Two 
parties  soon  sprung  up  at  Buenos  Ayres.  The  more  enlightened 
among  the  native  population,  some  of  whom  had  long  secretly 
cherished  the  desire  of  independence,  felt  a  wish  to  seize  this 
opportunity  to  throw  off'  the  Spanish  yoke  forever.  But  those  of 
European  birth,  comprising  almost  all  in  authority,  were  inter- 
ested in  the  continuation  of  the  ancient  government,  and  opposed 
all  revolutionary  ideas.  With  the  mass  of  the  inhabitants,  any 
notion  of  change  was  too  bold.  Liniers,  in  his  embarrassment, 
was  obliged  to  temporize,  and  incurred  the  suspicion  of  both 
parties.  In  July,  1808,  a  French  vessel,  with  an  envoy  from 
Napoleon,  arrived  at  Buenos  Ayres,  with  despatches  to  Liniers, 
informing  him  of  the  transfer  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  calling 
upon  the  authorities  in  South  America  to  give  their  allegiance  to 
the  new  government.  Liniers,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  was  not 
disinclined  to  this  step;  but  convened  the  municipality  and  the 
court  of  audience  for  consultation.  This  meeting  were  of  opinion 
that  the  extraordinary  occurrences  in  Spain  should  be  officially 
announced  to  the  people ;  but  they  appear  to  have  been  undeci- 
ded on  any  step  beyond  this.  Liniers,  aware  of  the  hostility 
of  the  people  toward  the  French,  gave,  in  his  proclamation,  but 
an  obscure  account  of  the  recent  occurrences,  and  exhorted  the 
inhabitants,  in  the  name  of  Napoleon,  to  remain  quiet,  and  use 
their  endeavors  to  preserve  the  tranquillity  of  the  country. 

But  factions  and  dissensions  soon  began  to  throw  the  country 
into  confusion.  Elio,  the  governor  of  Monte  Yideo,  formed  a  party 
in  opposition  to  Liniers,  whom  he  accused  of  disloyalty.  The 
European  Spaniards  were  more  numerous  at  Monte  Video  than  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  They  united  with  the  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy,  and  created  a  junta,  which  acknowledged  the  dependence 
of  the  country  on  the  crown  of  Spain.  A  serious  attempt  was 
made  by  the  same  class  of  persons  in  the  capital,  to  remove 
Liniers  from  the  station  of  viceroy.  They  succeeded  so  far  as  to 
place  him  under  the  necessity  of  resigning;  but  this  was  no 


POPULAR   COMMOTIONS.  229 

sooner  known,  than  the  native  militia  took  up  arms  in  his  sup- 
port, restored  him  to  authority,  and  banished  his  enemies  to 
Patagonia.  Liniers  now  sent  an  expedition  against  Monte  Video, 
where  Elio  had  assumed  the  title  of  Viceroy ;  but  while  this  was 
in  progress,  Don  Josef  de  Goyeneche  arrived  from  Spain,  for  the 
purpose  of  mediating  between  the  two  parties.  He  had  sufficient 
influence  to  cause  the  inhabitants  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  acknow- 
ledge the  supremacy  of  Spain,  and  proclaim  Ferdinand  VII. 
Through  his  exertions  the  people  were  induced  to  rise  in  all  parts 
of  the  city,  in  January,  1809,  and  demand  the  establishment  of 
a  provincial  junta.  Liniers,  however,  maintained  his  influence 
with  the  army,  and  by  their  help  was  enabled  to  defeat  this 
movement. 

Liniers  did  not  long  enjoy  this  triumph.  In  August,  1809, 
Cisneros,  a  newly  appointed  viceroy,  arrived  from  Spain,  and 
Liniers  was  deposed  from  his  office  by  the  junta  which  he  had 
overthrown  a  few  months  previous.  He  was  exiled  to  Cordova ; 
but  the  new  viceroy  found  it  more  easy  to  remove  his  predecessor 
than  to  establish  himself  in  his  place.  The  ebullition  of  loyalty 
that  had  proclaimed  Ferdinand,  was  of  short  duration.  The 
Spanish  Americans  began  to  feel  that  they  had  power  in  their 
hands ;  and  their  successes  in  defeating  two  British  armies,  en- 
couraged them  to  think  they  possessed  valor  also.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  exertions  that  had  been  made  by  the  court  of  Spain  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  books  and  newspapers  into  the  coun- 
try, many  had  been  clandestinely  imported  and  eagerly  read,  and 
some  intelligence  was  gained  of  the  events  in  progress  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  natives  had  been  forbidden  to  visit 
Europe  or  send  their  children  thither  for  instruction ;  yet  some 
had  evaded  this  prohibition,  and  returned  with  a  keen  sense  of 
the  wrongs  which  their  country  was  suffering  under  the  leaden 
yoke  of  Spain.  Reform,  innovation  and  independence  began  to 
be  spoken  of  in  confidential  whispers,  and  speedily  became  the 
topics  at  political  meetings.  Commotion  followed  commotion,  and 
in  May,  1810,  the  viceroy,  Cisneros,  finding  his  embarrassments 
and  perplexities  alarmingly  increased  by  the  disasters  of  the 
Spaniards  in  Europe,  was  compelled  to  announce  his  inability  to 
manage  the  government.  The  municipality  of  the  city  requested 
him  to  call  a  congress,  which  he  proceeded  to  do.  The  congress 
established  a  provisional  junta  for  the  government  of  the  country, 
and  one  of  its  first  acts  was  to  depose  the  viceroy  and  send  him 
to  Spain.  The  25th  of  May,  when  this  government  went  into 
action,  has  ever  since  been  observed  as  the  anniversary  of  Buenos 
Ayrean  independence. 
20 


230  PROVINCES    OF    RIO   DE   LA   PLATA. 

Monte  Video  and  the  interior  provinces  disapproved  of  these 
proceedings.  Liniers  raised  an  army  of  two  thousand  men,  and 
began  a  civil  war,  by  laying  waste  the  country  around  Cordova,  to 
check  the  approach  of  the  troops  from  the  capital.  General  Nieto 
collected  another  force  in  Potosi.  The  junta  of  Buenos  Ayres 
gave  the  command  of  their  army  to  Colonel  Ocampo,  who  straight- 
way took  the  field.  On  his  approach  to  Cordova,  the  troops  of 
Liniers  abandoned  him,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner,  with  many  of 
his  adherents.  Liniers,  Concha,  the  bishop  of  Cordova,  with 
several  other  persons  of  distinction,  were  condemned  and  executed. 
Thus  fell  the  first  leader  in  this  revolution  by  the  hands  of  the 
people  whom  he  had  assisted  to  tread  the  first  steps  in  the  career 
of  their  emancipation.  The  leaders  at  Buenos  Ayres  feared  his 
great  popularity,  and  saw  in  him  a  formidable  obstacle  to  their 
designs. 

The  country  was  now,  in  fact,  entirely  separated  from  Spain. 
The  die  was  cast,  and  the  leaders  of  the  revolution  had  no  choice 
but  to  advance  or  be  crushed  by.  a  counter-revolution.  They 
boldly  asserted  that  the  sovereignty  of  Spain  over  the  colonies  had 
temporarily  ceased  with  the  captivity  of  the  king,  and  that  each 
colony  had  a  right  to  take  care  of  itself.  The  spirit  of  indepen- 
dence made  such  rapid  progress,  that,  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1810,  the  whole  viceroyalty,  excepting  the  province  of  Paraguay 
and  the  town  of*  Monte  Video,  threw  off  the  authority  of  the 
crown  and  acknowledged  that  of  the  provincial  junta.  They 
professed,  at  the  same  time,  an  intention  to  return  to  their  alle- 
giance to  Ferdinand  on  his  restoration  to  the  throne ;  but  this  was 
an  event  which  few  expected,  and  fewer  still  desired. 

The  junta,  shortly  after  the  commencement  of  their  administra- 
tion, despatched  a  force,  under  Don  A.  Jonte,  to  Chili,  to  revolu- 
tionize that  country.  This  expedition  was  crowned  with  full 
success ;  the  royal  government  was  overthrown,  a  provincial  junta 
established,  and  Jonte  was  continued  in  Chili,  as  charge  d'affaires 
from  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres.  About  the  same  time 
Ocampo  was  ordered  to  march  against  the  royalists,  who  had 
collected  in  considerable  strength  in  Upper  Peru.  Ocampo  defeated 
this  force,  and  subjugated  a  great  part  of  the  district.  In  the 
meantime,  Velasco,  the  governor  of  Paraguay,  had  raised  an  army 
and  menaced  Buenos  Ayres.  Belgrano,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
body  of  Buenos  Ayrean  troops,  marched  against  him,  and  a  battle 
•was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Tacuari,  where  Belgrano  was 
defeated.  Subsequently,  however,  Velasco  was  deposed,  and  a 
junta  was  established  in  Paraguay,  which  formed  an  alliance  with 
Buenos  Ayres. 


FACTIONS   AND   ANARCHY.  231 

Elio  had  been  appointed,  by  the  regency  of  Spain,  Captain 
General  of  the  province  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  in  that  capacity 
he  governed  the  province  of  Monte  Video,  or  the  Banda  Oriental, 
and  was  now  the  most  dangerous  and  powerful  enemy  with 
which  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  were  at  war.  Artigas,  a 
native  of  Monte  Video,  and  a  captain  in  the  royal  service,  having 
deserted  and  joined  the  Buenos  Ayreans,  that  government  em- 
ployed him,  in  conjunction  with  General  Rondeau,  to  conduct  an 
expedition  against  Banda  Oriental.  They  obtained  a  signal  vic- 
tory over  the  royalists  at  Las  Piedras,  in  May,  1811,  and  laid 
siege  to  Monte  Video.  Elio,  finding  himself  unable  to  hold  out 
long  without  assistance,  applied  to  the  Portuguese  of  Brazil,  and 
through  the  influence  of  the  Princess  Charlotte,  who  was  sister  to 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  obtained  an  army  of  four  thousand  men  and 
a  subsidy  of  money.  Before  these  allies,  however,  could  render 
any  important  service,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  Monte 
Video  and  Buenos  Ayres,  in  November,  1811,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  siege  of  Monte  Video  was  to  be  raised,  and  the  Portuguese 
troops  were  to  be  sent  home.  The  siege  was  accordingly  raised, 
but  the  Portuguese,  instead  of  returning  to  Brazil,  began  to  commit 
acts  of  hostility  in  the  territory  of  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

The  councils  of  the  patriots,  in  the  meantime,  were  distracted 
by  violent  factions,  and  the  whole  country  was  filled  with  disor- 
der and  violence.  The  royalists  were  advancing  from  Peru  at 
the  same  moment  that  the  country  was  threatened  by  the  Portu- 
guese army.  Fortunately,  at  this  critical  moment,  the  government 
of  Buenos  Ayres  had  the  address  to  conclude  an  armistice  with 
the  Portuguese,  by  which  their  troops  were  withdrawn  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  followed.  Nothing,  however,  appeared  able  to 
restore  tranquillity  to  the  country,  or  place  its  government  upon 
anything  like  a  firm  foundation.  A  bold  and  bloody  conspiracy 
was  shortly  after  detected,  having  for  its  object  to  put  to  death  all 
the  members  of  the  junta  anfl  all  the  partisans  of  the  revolution. 
Numerous  executions  followed.  The  royalist  army  of  Peru  was 
defeated  in  Tucuman,  and  the  fears  of  an  invasion  from  this 
quarter  were  dissipated.  But  dissensions  multiplied  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  in  1812,  two  separate  assemblies  claimed  the  sovereign 
power  and  both  were  dissolved  by  military  force.  Hostilities 
were  resumed  with  Monte  Video,  and  various  military  operations 
took  place,  which  produced  no  general  results. 

On  the  31st  of  January,  1813,  a  body  called  the  "constituent 
congress,"  assembled  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  made  some  alterations 
in  the  executive  government.  The  campaign  in  Peru  proved 
disastrous ;  great  alarm  was  felt  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  a  supreme 


PROVINCES   OF    RIO   DE    LA    PLATA. 

director  was  created  as  executive  magistrate.  General  San  Martin, 
afterwards  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  Chili,  now  began  to 
attract  notice.  He  obtained  some  important  successes  over  the 
royalists,  and  in  April,  1814,  a  small  fleet  was  equipped,  under 
Commodore  Brown,  an  English  merchant  of  Buenos  Ayres.  This 
fleet  captured  some  of  the  enemy's  vessels  and  blockaded  Monte 
Video.  Shortly  after  the  town  surrendered. 

Difficulties  immediately  arose  between  Artigas  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Buenos  Ayres.  Artigas  demanded  that  Monte  Video 
should  be  given  up  to  him  as  chief  of  Banda  Oriental.  The  gov- 
ernment refused  this,  and  hostilities  followed.  Artigas  became 
master  of  the  country  and  defeated  the  Buenos  Ayrean  troops. 
Meantime,  anarchy  reigned  in  that  city,  where  two  rival  factions 
were  struggling  for  power.  Artigas  invaded  their  territory,  and 
captured  the  town  of  Santa  Fe.  Revolutions  took  place  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  rival  factions  persecuted  and  proscribed 
each  other.  But  at  length,  under  the  government  of  the  supreme 
director,  Puyrredon,  something  approaching  to  tranquillity  began 
to  prevail,  and  the  congress,  on  the  9th  of  July,  1816,  formally 
announced  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  la 
Plata. 

In  December,  1816,  the  Portuguese  from  Brazil  again  invaded 
the  Banda  Oriental  with  an  army  of  ten  thousand  men.  They 
captured  Monte  Video  on  the  20th  of  January  following,  and 
succeeded  in  retaining  possession  of  the  country  till  1825,  when 
they  were  expelled  by  a  revolution.  During  all  this  period  the 
country  was  filled  with  tumults,  factions  and  bloodshed,  a  detail 
of  which  would  be  tedious  to  the  last  degree.  In  February,  1818, 
three  commissioners  from  the  government  of  the  United  States 
visited  the  South  American  provinces  for  the  purpose  of  inquiring 
into  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  revolutionary  governments. 
A  constitution  was  published  in  May,  1819,  by  which  a  govern- 
ment was  established  similar  to  the  federal  government  of  the 
United  States. 

The  French  government,  in  1819,  set  on  foot  an  intrigue  to 
convert  this  province  into  a  monarchy,  under  a  prince  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon.  A  proposal  to  this  effect  was  made  to  the  Buenos 
Ayrean  government,  and  the  Duke  of  Lucca  suggested  as  the 
new  monarch.  The  French  were  to  furnish  an  army  and  fleet  to 
carry  this  plan  into  effect,  and  to  use  their  influence  with  the 
Spanish  court  in  procuring  the  acknowledgement  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  country.  The  congress  held  a  secret  session  on  this 
proposal,  and,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  gave  it  their  approval. 


PARTY   STRUGGLES. 


233 


The  popular  feeling,  however,  was  so  strongly  manifested  against 
it,  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  carry  the  scheme  into  execution. 
It  would  only  tire  the  reader's  patience  to  give  a  longer  history 
of  the  factions,  conspiracies,  revolutions  and  civil  wars,  which, 
down  to  the  present  moment,  have  continued  to  distract  and  deso- 
late this  unfortunate  country.  On  the  10th  of  July.  1823,  a  con- 
vention, or  preliminary  treaty  of  peace,  was  concluded  between 
the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  king  of  Spain  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  Provinces;  this  convention,  however,  was 
not  ratified  by  the  Spanish  government.  The  independence  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata  was  acknowledged  by  the 
congress  of  the  United  States  in  1822,  and  a  treaty  of  commerce 
was  concluded  with  Great  Britain  in  1825.  Domestic  troubles 
were  renewed  shortly  after ;  the  union  of  the  provinces  was  dis- 
solved, and  separate  governments  Vere  established.  Nothing 
permanent,  however,  was  effected,  and  the  country  has  been  ever 
since  kept  in  a  state  of  turbulence  by  the  struggles  of  the  two 
parties  called  the  Unitarians  and  the  Federalists ;  the  one  attempt- 
ing to  create  a  central,  and  the  other  a  federal  government. 


20* 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

PARAGUAY. — Rebellion  of  Anlequera  in  1722. — He  defeats  the  king's  troops,  and 
takes  possession  of  Assumption. — His  design  of  making  himself  king  of  Para- 
guay.— Intrigues  of  the  bishop. — Arrival  of  Zabala. — Flight  of  Antequera. — 
Restoration  of  the  royal  authority. —  Capture  and  execution  of  Antequera. — 
Revolutionary  doctrines  of  Ferrand  Mompo. — Second  insurrection. — Death  of 
Ruiloba. — A  defender  of  Paraguay  created. — Battle  of  Tabati. — End  of  the 
insurrection. — Separation  of  Paraguay  from  Buenos  Ayres. — Independent  gov- 
ernment.— Rise  of  Dr.  Francia. — His  influence  in  the  state. — Becomes  Dictator 
of  Paraguay  for  life. — His  extraordinary  government. — Despotism  of  his  politi- 
cal system. —  Complete  seclusion  of  Paraguay  from  the  rest  of  the  world. — Fran- 
da's  treatment  of  travellers. — Character  of  his  army. — His  private  life  and 
eccentricities. — His  death. — Present  state  of  the  country.  CHILI. — Commence- 
ment of  the  revolution. — Intrigues  of  the  Carreras. —  Civil  dissensions. — Inva- 
sion of  the  country  by  Pareja. — Expulsion  of  the  Spaniards. —  Carrera  displaced 
from  the  command  of  the  army. — O'Higgins  his  successor. — Second  invasion  of 
the  Spaniards  under  Gainza. — Revolution. — Treachery  of  Gainza. — Troubles  at 
Santiago. — Expedition  of  the  Spaniards  under  Osorio. — Re-establishment  of  the 
royal  authority  in  Chili. — 'Persecutions  of  the  Spaniards. — Arrival  of  the  libera- 
ting army,  under  San  Martin,  from  Buenos  Ayres. — Battle  of  Chacabuco. — San 
Martin  enters  Santiago. — Movements  of  Osorio. — Battle  of  Talca. — Defeat  of  the 
Chilians. — Firmness  of  San  Martin. — Resolute  conduct  of  the  Chilians. — 
Battle  of  Maypu. — Total  defeat  of  the  Spaniards. — Establishment  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Chili. — Civil  dissensions. — War  of  Benavides. — Present  state  of  the 
country. 

THE  republic  of  Paraguay  is  rendered  remarkable  by  a  very 
early  attempt  at  revolution  in  that  country  in  the  early  part  of  the 
last  century.  The  chief  personage  engaged  in  this  undertaking, 
was  Don  Josef  de  Antequera,  a  knight  of  Alcantara,  and  a  man 
of  high  family,  genius  and  learning.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Paraguay  by  the  provincial  council,  in  a  manner  somewhat 
illegal,  in  consequence  of  the  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants 
toward  his  predecessor,  who  was  obliged  to  flee  the  country. 
The  viceroy  of  Peru  issued  an  order,  in  1722,  deposing  Antequera, 
which  took  no  effect.  The  new  governor  disregarded  all  the 
orders  of  the  viceroy,  and  avowed  his  determination  to  maintain 
himself  in  his  office  by  force.  It  soon  became  evident  that  he 
aimed  at  the  sovereignty  of  Paraguay.  Negotiations  were  at- 
tempted by  the  Spanish  authorities,  but  all  pacific  measures 
proved  useless,  and  Antequera  was  pronounced  a  rebel.  The 
king's  lieutenant  at  Buenos  Ayres,  marched  against  him,  with  an 


REBELLION   OF   ANTEQUERA.  236 

army  of  several  thousand  men.  A  battle  took  place,  and  the 
king's  troops  were  defeated,  with  great  slaughter.  Antequera  en- 
tered Assumpcion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  with  triumphal  pomp. 
The  royal  standards  taken  in  battle  were  trailed  before  him  on 
the  ground,  and  he  displayed  his  own  banners  in  the  cathedral, 
where  a  Te  Deum  was  chanted  for  his  victory.  He  still,  how- 
ever, nominally  maintained  his  allegiance,  but,  in  the  meantime, 
exerted  himself  in  amassing  a  great  treasure,  and  making  other 
preparations  for  a  design,  which  he  is  said  to  have  entertained,  to 
proclaim  himself  Don  Josef  I.,  king  of  Paraguay. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  Spanish  writers,  that,  had  Antequera 
taken  this  bold  and  decisive  step  immediately  upon  his  victory 
over  the  royal  army,  the  tide  of  fortune  would  have  turned  com- 
pletely in  his  favor.  But  his  over-cautious  and  temporizing 
policy  checked  th£  popular  feeling  which  had  burst  out  in  his 
support.  While  he  hesitated,  influences  were  at  work  to  under- 
mine his  popularity.  The  bishop  of  Paraguay,  by  secret  ma- 
nosuvres,  detached  the  populace  from  the  revolutionary  cause,  and 
before  the  aspirant  for  the  crown  of  Paraguay  had  c"jmmoned  the 
courage  to  proclaim  himself  king,  the  number  of  his  adherents 
had  diminished  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  this  attempt  too 
hazardous.  In  this  emergency,  Don  Bruno  de  Zabala  arrived 
from  Peru,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  six  thousand  Indians  and 
eight  hundred  Spaniards,  with  orders  from  the  viceroy  to  send 
Antequera  prisoner  to  Lima.  The  usurper  of  Paraguay  saved 
himself  by  flight.  Zabala  entered  Assumpcion,  without  opposi- 
tion, on  the  24th  of  April,  1725,  and  made  himself  master  of  a 
vast  amount  of  treasure  abandoned  by  the  fugitives.  The  royal 
government  was  restored,  and  tranquillity  speedily  reestablished. 

Antequera  fled  to  Cordova,  where  he  took  refuge  in  a  convent. 
A  sentence  of  outlawry  was  passed  upon  him,  and  a  price  set  on 
his  head.  He  abandoned  his  asylum,  and  fled  through  by-roads 
to  La  Plata,  where  he  hoped  the  royal  audience  would  espouse 
his  quarrel.  But  the  privileges  of  this  court  having  been  cur- 
tailed by  the  viceroy  of  Lima,  this  resource  failed  him,  and  he 
was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Lima.  After  a  confine- 
ment of  five  years,  he  was  declared  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
sentenced  to  be  beheaded  on  the  5th  of  July,  1731.  So  great, 
however,  was  the  popular  ferment  on:  this  occasion,  and  so 
deep  was  the  interest  which  Antequera  had  excited  by  his  able 
writings,  that  the  viceroy  was  obliged  to  mount  his  horse,  and 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  to  prevent  the  rescue -of 
Antequera  by  the  populace.  The  rescue  would  probably  have 
taken  place  but  for  the  precaution  of  the  viceroy,  who  ordered 


236  PARAGUAY. 

him  to  be  shot  on  his  way  to  the  scaffold,  where  his  body  was 
afterwards  beheaded. 

New  commotions  took  place  at  Assumption,  where  revolutionary 
doctrines  were  promulgated  by  Ferrand  Mompo,  an  associate  of 
Antequera.  This  man,  with  a  degree  of  boldness  and  eloquence 
which  raised  him  to  great  popularity,  openly  asserted  that  the 
authority  of  the  people  was  greater  than  that  of  the  king  himself; 
and  it  strikes  us  with  no  little  surprise,  that  the  modern  liberal 
doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  should  have  been  fear- 
lessly and  openly  preached  in  the  capital  of  a  colony  of  the  most 
bigoted  and  despotic  court  of  Europe  more  than  a  century  ago. 
The  consequence  of  this  was  the  formation  of  a  popular  govern- 
ment in  Paraguay,  in  1730,  established  solely  by  the  people.  But 
as  might  be  expected,  factions  soon  arose,  and  Mompo  was  seized 
by  a  loyalist  partisan  and  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres;  he  contrived, 
however,  to  escape  on  the  road,  and  fled  to  Brazil. 

When  the  intelligence  reached  Assumpcion,  of  the  execution  of 
Antequera  and  his  associate  Mena,  who  perished  with  him,  great 
excitement  and  indignation  were  produced  among  the  people,  who 
regarded  them  as  martyrs  to  liberty.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled, 
from  their  college,  and  an  army  was  raised  to  defend  the  popular 
cause.  The  royal  governor,  appointed  for  Paraguay,  Don  Manuel 
de  Ruiloba,  advanced  against  them,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of 
seven  thousand  men.  No  opposition  could  be  made  to  this  strong 
force,  and  Ruiloba  Centered  Assumpcion  in  July,  1733.  The  royal 
authority  was  reestablished,  and  all  officers  of  the  revolutionary 
party  were  displaced.  This  soon  produced  another  insurrection, 
and  Don  Manuel  was  killed  by  the  populace  two  months  after- 
wards. Paraguay  had  again  an  independent  government,  with  a 
chief  magistrate,  bearing  the  title  of  Defender.  In  1735,  Zabala 
collected  an  army,  and  marched  against  Paraguay.  A  battle  was 
fought  at  Tabati,  in  which  the  insurgent  forces  were  utterly 
defeated.  This  blow  completely  crushed  the  insurrection  in 
Paraguay.  The  revolutionary  leaders  were  put  to  death  or  ban- 
ished, and  the  authority  of  the  king  of  Spain  was  reestablished, 
and  continued  for  the  greater  part  of  a  century. 

We  have,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  given  an  account  of  the 
revolutionary  movements  by  which  Paraguay  became  separated 
from  Buenos  Ayres  early  in  the  present  century.  The  destiny  of 
Paraguay  from  th^t  time  has  been  singular.  The  inhabitants, 
like  those  of  all  the  other  revolted  Spanish  colonies,  began  their 
career  of  independence  by  various  puerile  attempts  to  establish 
republican  forms  and  appellations  in  their  government.  They 
created  consuls  and  legislative  bodies,  but  in  the  course  of  three 


FRANCIA    THE   DICTATOR.  237 

or  four  years,  the  whole  state  sunk  under  the  absolute  control  of 
one  man,  who  may  be  pronounced  the  most  remarkable  personage 
that  has  figured  in  the  modern  history  of  South  America.  This 
was  Gaspar  Rodrigo  de  Francia,  commonly  known  as  Doctor 
Francia.  He  was  a  native  of  Paraguay,  and  never  was  out  of 
South  America.  He  was  educated  by  the  monks  of  Assurnpcion 
and  subsequently  at  the  University  of  Cordova,  in  Tucuman, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.  This  man 
became  dictator  of  Paraguay,  and  for  nearly  thirty  years  reigned 
over  that  country  with  a  despotic  tyranny  surpassing  that  of  any 
European  monarch. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  Francia  was  in  the  prac- 
tice of  the  law  at  Assumpcion.  He  was  elected  to  a  popular  office, 
behaved  independently,  flattered  no  party,  and  professed  his  sole 
political  object  to  be  the  entire  separation  of  Paraguay  from  Spain, 
and  its  erection  into  an  independent  republic.  On  the  establish- 
ment of  the  provincial  junta,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  that 
body,  with  a  deliberative  voice;  but  all  was  confusion.  The 
army,  as  usual  on  such  occasions,  seemed  inclined  to  take  the 
lead,  and,  for  a  time,  terror  and  dissension  alone  prevailed. 
Francia,  however,  at  this  critical  moment,  obtained  an  ascen- 
dancy which  he  never  afterwards  lost.  His.  superior  talents, 
address  and  information,  placed  him  above  all  others  in  the 
despatch  of  business,  and  nothing  of  importance  could  be  done 
without  him.  Tranquillity  was  restored,  and  it  was  settled  that 
the  government  Should  be  consular.  Francia  and  a  colleague 
were  appointed  consuls  for  one  year,  each  in  supreme  command 
four  months  at  a  time.  Francia  took  care  to  secure  for  his  share 
the  first  and  last  portions  of  the  year.  Two  curule  chairs  were 
prepared  on  this  occasion ;  one  bearing  the  name  of  Csesar,  and 
the  other  that  of  Pompey.  Francia  eagerly  took  possession  of  the 
former.  His  ambitious  views  no  one  could  mistake;  but  the 
grand  blow  yet  remained  to  be  struck.  By  the  most  consummate 
art  and  management,  and  by  the  influence  which  he  possessed 
over  the  troops,  he  succeeded  in  getting  himself  appointed  dictator, 
in  1814;  and  once  dictator,  every  instrument  was  within  his  reach 
for  the  prolongation  of  his  office.  Three  years  afterwards  he 
was  made  dictator  for  life. 

Now  commenced  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  events  in  all 
history,  the  reign  of  the  autocrat  of  Paraguay.  From  the  moment 
when  he  found  his  footing  firm,  and  his  authority  quietly  submit- 
ted to,  his  whole  character  appeared  to  undergo  a  sudden  change. 
Without  faltering  or  hesitation,  without  a  pause  of  human  weak-, 
ness,  or  a  thrill  of  human  feeling,  he  proceeded  to  frame  the  most 


238  PARAGUAY. 

extraordinary  despotism  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  He  reduced 
all  the  population  of  Paraguay  to  two  classes,  of  which  the 
dictator  constituted  one,  and  his  subjects  the  other.  In  the 
dictator  was  lodged  the  whole  power,  legislative  and  executive; 
the  people  had  no  power,  no  privileges,  no  rights,  and  only  one 
duty — to  obey.  All  was  performed  rapidly,  boldly  and  decisively. 
He  knew  the  character  of  the  weak  and  ignorant  people  at  whose 
head  he  fead  placed  himself,  and  who  had  the  temerity  to  presume 
that  they  possessed  energy  arid  virtue  sufficient  to  found  a  repub- 
lic. The  middling  classes  were  annihilated,  and  there  was  no 
gradation  between  the  ruler  and  the  populace. 

By  what  precise  means  he  was  enabled  to  obtain  so  extraordi- 
nary a  power,  and  to  preserve  it,  undisturbed  by  revolution  or 
popular  disaffection,  during  a  long  period,  in  which  every  other 
state  of  Spanish  America  has  been  constantly  shaken  with 
intestine  convulsions,  can  be  understood  perhaps  only  by  those 
who  are  familiar  with  the  character  of  the  South  Americans. 
But  the  fact  is  no  less  authentic  than  extraordinary,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  Paraguay  delivered  themselves  up,  bound  hand  and 
foot  into  the  power  of  an  unrelenting  and  ferocious  despot,  who 
reduced  them  to  absolute  slavery,  ruined  their  commerce  and 
agriculture,  shut  them  up  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  dragged 
to  the  prison  or  the  scaffold  every  man  in  the  country  whose  talents, 
wealth  or  knowledge,  opposed  any  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his 
tyranny. 

One  of  his  first  measures  was  to  cut  off  all*  intercourse  with 
every  place  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Paraguay.  No  human 
being  was  allowed  to  leave  the  country  or  despatch  a  letter 
abroad.  In  enforcing  this»prohibition,  the  dictator  was  assisted 
by  the  peculiar  geographical  features  of  the  country.  In  the 
midst  of  an  immense  and  thinly  peopled  continent,  it  stands  alone 
and  impenetrable,  surrounded  by  large  rivers  and  extensive  forests 
and  morasses,  frequented  only  by  ferocious  savages,  wild  beasts 
and  venomous  serpents.  The  vigilant  guard  maintained  by  the 
troops  of  the  dictator,  at  all  accessible  points  of  his  empire,  ena- 
bled him  to  isolate  it  completely  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  The 
only  possibility  of  escape  was  by  seizing  the  occasion  when  the 
river  Paraguay  overflowed  the  surrounding  plains,  by  which 
means  a  small  number  of  individuals  have  succeeded  in  eloping 
from  the  tyrant's  dominion,  and  acquainting  the  world  with  the 
internal  policy  of  this  extraordinary  empire.  Foreign  travellers, 
who  were  visiting  that  region  for  scientific  purposes,  have  been 
imprisoned  with  the  dictator's  subjects,  and  escaped  by  good  for- 
tune after  long  and  tedious  detention.  When  the  independence 


REVOLUTIONARY  MOVEMENTS   IN  CHILI.  239 

of  the  South  American  republics  was  acknowledged  by  Great 
Britain,  a  notification  of  this  event  was  sent  to  Fjancia,  with  a 
request  that  all  British  subjects  in  his  realms  might  be  set  at 
liberty.  This  fortunately  procured  the  release  of  all  the  English 
in  Paraguay. 

Several  conspiracies  were  formed  against  him,  but  none  with 
any  success.  The  sanguinary  punishments  which  followed  their 
detection  served  to  strike  a  deeper  terror  into  the  people  and  ren- 
der their  submission  more  abject.  His  regular  army  consisted  of 
five  thousand  men,  from  whom  he  always  took  care  to  exclude 
all  persons  of  education  or  belonging  to  wealthy  families.  Very 
strict  discipline  was  enforced  in  all  that  related  to  their  conduct 
as  soldiers ;  but  when  off  duty,  they  were  at  perfect  liberty,  led 
licentious  lives,  and  were  seldom  reprimanded  for  any  misconduct 
toward  the  citizens.  It  is  easy  to  understand  why  an  army  like 
this  should  feel  unbounded  attachment  to  its  master.  The  dicta- 
tor, however,  lived  in  constant  fear  of  assassination ;  his  guards 
were  sometimes  ordered  to  shoot  any  man  who  should  dare  to 
look  at  his  house  in  passing  through  the  street.  He  cooked  his 
own  victuals,  in  apprehension  of  poison,  and  never  smoked  a  cigar 
without  previously  unrolling  it,  for  the  same  reason.  His  conduct 
on  many  occasions  exhibited  eccentricities  similar  to  those  of 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  He  was  subject  to  periodical  fits  of 
hypochondria,  which  often  produced  acts  that  indicated  a  disor- 
dered intellect. 

After  ruling  Paraguay  in  this  despotic  manner  for  twenty-eight 
years,  Francia  died  in  1842,  aged  about  eighty.  The  government 
of  the  country,  according  to  the  last  accounts,  was  administered  by 
five  consuls,  but  as  this  region  has  been  avoided  by  all  travellers  for 
a  long  time,  very  little  is  known  of  the  recent  transactions  there. 

In  CHILI,  a  revolutionary  movement  took  place  as  early  as  1810, 
in  consequence  of  the  intelligence  of  the  transactions  in  Spain. 
The  captain  general  was  compelled  to  resign,  and  the  popular 
voice  elevated  to  his  situation,  the  Count  de  la  Conquista,  who 
immediately  convened  a  meeting  of  the  persons  of  most  influence 
in  the  country  to  take  measures  for  instituting  a  new  order  of 
things.  A  general  congress  was  determined  on,  and  the  election 
fixed  for  the  llth  of  April,  1811.  On  that  day  a  counter-revolu- 
tionary attempt  was  made  by  Figueroa,  a  royalist ;  but  this  was 
suppressed  by  the  popular  party,  and  the  conspirators  were  pun- 
ished by  death  or  banishment.  The  congress,  as  soon  as  they 
were  organized,  passed  a  decree  permitting  all  persons  who  were 
dissatisfied  with  the  changes  in  the  government,  to  leave  the 
country  with  their  effects,  within  six  months.  The  children  of 


240  CHILI. 

slaves,  Dorn  in  future,  were  declared  free,  and  many  other  regula- 
tions made  to  reform  the  abuses  of  the  ancient  government. 

The  new  government,  however,  was  soon  beset  with  difficulties. 
Three  brothers,  of  the  name  of  Carrera,  sons  of  a  wealthy  land- 
holder of  Santiago,  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  disaffected, 
and  having  obtained  great  influence  with  the  troops,  they  com- 
pelled the  congress,  in  November,  1811,  to  depose  the  junta,  and 
appoint  three  new  members.  This  junta,  in  which  one  of  the 
Carreras  had  procured  a  place,  attempted  to  render  themselves 
absolute.  On  the  2d  of  December,  they  dissolved  the  congress, 
and  reigned  without  control,  relying  for  their  support  solely  on 
the  army.  These  usurpers,  however,  fared  no  better  than  the 
government  which  they  overthrew ;  conspiracy  after  conspiracy 
troubled  their  administration,  and  at  length  they  fell  to  quarreling 
among  themselves.  The  viceroy  of  Peru  took  occasion  of  these 
disorders  to  mak6  an  attempt  to  crush  the  revolution ;  and,  early 
in  1813,  despatched  General  Pareja  with  an  army  to  Chili.  Pareja 
took  Talcahuana  and  Concepcion,  but  on  the  night  of  the  12th  of 
April,  he  was  surprised  by  the  Chilian  troops,  under  Carrera,  who 
gave  him  a  signal  defeat.  Pareja  and  his  officers  escaped  to 
Peru,  but  most  of  the  invading  troops  were  made  prisoners. 

Carrera,  after  the  victory,  conducted  in  so  lawless  a  manner, 
and  his  troops  committed  *  such  devastations  in  the  district  of 
Concepcion,  that  the  inhabitants  declared  for  the  royalists.  The 
junta  accordingly  removed  him  from  the  command,  and  replaced 
him  by  O'Higgins,  who  subsequently  rose  to  great  notoriety. 
The  invasion  from  Peru  was  renewed  in  the  spring  of  1814,  by 
the  arrival  of  an  army,  under  General  Gainza.  Several  actions 
were  fought,  in  which  the  royalists  were  defeated.  Another  rev- 
olution took  place,  the  junta  was  deposed,  and  Don  F.  Lastra 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  government,  with  the  title  of 
supreme  director.  The  viceroy  of  Peru  offered  proposals  for  an 
accommodation,  in  consequence  of  which,  the  director  proposed 
terms  of  capitulation  to  Gainza.  These  terms  were  accepted,  and 
Gainza  agreed  to  evacuate  Chili  in  two  months,  and  that  the 
viceroy  should  acknowledge  the  revolutionary  government  of 
Chili.  Hostages  were  delivered  on  each  side,  and  a  short  suspen- 
sion of  arms  followed.  But  Gainza's  conduct  was  only  a  piece 
of  treachery,  to  gain  time  till  his  army  could  be  reinforced  from 
Lima. 

By  the  intrigues  of  the  Carreras,  the  director,  Lastra,  was 
deposed  in  August^  1814,  and  the  junta  reestablished.  Great 
indignation  was  expited  in  Santiago,  the  capital,  by  this  violent 
and  corrupt  proceeding.  O'Higgins  marched  upon  the  city;  a 

* 


BATTLE    OF    CHACABUCO.  241 

skirmishing  began  between  his  army  and  Carrera's  troops,  and  a 
bloody  battle  and  civil  war  were  about  to  commence,  when  intel- 
ligence arrived  that  the  capitulation  was  broken  ;  this  put  an  end 
to  the  dissensions  for  the  moment,  and  O'Higgins  submitted  to  the 
authority  of  the  junta.  The  Spanish  General,  Osorio,  who  had 
succeeded  Gainza,  approached,  at  the  head  of  four  thousand  men. 
The  Chilians  fled  before  him;  he  took  possession  of  Santiago, 
Valparaiso  and  all  the  principal  places,  and  at  the  end  of  October, 
1814,  the  Spanish  authority  was  completely  reestablished  in  Chili. 
The  inhabitants  became  the  victims  of  royal  vengeance,  and 
arrests,  imprisonments,  banishments  and  executions,  filled  the 
country  with  grief,  suffering  and  terror. 

For  upwards  of  two  years  the  royal  sway  was  exercised  in 
Chili  with  the  utmost  rigor.  At  length  the  government  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  as  we  have  already  related,  despatched  an  army  under 
Sau  Martin,  for  the  liberation  of  Chili.  The  army  began  its 
march  in  January,  1817,  and  by  incredible  exertions  and  perse- 
verance, crossed  the  lofty  chain  of  the  Andes,  and  arrived  in 
Chili  with  very  little  loss.  The  royalist  forces  met  them  at 
Chacabuco,  on  the  12th  of  February,  and  were  defeated  and  put 
to  the  rout.  San  Martin  pursued  his  victorious  march  to  Santiago, 
where  he  was  received  by  the  inhabitants  with  acclamations,  and 
made  supreme  director j  he  declined  the  office  and  bestowed  it  on 
O'Higgins,  who  had  commanded  a  division  of  his  army.  The 
Spaniards  were  expelled  from  almost  all  parts  of  Chili,  but  the 
strong  fortress  of  Talcahuana  still  held  out,  and  this  enabled  the 
Spaniards  to  send  a  reinforcement  of  five  thousand  men  to  Chili. 
Osorio  now  found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  eight  thou- 
sand men,  with  which  he  advanced  upon  the  capital.  On  the 
19th  of  March,  1818,  O'Higgins,  with  a  division  of  the  Chilian 
army,  attacked  him  at  Talca,  and  gave  him  a  severe  check,  but 
Osorio  retrieved  his  fortune,  by  suddenly  falling  upon  his  enemy 
the  same  night,  before  the  remainder  of  the  Chilian  army  could 
arrive.  The  Spaniards  obtained  a  complete  victory ;  one  half  the 
Chilian  army  was  dispersed  and  all  their  baggage  and  artillery 
were  taken. 

San  Martin,  however,  did  not  despair  of  the  fortunes  of  the 
republic  in  consequence  of  this  disaster.  He  circulated  proclama- 
tions throughout  the  country,  calling  upon  the  inhabitants  to  rise 
in  their  defence,  and  made  the  most  untiring  exertions  in  every 
quarter  to  raise  a  force  sufficient  to  oppose  the  enemy.  The  zeal 
of  the  people  seconded  his  labors,  and  in  a  short  time  a  new  army, 
was  gathered,  and  took  post  on  the  river  Maypu,  towards  which 
Osorio  was  now  advancing.  On  the  5th  of  April  the  Spanish 
21  E2 


CHILI. 


army  reached  the  Maypu,  and  discovered  the  Chilians  drawn  up 
to  oppose  them.  San  Martin,  perceiving  that  his  enemy  wished  to 
delay  the  attack,  took  advantage  of  the  ardor  and  enthusiasm 
with  which  his  troops  were  inspired  at  the  .sight  of  the  Spaniards. 
and  led  them  instantly  to  the  attack.  The  battle  continued  from 
noon  till  six  in  the  evening,  and  was  fought  with  an  obstinacy 
and  courage  which  render  it  one  of  the  most  memorable  as  well 
as  most  bloody  and  decisive  combats  recorded  in  the  history  of 
the  South  American  revolutions.  The  whole  Spanish  army  was 
destroyed ;  the  general  with  a  few  horsemen  alone  escaped  when 
he  saw  the  day  was  lost.  Everything  belonging  to  the  army  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  victors  ;  two  thousand  Spaniards  were  killed, 
and  above  three  thousand  made  prisoners ;  the  Chilians  lost  one 
thousand  killed  and  wounded. 

The  victory  of  Maypu  set  the  seal  on  the  independence  of 
Chili,  and  the  patriots  were  soon  enabled  to  carry  the  war  into 
the  enemy's  country,  by  invading  and  revolutionizing  Peru,  as  we 
have  already  related.  But  although  Chili  was  by  these  events 
completely  released  from  the  dominion  of  Spain,  she  has  enjoyed 
little  tranquillity  in  any  portion  of  her  subsequent  career.  The 
outward  forms  of  a  republic  have  been  preserved  in  her  govern- 
ment, while  parties  have  struggled  for  the  ascendency  and  filled 
the  country  with  turbulence.  For  several  years  the  southern 
frontiers  were  disturbed  by  the  depredations  of  an  outlaw  named 
Benavides,  a  Spaniard,  who  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Arau- 
canian  Indians,  and  desolated  the  country  with  fire  and  sword, 
and  the  commission  of  bloody  atrocities  unsurpassed  in  the  history 
of  savage  warfare.  His  success,  and  the  authority  he  had 
acquired  over  the  Indians,,  induced  him  to  think  himself  a  power- 
ful monarch,  and  he  attempted  to  establish  a  navy.  He  captured 
several  American  and  English  vessels  which  touched  on  the  coast 
of  Chili  for  refreshments,  and  made  himself  master  of  a  large 
amount  of  property,  arms  and  military  stores.  The  Spaniards 
encouraged  him  in  his  piracies  and  murders,  and  furnished  him 
with  troops  and  artillery.  But  his  bloody  career  \yas  cut  short 
by  the  Chilians,  who  despatched  an  expedition  against  him  in 
October,  1821 .  Arauco,  his  capital,  was  taken,  his  forces  defeated, 
and  Benavides  compelled  to  flee.  He  was  taken  prisoner  in 
February,  1822,  tried  and  executed. 

O'Higgins  was  compelled  to  resign  the  office  of  supreme  director, 
in  1823,  and  was  succeeded  by  General  Ramon  Freire.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1826,  the  archipelago  of  Chiloe,  which  till  that  time  had 
remained'  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  submitted  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Chili.  In  May,  1827,  the  form  of  government  underwent 


JUAN    FERNANDEZ. 


24H 


another  change,  but  the  result  did  not  secure  the  tranquillity  of 
the  country,  which  has  for  many  years  heen  agitated  like  Buenos 
Ayres.  by  the  dissensions  of  two  parties,  the  one  endeavoring  to 
establish  a  central  and  the  other  a  federal  government. 

The  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Chilian  government,  and  has  been  retained  by 
them  to  the  present  day.  This  island  is  known  to  most  readers 
as  the  residence  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  Scotchman,  who  lived 
alone  upon  it  from  1705  to  1709,  when  he  was  discovered,  and 
taken  off  by  Captain  Woodes  Rogers.  Selkirk's  adventures  are 
generally  considered  as  having  suggested  to  De  Foe  the  subject 
of  his  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe ;  though  of  this  fact  there  is  much 
doubt.  During  the  vicissitudes  of  the  revolution  in  Chili,  many 
persons  were  banished  to  this  island  for  their  politics;  and  it  is 
occupied  at  the  present  day  as  a  place  of  confinement  for  con- 
demned criminals. 


Alexander  Selkirk  discovered  on  Juan  Fernandez. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

COLOMBIA. —  Conspiracy  of  Espana  in  Caracas. — Expedition  and  failure  of 
Miranda. — Breaking  out  of  the  revolution  in  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada. — 
General  character  of  the  Spanish  American  revolutions. — Rise  of  Bolivar. — His 
mission  to  London. — He  enters  the  army. — Arrival  of  Miranda  in  Venezuela. — 
He  is  appointed  commander-in-chief. — Earthquake  in  Caracas. —  Conduct  of  the 
priests. — Arrest  and  death  of  Miranda. — Reeslablixhment  of  the  Spanish  author- 
ity.— Cruelties  of  the  royalists. — Successes  of  Bolivar. — Bloody  excesses  of  the 
armies. — Bolivar's  entry  into  Caracas. — He  assumes  the  title  of  liberator  and 
dict.ator. — Atrocities  of  Boves  and  Rosstte. — Retaliation  of  the  insurgents. — 
Defeat  of  Bolivar  at  La  Puerto  and  San  Mateo. — He  captures  Bogota. — The 
congress  of  Angostura. — Bolivar  crosses  the  Cordilleras. —  Victories  of  Tunja 
and  Bojaca. — The  royalists  expelled  from  New  Grenada. — Bolivar  appointed 
president  and  captain-general. — He  returns  to  Venezuela. — Armistice. — Battle  of 
Carabobo. — Defeat  and  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  army. — Formation  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Colombia. — Bolivar  appointed  president. — Final  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards 
from  Colombia. — Civil  dissensions. — Insurrection  of  Paez. — Convention  of 
Ocana. — Bolivar  assumes  absolute  power. — Attempt  to  assassinate  him. — General 
disaffection  of  the  people. — Distracted  state  of  the  country. — Resignation  of  Bol- 
ivar.— Dismemberment  of  Colombia  and  formation  of  the  republics  of  VENEZUELA, 
NEW  GRANADA  and  ECUADOR. — Death  of  Bolivar. — His  character. — Formation 
of  the  republic  of  BOLIVIA. 

THE  rapacity,  despotism  and  oppression  of  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment gave  rise  to  conspiracies  and  insurrectionary  movements 
in  the  districts  which  afterwards  formed  the  republic  of  Colombia, 
for  many  years  previous  to  the  general  revolt  occasioned  by  the 
French  invasion  of  Spain.  As  early  as  1797,  an  attempt  to  raise 
the  standard  of  independence  was  made  in  Venezuela,  by  two 
natives  of  Caracas,  Don  Josef  de  Espana,  corregidor  of  Macuto, 
and  Don  Manuel  Gual,  an  officer  in  the  army.  The  plot  com- 
prised a  large  number  of  persons,  the  most  distinguished  in  the 
colony  for  their  talents,  virtues  and  wealth.  Their  object  was  to 
possess  themselves  of  the  heads  of  the  government,  and  to  keep 
them  as  hostages  till  a  treaty  could  be  made  with  the  court  of 
Spain  for  a  redress  of  grievances  and  a  general  change  in  the 
government.  The  insurrection  was  fixed  for  the  14th  of  July, 
1797,  but.  on  the  evening  previous,  the  design'  was  betrayed  by 
one  of  the  conspirators,  who,  struck  with  fear,  went  to  the  Cathe- 
dral, and  rang  the  bell.  The  alarm  being  raised,  the  magistrates 
were  brought  together,  and  the  plot  was  revealed.  Most  of  the 


EXPEDITION    OF    MIRANDA.  245 

conspirators  were  arrested,  but  the  two  leaders  made  their  escape. 
The  king,  when  the  whole  affair  was  known,  became  convinced 
that  the  people  had  been  driven  to  rebellion  by  the  intolerable 
oppressions  of  his  officers,  and  ordered  that  the  prisoners  should 
be  treated  with  clemency.  Espana,  on  this  intelligence,  gave 
himself  up.  But  the  authorities  of  Venezuela  disregarded  this 
order,  and  Espana,  with  five  of  his  companions,  was  put  to  death. 

The  discontents  of  the  people  were  not  quieted ;  and  in  the  year 
1805,  General  Miranda  received  a  great  number  of  letters  from 
Venezuela,  entreating  him  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  an  expe- 
dition for  revolutionizing  the  country.  Miranda  agreed  to  the 
proposal,  and  proceeded  to  the  United  States,  where  he  collected 
a  body  of  a  few  hundred  adventurers.  The  expedition  sailed 
from  New  York,  in  1806,  and  reached  the  coast  near  Puerto 
Cabello,  in  May.  Here  Miranda  made  an  attack,  but  was  repulsed 
by  the  Spanish  gun-boats.  He  proceeded  to  Trinidad,  recruited 
his  forces,  and  returned  under  the  convoy  of  a  British  sloop  of 
war.  On  the  7th  of  August,  he  landed  at  Coro,  where  he 
remained  unmolested  for  twelve  days,  though  a  considerable 
Spanish  force  was  posted  only  four  leagues  distant.  Miranda, 
however,  found  the  people  of  the-  neighborhood  lukewarm  in  the 
cause  of  revolt ;  and  shortly  after,  he  was  deserted  by  his  British 
auxiliaries,  who  had  promised  him  powerful  aid.  He  was  there- 
fore obliged  to  abandon  the  expedition,  with  the  loss  of  many  of 
his  men,  who  were  taken  and  hanged. 

The  Spanish  dominion  continued  but  a  few  years  longer.  The 
great  revolution  burst  out  in  1810.  The  captain-general  of  Car- 
acas was  deposed  on  the  19th  of  April,  and  a  popular  congress 
convened  to  organize  a  new  government  for  Venezuela.  The 
same  was  done  at  Bogota,  the  capital  of  New  Granada,  which 
erected  itself,  at  first,  into  a  separate  republic.  The  congress  of 
Venezuela  published  a  declaration  of  independence  on  the  5th  of 
July,  1811,  and  this  example  was  followed  by  the  other  provinces, 
which  were  afterwards  united  in  the  republic  of  Colombia. 

The  history  of  this  revolution,  like  that  of  most  others  of  the 
Spanish  American  states,  is  filled  with  a  perplexing  and  most 
wearisome  detail  of  political  changes,  party  maceuvres,  factions, 
intrigues,  negotiations,  plots  and  counter-plots,  and  marches  and 
counter-marches  of  political  and  military  leaders.  Of  these  scenes 
the  reader  has  had  already  a  sufficient  specimen  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  to  give  him  a  general  picture  of  the  South  American 
revolutionary  troubles.  It  will  not  be  expected  of  us  to  repeat, 
these  details  in  the  remainder  of  this  history;  their  sameness 
exhibits  the  operation  of  the  identical  causes  which  we  have 
21* 


246 


COLOMBIA. 


before  specified,  while  the  confusion  in  which  they  are  involved, 
and  their  lack  of  general  and  permanent  results,  cause  them  to 
leave  but  a  vague  and  transitory  impression  on  the  mind  of  the 
reader.  Those  things  alone  which  are  intelligible  and  significant, 
form  the  proper  topics  for  history,  and  to  these  we  shall  confine 
our  narrative. 

The  whole  control  of  the  revolution  soon  became  engrossed  in 
the  hands  of  one  individual,  who,  for  many  years,  became  the 
most  prominent  and  powerful  man  in  South  America.  This  man 
was  Simon  Bolivar,  a  native  of  Caracas,  who,  as  early  as  1810, 
was  sent  to  London  as  agent  from  the  revolutionary  government, 
to  solicit  aid  from  the  British.  That  government,  however,  deter- 
mined to  remain  neutral.  Bolivar  returned  to  Venezuela,  where 
he  was  made  colonel  in  the  independent  army,  and  governor  of 
Puerto  Cabello.  General  Miranda  had  returned  to  this  coun- 
try, and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces.  The 
Spaniards  sent  armies  into  the  country,  and  many  actions  were 
fought.  The  patriots  were  generally  successful  till  1812,  when 
they  experienced  a  terrible  calamity.  On  the  26th  of  March,  an 
earthquake  destroyed,  either  entirely  or  in  part,  the  city  of  Cara- 
cas, and  ten  or  twelve  others,  killing  twenty  thousand  persons. 


Earthquake  at  Caracas. 

This  dreadful  catastrophe,  happening  on  the  very  day  and  hour 
in  which  the  revolution  broke  out  two  years  before,  the  clergy 
seized  upon  the  occasion  to  alarm  the  superstitious  fears  of  the 
people,  and  excite  them  in  favor  of  the  royal  cause,  by  represent- 
ing it  as  a  judgment  from  heaven  upon  the  revolutionists.  Priests, 
monks  and  friars,  were  stationed  in  the  streets,  vociferating  in  the 


BOLIVAR.  247 

midst  of  credulous  multitudes  trembling  with  tear,  while  the 
royalist  troops  were  getting  possession  of  the  whole  country. 
Miranda,  in  despair,  capitulated,  and  was  preparing  to  leave  the 
country,  when  he  was  arrested  by  the  patriots  as  a  traitor.  He 
was  delivered  up  to  the  royalist  general,  Monteverde,  and  sent  to 
Spain,  where  he  died  in  a  dungeon. 

Venezuela  was  now  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  royalists,  and 
deeds  of  revolting  ferocity  and  plunder  reduced  the  whole  country 
to  a  frightful  state  of  misery ;  old  men,  women  and  children  were 
seized  and  massacred  as  rebels.  One  of  Monteverde's  officers  cut 
off  the  ears  of  the  patriots,  and  had  them  stuck  in  the  caps  of  his 
soldiers  for  cockades.  In  this  state  of  things,  Bolivar  began  to 
show  the  firmness  and  energy  of  his  character.  He  raised  a 
small  force,  and  in  December,  1812,  entered  upon  a  campaign 
against  the  royalists.  He  defeated  them  at  Teneriffe,  Ocana  and 
Cucuta,  and  by  an  expedition  to  Bogota,  increased  his  army  to 
two  thousand  men.  Marching  back,  along  the  Andes,  he  invaded 
Venezuela,  and  defeated  the  royalists  in  several  other  battles. 
The  war  now  assumed  the  most  bloody  character ;  the  terrible 
cruelties  of  Monteverde  obliged  the  patriots  to  commence  repri- 
sals, and  the  most  horrible  butcheries  were  the  consequence.  The 
cause  of  independence  was  now  more  prosperous.  Bolivar  de- 
feated Monteverde  at  Lostaguanes,  and  on  the  4th  of  August, 
1814,  he  entered  the  city  of  Caracas  in  triumph.  The  joy  of  the 
people  exceeded  all  bounds,  and  this  was  undoubtedly  the  most 
brilliant  day  in  Bolivar's  whole  career.  The  whole  population 
crowded  to  meet  him  with  acclamations,  and  he  was  drawn  into 
the  city  in  a  triumphal  car  by  twelve  beautiful  young  ladies,  of 
the  first  families  in  Caracas,  while  others  crowned  him  with 
laurels  and  strewed  his  way  with  flowers. 

Bolivar  was  now  in  the  possession  of  unlimited  power  in  this  part 
of  the  country,  and  assumed  the  title  of  Liberator  and  Dictator  of 
the  western  provinces  of  Venezuela.  This  gave  great  offence  to 
the  democratic  party,  and  charges  were  uttered  against  him  of 
studying  his  own  aggrandizement;  yet  the  enthusiasm  in  his 
favor  confirmed  the  dictatorial  power  in  his  hands.  In  the  mean- 
time,  the  royalists  at  a  distance  were  still  deluging  the  country 
with  blood.  Boves  and  Rosette,  two  of  their  generals,  in  a  march 
of  four  hundred  miles  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  Ocumare,  with  an 
army  of  slaves  and  vagabonds,  murdered  every  individual  who 
refused  to  join  them.  General  Puy,  a  negro  assassin  and  a 
robber  in  the  royal  interest,  having  murdered  hundreds  of  the 
patriot  inhabitants  of  Varinas,  Bolivar,  to  deter  him  from  the 
repetition  of  such  atrocities,  ordered  eight  hundred  Spaniards  in 


COLOMBIA. 

La  Guayra  and  Caracas,  to  be  arrested  and  shot,  in  February, 
1814.  This  was  retaliated  by  the  royalists,  who  massacred  their 
prisoners  in  Puerto  Cabello.  The  patriots,  however,  did  not  repeat 
these  dreadful  reprisals,  and  Bolivar,  in  July,  1816,  formally  pro- 
claimed, "no  Spaniards  shall  be  put  to  death  except  in  battle; 
the  war  of  death  shall  cease." 

Success  continued  to  fluctuate  between  the  patriots  and  royal- 
ists. On  the  14th  of  June,  1814,  a  battle  was  fought  at  La  Puerta, 
in  which  Bolivar  was  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  fifteen  hundred 
men.  Another  action  occurred  on  the  17th  of  August,  at  San 
Marco,  the  estate  of  Bolivar.  Here  the  Liberator's  army  was 
surprised  by  the  "infernal  division"  of  Boves,  a  legion  of  negro 
cavalry,  with  black  crape  on  their  lances,  who  rushed  with 
hideous  shouts  from  an  ambush,  and  scattered  Bolivar's  whole 
force  by  the  suddenness  .and  impetuosity  of  their  assault;  the 
general  escaped  only  by  the  fleetuess  of  his  horse.  Bolivar's 
family  mansion  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  and  he  was  ultimately 
compelled,  in  September,  to  leave  the  royalists  in  possession  of  all 
Yenezuela,  when  thousands  of  the  patriots  deserted  to  their  ranks. 
He  repaired  to  New  Grenada,  where  the  government  employed 
him  in  their  army  to  subjugate  the  revolted  province  of  Cundi- 
namarca.  Bolivar  captured  the  city  of  Bogota,  which  afterwards 
became  the  capital  of  Colombia.  He  returned  to  Venezuela  in 
1816,  but  was  again  defeated.  Notwithstanding,  he  persevered  in 
his  exertions,  and  in  December  of  the  same  year,  he  convened  a 
general  congress.  In  March,  1817,  he  was  enabled  to  give  the 
royalists  a  severe  check. 

Numerous  transactions  took  place  between  the  patriot  and 
royalist  forces  during  this  and  the  following  year,  but  our  limits 
will  not  admit  of  a  detailed  account  of  them;  victory  remained 
nearly  balanced  between  the  two  parties,  but  the  cause  of  inde- 
pendence was  gaining  strength.  In  1819,  the  congress  of  Vene- 
zuela assembled  at  Angostura,  and  Bolivar  surrendered  all  his 
authority  into  their  hands.  The  congress  required  him  to  resume 
the  supreme  power,  and  exercise  it  until  the  independence  of  the 
country  should  be  fully  established.  Bolivar  re-organized  his 
forces,  and  set  out  on  his  march  across  the  Cordilleras,  to  effect  a 
junction  with  General  Santander,  who  commanded  the  republican 
army  in  New  Grenada,  that  their  united  arms  might  act  with 
greater  efficiency.  In  July,  1819,  he  reached  Tunja,  where  he 
defeated  the  royalist  troops  and  captured  the  city.  On  the  7th  of 
August,  the  Spanish  army,  under  the  viceroy,  Samano,  advanced 
to  meet  him  at  Bojaca,  where  a  severe  battle  was  fought,  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  triumph  of  the  patriots.  The  viceroy 


BATTLE  OF  CAROBOBO.  249 

fled  from  the  field  of  battle,  and  the  whole  province  of  New 
Grenada  was  conquered  by  this  victory.  Bolivar  entered  the 
capital  in  triumph,  and  was  appointed  president  and  captain- 
general  of  the  republic. 

Having  amply  recruited  his  army,  he  returned  to  Venezuela, 
where,  on  the  17th  of  December,  1819,  a  union  between  the  two 
republics  was  decreed  by  the  congress  through  his  influence.  He 
then  took  the  field,  at  the  head  of  the  strongest  army  that  had  yet 
been  collected  by  the  patriots.  The  Spaniards,  after  many  de- 
feats, agreed  to  an  armistice  of  six  months,  in  November,  1820. 
Morillo,  their  general,  returned  to  Spain,  leaving  his  army  under 
the  command  of  La  Torre.  At  the  termination  of  the  armistice 
the  two  armies  resumed  active  operations;  and,  on  the  23d  of 
June,  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Carobobo ;  the  Spaniards, 
under  La  Torre,  were  entirely  defeated,  and  their  broken  and 
scattered  forces  saved  themselves  by  fleeing  to  Puerto  Cabello. 
This  victory  was  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  war  in  Venezuela; 
by  the  end  of  the  year,  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  every 
part  of  Venezuela  and  New  Granada,  except  Puerto  Cabello  and 
Quito. 

The  two  provinces  were  now -united  into  one  state,  called  the 
Republic  of  Colombia.  The  installation  of  the  first  general  con- 
gress took  place  on  the  6th  of  May,  1821,  at  Rosario  de  Cucuta. 
A  constitution  was  adopted  on  the  3Uth  of  August.  Bolivar  was 
appointed  president,  and  Santander  vice-president.  Puerto  Ca- 
bello surrendered  in  December,  1 823,  and  all  the  Spanish  forces 
had  been  expelled  from  the  southern  part  of  the  republic  before 
this  period;  so*  that,  at  the  beginning  of  1824,  the  republic  of 
Colombia  was  totally  freed  from  foreign  enemies. 

But  at  the  moment  when  affairs  seemed  most  prosperous,  the 
republic  began  to  be  disturbed  with  civil  discords.  General  Paez, 
a  mulatto,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  officers  of  the  revo- 
lution, had  received  the  command  of  the  department  of  Venezuela. 
In  the  execution  of  a  law  for  enrolling  the  militia  of  Caracas,  he 
gave  so  much  offence  to  the  inhabitants  by  his  arbitrary  conduct, 
that  they  obtained  an  impeachment  against  him  before  the  senate. 
Being  notified  of  this  in  April,  1826,  and  summoned  to  appear 
and  take  his  trial,  he  refused  to  obey,  but  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  troops,  and  called  around  him  all  the  disaffected  per- 
sons in  Venezuela,  who  formed  a  very  strong  party.  These 
persons  objected  to  the  central  government ;  some  of  them  wish- 
ing for  a  federal  system  like  that  of  the  United  States,  and  others 
desiring  a  total  separation  from  New  Granada.  Various  disorders 
broke  out  in  other  parts  of  the  republic,  and  a  great  portion  of  the 


250  COLOMBIA. 

country  refused  obedience  to  the  Colombian  constitution.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  accommodate  matters  by  a  convention  at 
Ocana,  for  amending  the  constitution,  in  March,  1828,  but  the 
violence  of  parties  and  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  pre- 
vented the  convention  from  doing  anything,  and  they  soon  sep- 
arated. 

Affairs  now  came  to  a  crisis ;  the  country  was  threatened  with 
anarchy,  and  Bolivar  took  a  bold  and  decisive  step,  by  dissolving 
the  Colombian  congress,  on  the  27th  of  August,  1828,  and  assum- 
ing absolute  authority.  This  act  was  preceded  by  addresses  from 
various  municipal  bodies,  calling  upon  Bolivar  to  put  an  end  to 
the  public  disorders,  by  assuming  the  supreme  command.  Whether 
these  addresses  were  procured  by  his  intrigues,  in  order  to  give  a 
plausible  color  to  his  usurpation,  we  have  no  means  of  knowing. 
He  organized  a  new  government  to  suit  his  own  views,  and  soon 
began  to  feel  the  consequences  of  the  bold  step  he  had  taken,  in 
the  conspiracies  that  were  plotted  against  him.  On  the  15th  of 
September,  1828,  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  him.  His 
aid-de-camp  was  killed,  but  Bolivar's  life  was  saved  by  the  cour- 
age of  his  officers:  Generals  Padilla  and  Santander  were  charged 
with  this  plot,  and  condemned  to  death  by  a  special  tribunal. 
Padilla  was  executed,  but  the  punishment  of  Santander  was  com- 
muted for  banishment.  Various  others  suffered  death.  The 
country  was  more  and  more  agitated  by  violent  factions ;  many 
military  leaders  aspired  to  the  supreme  command,  and  the  efforts 
of  Bolivar  to  prevent  dissension  excited  insurrections.  Bolivar 
was  denounced  as  a  usurper  and  a  tyrant.  Venezuela  claimed 
her  independence;  and  Bolivar,  finding  it  impossible  to  unite  the 
factions  and  create  a  spirit  of  harmony  under  his  rule,  resigned 
all  his  authority  to  the  congress  at  Bogota,  in  1830.  He  retired 
to  Carthagena,  dispirited  and  broken  down  by  the  calamities  of 
his  country.  Bolivar's  retirement  from  public  life  removed  every 
obstacle  to  the  division  of  the  republic  of  Colombia.  In  1831,  it 
was  formed  into  three  independent  states,  VENEZUELA,  NEW  GRE- 
NADA and  ECUADOR,  which  have  continued  to  the  present  day. 

On  the  17th  of  December,  1831,  Bolivar  died  at  San  Pedro, 
near  Carthagena,  at  the  age  of  forty-eight.  He  was  by  far  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  the  South  American  revolutionary  leaders ; 
and  during  many  years  was  considered  the  "  Washington  of  the 
south."  Yet,  notwithstanding  his  brilliant  successes,  he  outlived 
both  his  power  and  his  reputation.  At  the  period  of  his  death 
he  had  lost  all  influence  over  his  countrymen,  and  he  died  tainted 
with  the  suspicion  of  having  engaged  in  an  intrigue  for  introduc- 
ing foreign  aid  to  restore  monarchy  in  Colombia.  As  a  warrior, 


COLOMBIAN  GENERALS.  251 

he  deserved  all  his  fame ;  hut  as  a  legislator,  he  has  been,  perhaps, 
over-rated.  Few  of  his  political  institutions  were  permanent; 
though  this  was  partly  owing  to  the  semi-barbarous  and  intracta- 
ble temper  of  the  people  with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  His  merits 
as  a  military  leader  are  much  enhanced  by  the  character  of  the 
troops  whom  he  led  to  victory.  His  armies  often  consisted  chiefly 
of  destitute  adventurers,  eager  only  for  pay  and  plunder ;  ragged 
Creoles,  Indians,  naked  negroes,  and  cavalry  of  half  savage 
Llaneros  arid  mountaineers  riding  wild  horses.  The  desertion 
of  whole  regiments,  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other, 
according  to  the  momentary  chance  of  success,  sufficiently  shows 
their  degraded  moral  condition.  The  generals  with  whom  his 
command  was  divided,  were  principally  of  the  most  uncivilized 
description.  Arismendi  could  neither  write  nor  read ;  Paez  was 
a  brutal  mulatto  bull-hunter,  just  out  of  the  deserts ;  and  General 
Bermudez  always  took  the  field  in  a^  dirty  blanket,  with  a  hole  in 
the  middle  for  his  head ;  yet  envy,  jealousy,  and  fierce,  reckless 
ambition  were  common  to  them  all.  The  character  and  habits 
of  such  a  people  greatly  increase  our  opinion  of  the  talents  of  the 
individual  who  conducts  them  from  an  abject  state  of  oppression 
to  independence  and  social  improvement.  The  republic  of  Colom- 
bia is  no  more,  yet  as  long  as  it  continues  to  be  remembered,  it 
will  owe  that  circumstance  to  the  name  of  Bolivar. 

The  republic  of  BOLIVIA  was  formed  out  of  the  provinces  of 
Upper  Peru,  which  under  the  Spanish  dominion  were  governed 
as  a  dependency  of  Buenos  Ayres.  These  provinces  were  wrested 
from  the  Spaniards  by  the  victory  of  Ayacucho,  in  December, 
1828.  General  Sucre,  who,  at  the  head  of  the  Colombian  forces, 
gained  this  victory,  soon  cleared  the  country  of  the  royalist  forces, 
and  no  obstacle  existed  to  the  formation  of  an  independent  gov- 
ernment. A  congress  assembled  at  Chuquisaca,  in  August,  1825, 
and  lodged  the  supreme  authority  provisionally  in  the  bands  of 
Sucre,  while,  as  a  testimonial  of  their  gratitude  to  Bolivar,  they 
requested  him  to  frame  a  constitution  for  them.  Bolivar  accord- 
ingly drew  up  a  plan  of  government,  founded  on  a  representative 
basis,  but  of  a  very  complicated  and  inconvenient  character. 
The  chief  magistrate  is  a  president  who  appoints  his  own  suc- 
cessor, nominates  to  all  offices,  exercises  the  whole  patronage  of 
the  government,  and  is  irresponsible  for  his  actions.  This  consti- 
tution was  adopted  by  the  congress,  and  went  into  operation  in 
December,  1826. 


I 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

REPUBLIC  OF  MEXICO. — Origin  of  the  revolution. — Deposition  of  the  viceroy.  — 
Insurrection  of  Hidalgo. —  Capture  of  Guanaxuato  and  Valladolid. — Hidalgo  pro- 
claimed generalissimo. — He  advances  to  Mexico. — His  unaccountable  retreat. — 
He  is  attacked  by  the  royalists  and  defeated. —  Capture  and  death  of  Hidalgo. — 
Progress  of  the  revolution. — Proceedings  of  Morelos  and  Calleja. — The  national 
assembly. — Declaration  of  Mexican  independence. — Disasters  of  the  revolutionists. 
—  Capture  and  execution  of  Morelos. — Discords  among  the  revolutionary  leaders. 
— Arrival  of  General  Mina. — His  march  into  the  country. — His  capture  and  exe- 
cution.— Successes  of  the  Spaniards. — The  revolution  suppressed. — Affairs  of 
Spain. — Revival  of  troubles  in  Mexico. —  The  viceroy  Apodaca. — State  of  parties. 
— Renewal  of  the  insurrection. — Rise  of  Iturbide. — He  marches  against  the  inde- 
pendents.— His  dissimulation  and  intrigues. — Plan  of  Iguala. — Embarrassment 
of  the  viceroy.- — He  is  deposed. — Iturbide  establishes  his  authority. — Arrival  of 
O'Donoju  in  Mexico. — Treaty  of  Cordova. — Iturbide  in  supreme  power. — He 
summons  a  cortes. — State  of  parties. — Intrigues  of  Iturbide. — He  is  proclaimed 
emperor. — He  dissolves  the  cortes. — His  embarrassments. — Insurrection  against 
him. — Defection  of  Santa  Ana  and  Guadalupe  Victoria. — Abdication  of  Iturbide. 
— He  is  banished  to  Italy. — His  return  to  Mexico  and  death. — Distracted  slate 
of  the  country. — Santa  Ana  becomes  the  head  of  the  government.  REPUBLIC 
OF  TEXAS. — Dissatisfaction  of  the  Texans  with  the  Mexican  government. — 
State  convention. — Commencement  of  hostilities. —  Capture  of  Goliad  and  San 
Antonio  de  Bexar.—The  Mexicans  expelled  from  Texas. — Invasion  of  Texas  by 
Santa  Ana. — Attack  of  San  Antonio. —  Obstinate  defence  of  the  garrison. — 
Declaration  of  Independence. —  Capture  of  Goliad  by  the  Mexicans. — Massacre 
of  Colonel  Fanning's  company. — Alarm  of  the  inhabitants. — Battle  of  San 
Jacinto  and  defeat  of  (he  Mexicans. —  Capture  of  Sarita  Ana. — Establishment  of 
the  independence  of  Texas.  REPUBLIC  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. —  Connexions  of 
Guatimala  with  Mexico. — Civil  war. —  Constitution  established. — Anarchy  and 
wretched  condition  of  the  country. — Government  of  Carrera. 

THE  movements  toward  a  revolution  in  Mexico  began  with  the 
French  invasion  of  Spain  in  1808.  The  Mexicans  were  unani- 
mous in  their  dislike  of  the  French ;  and  the  viceroy,  whatever 
his  private  inclinations  might  have  been,  received  such  contradic- 
tory orders  from  the  king  of  Spain,  'from  Murat,  who  then  com- 
manded at  Madrid,  and  from  the  council  of  the  Indies,  that  he 
proposed  calling  a  junta,  composed  of  representatives  from  each 
province,  as  the  only  means  of  preserving  the  country  from  the 
horrors  of  anarchy.  .  The  European  Spaniards  in  the  capital 
viewed  this  scheme  with  jealousy,  as  calculated  to  place  the 
Creoles  on  an  equal  footing  with  themselves.  They  entered  into 
a  conspiracy  against  the  viceroy,  took  him  prisoner  in  his  palace, 


INSURRECTION    OF    HIDALGO. 


253 


sent  him  to  Spain,  and  assumed  the  reins  of  government.  A  new 
viceroy  was  despatched  to  Mexico,  who  encountered  new  plots 
and  troubles ;  and  in  1810,  an  insurrection,  consisting  principally 
of  the  natives  and  mestizoes,  roses  openly  against  the  government. 


Cathedral  of  Mexico. 


These  men  were  led  by  Hidalgo,  a  priest  of  some  talents,  and  an 
enthusiast  in  the  cause  of  independence.  From  Dolores,  where 
they  first  assembled,  they  marched  upon  the  wealthy  city  of 
Guanaxuato,  which  they  took  and  pillaged.  The  viceroy  de- 
spatched his  forces  to  suppress  the  rebellion,  but  the  whole  coun- 
try through  which  Hidalgo  passed,  took  up  arms  and  joined  him. 
Acting  with  great  policy,  he  abolished  the  tribute  paid  by  the 
aborigines,  which  brought  all  the  Indians  to  his  standard.  Valla- 
dolid  fell  into  his  hands,  and  on  the  24th  of  October,  the  priest 
Hidalgo  was  proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the  Mexican  armies. 
On  this  occasion  he  threw  aside  his  sacerdotal  robes  and  appeared 
in  uniform.  He  advanced  upon  the  capital,  and  in  three  days 
entered  Toluco,  not  more  than  twelve  miles  from  Mexico.  The 
royal  forces  were  scattered  throughout  the  country,  and  Mexico 
was  in  imminent  danger.  After  some  skirmishes  the  independent 
army  approached  to  the  heights  of  Santa  Fe,  where  the  royalists, 
with  a  much  inferior  force,  were  drawn  up  to  defend  the  city. 
Mexico  was  on  the  point  of  seeing  a  conquering  army  enter  her 
gates,  when,  to  the  astonishment  of  every  spectator,  Hidalgo  sijd- 
22 

>••  ,  :  .••-  v  «*H     •«.  *;--•••• 


£54  MEXICO. 

denly  wheeled  to  the  right-about,  and  marched  away.  This 
extraordinary  proceeding  was  never  explained. 

Hidalgo  retreated  to  the  neighborhood  of  Guadalaxara.  The 
royalists  now  had  leisure  to  collect  a  strong  force,  and  pursued 
him.  A  sanguinary  battle  was  fought  on  the  17th  of  January. 
1811,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  and  dispersion  of  the  inde- 
pendent army.  Hidalgo  made  his  escape,  but  was  closely  pursued 
from  post  to  post,  till  at  length  his  retreat  was  cut  off;  when,  by 
the  treachery  of  one  of  his  own  men,  he  was  betrayed  and  made 
prisoner  with  all  his  staff,  on  the  21  st  of  March.  Fifty  of  his 
officers  were  executed  on  the  spot.  Hidalgo  was  tried  and  shot. 
at  Chihuahua,  on  the  20th  of  June,  1811. 

The  death  of  Hidalgo  did  not  stop  the  progress  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  other  quarters.  In  the  meantime,  the  whole  country  had 
risen  in  insurrection,  and  many  leaders  began  to  act  separately. 
The  most  remarkable  among  them  was  Morelos,  another  priest, 
who,  with  great  activity,  talents  and  success,  maintained  the 
rebellion  in  the  southern  provinces,  and  organized  a  junta  or  cen- 
tral government,  which,  in  September,  1811,  assembled  at  Zaca- 
turo,  in  Mechoacan.  This  town  was  soon  after  captured  by 
Calleja,  a  royalist  general,  and  the  junta  dispersed.  Morelos 
penetrated  into  the  highlands  of  Tenochtitlan,  where  he  fought 
many  battles  with  Calleja  during  a  period  of  three  months:  He 
took  Acapulco,  Oaxaca,  and  many  other  towns,  and  convened  a 
congress  at  Apatzinjan,  in  the  province  of  Valladolid.  This  con- 
gress took  the  name  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  declared  the 
independence  of  Mexico  on  the  13th  of  November,  1813.  A  con- 
stitution was  framed,  and  proposals  for  a  suspension  of  hostilities 
were  made  to  the  royalists,  bufrwithout  effect. 

Calleja,  who  was  now  appointed  viceroy,  with  the  title  of  Conde 
de  Calderon,  prosecuted  the  war  againt  the  insurgents  with  vigor 
and  the  most  barbarous  cruelty.  Morelos  involved  himself  in 
difficulties  by  surrendering  his  authority  to  the  congress  at  this 
critical  period.  All  his  military  plans  were  defeated  by  the  inter- 
ference and  delays  of  that  body.  In  consequence  of  this,  he  no 
longer  met  with  any  success  in  his  daring  enterprises,  and  in 
November,  1815,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  carried  to  Mexico  and 
shot.  Many  of  the  insurgent  chiefs  maintained  the  conflict  for 
some  time,  but  they  did  not  act  in  concert  with  one  another. 
Teran,  one  of  these  leaders,  dissolved  the  congress  by  force,  which 
contributed  still  more  to  promote  dissension  among  them. 

The  war  was  feebly  carried  on  until  the  arrival  of  a  new  parti- 
san from  Europe.  This  was  General  Mina,  nephew  of  the  guer- 
rilla chief,  so  celebrated  in  the  war  in  Spain.  He  sailed  from 


1USE    OF   ITURBIDE.  255 

England  with  a  small  force,  in  May,  1816,  and  after  visiting  the 
United  States,  where  he  received  some  reinforcements,  landed  at 
Galvezton,  in  November.  From  this  place,  after  organizing  his 
forces,  he  proceeded  to  Soto  la  Marina,  in  April,  1817,  and  took  up 
his  march  for  Mexico.  He  penetrated  six  hundred  miles  into  the 
interior,  defeating  the  enemy  at  various  points.  At  one  time  his 
troops  were  reduced  to  less  than  three  hundred  men;  at  other 
times  they  were  increased  to  fourteen  hundred.  He  displayed 
great  courage  and  talent,  but  on  the  27th  of  September,  he  was 
surprised  and  taken  prisoner  at  Venadito,  and  a  few  weeks  after, 
tried  and  shot.  This  was  a  heavy  disaster  to  the  Mexicans;  but 
the  forms  of  the  revolutionary  government  continued  to  be  kept  up, 
though  the  congress  were  driven  from  place  to  place  by  the  royal 
armies.  The  war  languished  in  every  quarter,  and  all  the  strong 
places  were  at  length  taken  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1820,  the  revo- 
lution was  considered  at  an  end,  and  the  country  grew  tranquil. 

The  establishment  of  a  constitution  in  Spain,  in  1820,  suddenly 
changed  the  course  of  affairs  in  Mexico.  The  European  Span- 
iards, and  the  Creoles,  who  had  before  made  common  cause  in 
the  royal  interest,  now  divided  into  two  parties,  royalists  and 
constitutionalists.  The  viceroy,  Apodaca,  was  a  royalist,  and 
wished  to  suppress  all  attempts  to  establish  a  constitution  in  Mex- 
ico. The  cause  of  the  insurgents  received  new  strength  from  the 
Spanish  and  Mexican  constitutionalists,  and  the  insurrection  again 
looked  threatening.  Apodaca  raised  a  small  army  and  despatched 
it  to  crush  the  remnant  of  the  insurgent  forces.  He  gave  the 
command  to  Don  Augustin  Iturbide,  a  Creole,  but  a  royalist,  And 
an  officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the 
independents.  It  is  supposed  that  .at  this  moment  Iturbide  began 
to  entertain  those  designs  of  self-aggrandizement  which  afterwards 
led  him  to  the  throne  of  Mexico.  His  very  first  steps  exhibited 
art  and  dissimulation.  The  priests  and  Europeans  furnished  him 
with  some  money,  and  on  his  march,  he  seized  on  a  convoy  of 
specie  belonging  to  the  Manilla  merchants.  He  formed  a  junction 
with  Guerrero,  one  of  the  patriot  chiefs,  and  had  the  address  to 
persuade  Apodaca  that  it  was  only  an  act  of  pardon,  by  which,  the 
adherents  of  the  revolution  would  be  brought  over  to  the  royal 
cause.  Emissaries,  in  the  meantime,  were  despatched  to  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  they  executed  their  mission  so  ably  that 
the  inhabitants  were  everywhere  ready  to  declare  in  favor  of 
independence. 

On  the  24th  of  February,  1821,  at  the  little  town  of  Iguala,  on 
the  road  from  Mexico  to  Acapulco,  Iturbide  issued  a  proclamation,' 
•which  has  since  been  known  by  the  name  of  the  ''Plan  of  Iguala. ' 


MEXICO. 


Its  professed  object  was  to  conciliate  all  parties ;  to  establish  the 
independence  of  Mexico,  and  still  to  preserve  its  relationship  to 
Spain.  To  accomplish  this,  the  crown  of  Mexico  was  to  be 
offered  to  the  king  of  Spain,  and  in  case  of  his  refusal,  to  one  of 
his  buthers,  on  condition  of  his  residing  in  the  country.  Though 
Iturbide  had  manifestly  exceeded  the  powers  which  he  had 
received  from  his  superior,  yet  the  viceroy,  thunderstruck  at  this 
unexpected  event,  and  seeing  that  the  proposal  met  the  wishes  of 
a  great  majority  of  the  people,  took  no  decisive  steps  against  him. 
The  royalists,  who  were  numerous  in  the  capital,  alarmed  at  this 
indecision  and  delay  of  Apodaca,  instantly  deposed  him,  and 
placed  Don  Francisco  Novello,  an  artillery  officer,  at  the  head  of 
affairs.  But  the  disorders  inseparable  from  such  violent  changes, 
gave  Iturbide  time  to  augment  his  forces,  strengthen  his  party, 
and  gain  all  the  northern  and  western  provinces.  Before  the 
month  of  July,  the  whole  country  acknowledged  his  authority, 
with  the  exception  of  the  capital,  in  which  Novello  had  shut  him- 
self up  with  all  the  European  troops. 

In  this  state  of  things,  General  O'Donoju  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz, 
from  Spain,  with  the  office  of  constitutional  viceroy.  Iturbide 
hastened  to  the  coast,  held  an  interview  with  the  new  functionary, 
and  persuaded  him  to  accept  the  plan  of  Iguala,  as  an  armistice 
and  final  settlement,  with  the  proviso  that  it  should  be  approved 
by  Spain.  This  agreement  was  called  the  treaty  of  Cordova, 
from  the  town  where  it  was  made.  It  provided  that  commission- 
ers should  be  sent  to  Spain  with  the  offer  of  the  crown,  and  that 
in  the  interim  a  governing  junta  and  a  regency  should  be  ap- 
pointed; and  that  a  cortes  should  be  immediately  convened  to 
form  a  constitution.  The  royalists  were  deeply  chagrined  at  this 
proceeding,  and  the  garrison  of  Mexico  refused  to  obey  O'Donoju, 
when  he  ordered  them  to  evacuate  the  city.  Iturbide  obtained 
possession  of  Mexico  by  capitulation,  and  established  a  junta  and 
regency,  but  in  such  a  form  that  all  the  power  remained  in  his 
hands.  A  cortes  was  summoned,  which  met  on  the  24th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1822,  and  soon  found  themselves  divided  into  three  parties; 
the  Bourbonists,  or  friends  of  the  plan  of  Iguala;  the  republicans; 
and  the  partisans  of  Iturbide,  who  wished  to  elevate  him  to  the 
supreme  power.  Amidst  all  this  dissension,  Iturbide  had  little 
difficulty  in  playing  off  one  party  against  another  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  no  effectual  opposition  could  be  thrown  in  the  way  of 
nis  ambitious  schemes.  An  accident  helped  him  onward.  The 
royalist  garrison  of  Mexico,  which  had  capitulated  and  were  now 
encamped  at  Toluca,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  effect  a  counter- 
revolution. Iturbide  detected  the  conspiracy,  and  seized  this 


ABDICATION   OF    ITURBIDE.  257 

occasion  to  withdraw  from  the  capital  all  the  troops  disaffected  to 
his  cause.  Meantime,  his  emissaries  were  at  work,  intriguing  in 
the  army,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  18th  of  May,  they  assembled 
the  soldiers,  harangued  them,  and  distributed  money  among  them. 
The  soldiers  marched  out  of  their  quarters,  drew  up  in  front  of 
Iturbide's  house,  where  they  were  joined  by  a  mob  of  the  lowest 
class  of  people.  At  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening  this  multitude 
began  their  shouts  of  "  Long  live  Iturbide,  Angus  fin  the  First, 
Emperor  of  Mexico  !  "  These  cries,  with  salvos  of  fire-arms,  con- 
tinued till  morning,  and  the  members  of  the  cortes  unfriendly  to 
Iturbide's  ambitious  views,  were  advised,  from  a  pretended  regard 
for  their  safety,  not  to  attend  the  meeting  that  day,  for  fear  of  the 
soldiery.  Forty  members  absented  themselves  in  consequence, 
and  the  cortes  having  assembled,  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  soldiery 
and  the  mob,  Iturbide  was  proclaimed  emperor.  Most  of  the 
provinces  submitted  to  this  usurpation  without  delay  or  complaint. 

Thus,  in  a  short  career  of  little  more  than  two  years,  an  obscure 
individual  was  enabled  to  seat  himself  on  a  throne.  But  his 
downfall  was  as  rapid  as  his  rise.  Dissensions  soon  broke  out 
between  him  and  the  cortes,  to  which  he  put  an  end  by  dissolving 
that  body  on  the  30th  of  October,  1822,  precisely  as  Cromwell 
dismissed  the  Long  Parliament,  and  Bonaparte  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Iturbide,  however,  possessed  very  little  of  the  genius 
of  these  great  leaders.  He  was  unable  to  reconcile  the  officers  of 
the  army,  or  the  men  of  influence  in  the  country,  to  these  daring 
measures.  He  formed  a  new  legislative  assembly,  composed  of 
persons  favorable  to  his  views,  but  they  had  not  the  skill  to  make 
his  cause  popular.  Several  of  the  chief  officers  of  the  army 
declared  against  him,  and  prepared  for  resistance.  Iturbide 
began  to  be  terrified  at  the  storm  which  he  saw  gathering  against 
him  on  all  sides.  General  Santa  Ana,  who  had  assisted  in  elevat- 
ing him  to  the  throne,  took  up  arms  against  him.  Guadalupe 
Victoria  joined  his  forces  to  those  of  Santa  Ana;  the  provinces  fell 
off  from  the  emperor,  and  at  length  Iturbide,  utterly  despairing  of 
his  fortunes,  convoked  the  old  cortes,  on  the  8th  of  March,  1823, 
and  on  the  19th  of  that  month,  abdicated  his  crown. 

Thus,  after  a  troubled  and  disastrous  reign  of  ten  months,  his 
Imperial  Majesty  of  Mexico  and  Anahuac  reluctantly  threw 
down  his  sceptre.  He  was  permitted  to  leave  the  country  and 
reside  in  Italy,  with  a  pension  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars. 
His  exile,  however,  did  not  restore  tranquillity  to  the  country. 
The  struggles  of  opposing  factions  kept  everything  in  confusion,, 
and  Iturbide,  before  the  end  of  a  year,  miscalculating  his,  influence 
over  his  countrymen,  had  the  presumption  to  imagine  that  he 
22*  e2 


258  TEXAS. 

could  reenact  the  drama  of  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  and 
regain  his  throne  by  merely  showing  himself  in  Mexico.  Accord- 
ingly, embarking  with  his  family  and  two  or  three  attendants,  he 
landed  in  Mexico  on  the  12th  of  July,  1824.  On  attempting  to 
proceed  into  the  interior  in  disguise,  he  was  discovered  and 
arrested.  The  government  had  previously  outlawed  him,  and  he 
was  shot  by  order  of  the  local  authorities  at  Padilla,  in  Tamau- 
lipas,  on  the  19th  of  July. 

Since  the  death  of  Iturbide,  hardly  anything  has  taken  place  in 
Mexico,  which  it  is  possible  to  make  either  interesting  or  intelli- 
gible to  the  reader.  The  country  has  been  perpetually  distracted 
by  factions,  conspiracies  and  revolutions.  General  Santa  Ana 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  government  in  1832,  and  with 
some  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  has  continued  to  be  the  leading  man 
down  to  the  present  day.  The  constitution  of  Mexico  was  formed 
in  1824,  on  the  model  of  that  of  the  United  States.  The  state  of 
Yucatan  revolted  a  year  or  two  since,  and  is  now  waging  a  war 
for  independence,  against  the  central  government. 

The  REPUBLIC  OF  TEXAS  has  been  formed  out  of  that  portion  of 
Mexico  adjoining  Louisiana.  This  province,  having  been  peopled 
by  emigrants  from  the  United  States,  did  not  readily  submit  to  the 
arbitrary  proceedings  by  which  Santa  Ana  elevated  himself  to  the 
supreme  authority.  Under  the  Mexican  federal  government. 
Texas  and  the  adjoining  province  of  Coahuila,  formed  a  single 
state.  '  The  first  symptom  of  disaffection  was  shown  in  an 
endeavor  to  procure  a  separation  from  Coahuila.  An  agent  was 
despatched  to  Mexico  for  this  purpose,  in  1833,  who  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  treason.  This  only  increased  the 
discontent  of  the  people  of  Texas,  and  a  revolutionary  spirit  soon 
manifested  itself  in  popular  meetings  all  over  the  country.  Com- 
mittees of  safety  were  appointed,  and  a  general  convention  of  the 
states  was  convened  in  1834.  Both  sides  now  prepared  for  war, 
and  great  numbers  of  volunteers  flocked  to  Texas  from  the  United 
States.  Hostilities  began  in  September,  1835,  and  on  the  2d  of 
October  an  action  took  place  at  Gonzales,  in  which  the  Mexicans 
were  defeated  and  put  to  the  rout.  On  the  9th,  the  fort  and  town 
of  Goliad  were  captured  by  the  Texan  forces.  General  Austin 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief.  « 

The  Texan  army,  amounting  to  one  thousand  men,  next  besieged 
the  town  of  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  which  was  defended  by  an 
equally  strong  Mexican  force.  After  a  close  siege  of  a  month, 
intelligence  was  received  that  a  large  body  of  Mexican  troops  was 
approaching  for  the  relief  of  the  garrison.  This  determined  the 
besiegers  to  storm  the  place  immediately.  On  the  6th  of  Decem- 


MASSACRE    OF    TEXAN    PRISONERS.  259 

Der,  they  advanced  to  the  assault,  and  after  a  severe  action,  made 
prisoners  of  the  whole  garrison.  Hardly  had  they  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  town,  when  the  Mexican  reinforcement  arrived,  and 
another  action  was  fought,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the 
whole  detachment.  These  successes  completed  the  triumph  of 
the  Texan  cause ;  not  a  Mexican  soldier  remained  upon  the  terri- 
tory. 

But  this  triumph  was  only  temporary.  In  the  meantime,  Santa 
Ana  was  making  vigorous  preparations  for  crushing  the  insurrec- 
tion. On  the  23d  of  February,  1836,  he  appeared  before  the  town 
of  San  Antonio,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  one  thousand  men,  the 
advanced  guard  of  the  Mexican  army.  The  town  was  immediately 
taken,  but  the  fort  held  out,  although  garrisoned  by  only  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men.  A  constant  bombardment  was  kept  up 
by  the  besiegers,  yet,  on  the  1st  of  March,  a  detachment  of  thirty- 
two  men  from  Gonzales,  succeeded  in  forcing  their  way  through 
the  Mexican  lines  and  throwing  themselves  into  the  fort.  The 
Mexicans  were  soon  reinforced  to  the  number  of  four  thousand 
five  hundred  men,  and  at  midnight  of  the  6th  of  March  made 
a  desperate  assault  upon  the  place.  The  garrison  fought  des- 
perately till  daylight,  when  only  seven  of  them  were  found  alive. 
These  were  all  put  to  the  sword.  The  Mexicans,  it  is  said,  lost  a 
thousand  men  in  this  affair. 

The  Texans,  however,  were  not  dispirited  by  this  disaster.  On 
the  2d  of  March,  a  general  convention,  held  at  the  town  of  Wash- 
ington, declared  Texas  a  sovereign  and  independent  state.  The 
Mexican  army,  immediately  after  the  capture  of  San  Antonio, 
advanced  upon  Goliad,  which  was  garrisoned  by  a  body  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  men  under  Colonel  Fanning.  That  officer,  in 
obedience  to  orders  from  his  commander,  blew  up  the  fort  and 
retreated,  but  after  marching  a  few  miles  he  was  surrounded  in  a 
prairie,  by  a  body  of  two  thousand  Mexicans.  Fanning's  party 
defended  themselves  with  great  courage,  and  the  Mexican  com- 
mander proposed  a  capitulation.  Fanning  agreed  to  the  proposal, 
and  surrendered  on  a  stipulation  that  his  men  should  be  shipped 
to  New  Orleans  within  eight  days.  The  Mexicans  marched  their 
prisoners  off  to  Goliad,  and,  on  the  26th  of  March,  shot  them  all 
in  cold  blood,  with  the  exception  of  four,  who  made  their  escape. 

General  alarm  and  dismay  now  pervaded  the  country,  and  a 
great  many  inhabitants  sought  shelter  in  the  American  territory. 
The  Indians  were  rising  in  the  north,  and  the  invading  army 
continued  to  massacre  all  that  opposed  them.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary to  order  a  strong  force  of  United  States  troops  to  the  Texan 
frontier  to  keep  the  savages  in  check.  The  Texan  army,  which 


260  GUATEMALA. 

was  now  commanded  by  General  Houston,  retreated  before  Santa 
Ana,  till  they  reached  the  river  San  Jacinto,  where  they  made  a 
stand.  The  Mexicans  came  up,  and,  on  the  21st  of  A.pril,  a  most 
sanguinary  and  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  this  place.  The 
Mexicans  were  double  in  strength  to  their  opponents,  yet  the 
attack  of  the  Texans  was  made  with  sucli  courage  and  fury,  that 
in  fifteen  minutes  the  Mexicans  were  completely  routed ;  six  hun- 
dred of  them  were  killed  on  the  spot,  and  as  many  more  taken 
prisoners.  Of  the  Texans,  twenty-six  were  killed  and  wounded. 
Santa  Ana  fled  from  the  field,  and  was  pursued  fifteen  miles  by 
the  Texan  mounted  riflemen,  when  his  horse  foundered  and  he 
took  shelter  in  the  woods.  Here,  after  a  long  search,  he  was 
found  hidden  in  the  top  of  a  tree,  and  made  prisoner. 

Santa  Ana  was  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty,  by  which  the  Mexi- 
can troops  were  withdrawn  from  Texas,  and  agreed  not  to  serve 
against  that  country  during  the  war  of  independence.  Santa 
Ana,  after  some  detention  occasioned  by  the  exasperated  feelings 
of  the  people  against  him,  was  set  at  liberty,  and  proceeded  to 
Washington.  President  Jackson  furnished  him  with  a  passage  to 
Vera  Cruz,  in  a  ship  of  war  of  the  United  States.  The  indepen- 
dence of  Texas  seems  to  have  been  permanently  established  by  the 
victory  of  San  Jacinto.  The  United  States  formally  recognised  it 
on  the  3d  of  March,  1837,  and  Great  Britain  on  the  16th  of 
November,  1840.  These  examples  have  been  imitated  by  most 
of  the  other  maritime  powers  of  Europe.  Hostilities  have  contin- 
ued between  Texas  and  Mexico  to  the  present  day,  but  no  serious 
attempts  at  invasion  have  been  made  by  the  Mexicans.  '  The 
government  of  Texas  is  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States. 

GUATEMALA,  or  the  REPUBLIC  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  proclaimed 
its  independence  on  the  15th  of  September,  1821.  When  Iturbide 
became  emperor  of  Mexico,  three  of  the  provinces  of  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  Costa  Rica  and  Chiapa,  declared  for  a  union  with  that 
empire.  A  civil  war  was  the  immediate  consequence,  but  some 
little  quiet  being  restored  in  1823,  the  congress  took  measures  for 
the  regulation  of  affairs ;  and,  on  the  22d  of  November,  the  Consti- 
tuent Assembly  promulgated  a  constitution,  establishing  the  gov- 
ernment on  a  federal  system.  The  republic  of  Central  America 
has  been  the  most  unfortunate  of  all  the  Spanish  American  states. 
Its  history,  from  the  first  moment,  down  to  the  hour  at  which  this 
page  is  written,  has  been  literally  nothing  but  the  history  of  an 
anarchy.  The  constitution  has  been  a  dead  letter  from  the  begin- 
ning; the  union  of  the  provinces  has  been  discord  and  civil  war; 
the  government  has  been  military  force ;  and  authority  and  law 
nave  existed  only  in  the  will  and  caprice  of  partisan  leaders 


CONDITION    OF   THE    COUNTRY. 


261 


Civilization  has  retrograded,  and  the  country  labors  under  such  a 
combination  of  evils  continually  augmenting,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  any  conjuncture  of  circumstances  which  can,  within  any 
short  period,  restore  order  and  regular  government  in  this  misera- 
ble territory.  The  chief  personage  who  figures  in  the  anarchy  of 
Guatemala,  at  present,  is  Carre ra,  a  military  leader  of  the  lowest 
extraction.  This  personage,  illiterate,  narrow-minded,  vindictive, 
ferocious,  arbitrary,  and  devoured  by  ambition,  controls  all  the 
proceedings  of  the  nominal  government,  by  being  at  the  head  of 
the  army.  He  is  the  idol  of  the  priests,  the  banditti  and  the 
soldiery;  and  is  a  strange  compound  of  the  Jacobin  and  the 
Inquisitor.  His  sway  is  absolute  at  the  capital.  The  other 
provinces  take  care  of  themselves  as  well  as  they  can. 


Alvarado  marching  upon  Guatemala. 


BRITISH   AMERICA, 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 

CANADA. — Discovery  of  Canada  by  Cartier. — Second  expedition. — Discovery  of  the 
St.  Lawrence. — RobervaVs  expedition. — Pont  grave  and  Champlain. —  Quebec 
founded. — Discoveries  of  Champlain. — Establishment  of  the  company  of  New 
France. — Indian  ipars. — Jesuits  in  Canada. —  Slow  progress  of  the  colony. — 
Ecclesiastical  government  of  Canada. — Hostilities  of  the  Iroquois. — Earthquakes. 


Quebec. 

CANADA  was  discovered  by  Jacques  Cartier,  of  St.  Malo,  in 
France.  He  was  entrusted,  at  the  recommendation  of  Chabot, 
admiral  of  France,  with  a  commission  of  discovery,  as  the  French 
had  begun  to  catch  the  general  spirit  of  maritime  enterprise. 
Cartier  sailed  from  St.  Malo  with  two  ships,  on  the  20th  of  April, 
1534.  Though  these  were  called  ships  in  the  narrations  of  that  day, 
they  were  neither  above  twenty  tons  burthen,  which  shows  that 
naval  architecture  had  made  but  small  progress  among  the  French. 
On  the  10th  of  May,  they  saw  the  shores  of  Newfoundland, 
near  Cape  Bonavista,  and  steering  to  the  south,  along  the  coast, 
landed  at  a  harbor,  which  Cartier  named  St.  Catherine's.  Thence, 
proceeding  westward  and  northward,  he  entered  the  Gulf  of  St. 


DISCOVERY   OF    THE    ST.    LAWRENCE.  263 

Lawrence,  and  passed  in  sight  of  Bird's  Island,  which  he  called 
Isles  Aux  Oiseaux,  from  the  multitudes  of  sea-fowls  that  covered 
them.  After  some  days  spent  in  sailing  along  the  western  coast 
of  Newfoundland,  he  crossed  the  gulf  and  entered  a  wide  and 
deep  inlet,  which  he  named  Baie  de  Chaleur,  on  account  of  the 
intense  summer  heat  which  the  voyagers  experienced  while 
exploring  its  shores.  This  bay  appears  to  have  been  already 
known  to  the  Spaniards,  and  in  very  old  charts  it  is  termed  Bay 
des  Espagnols.  After  exploring  the  greater  part  of  the  gulf,  he 
returned  towards  France,  on  the  15th  of  August,  and  arrived  at 
St.  Malo  in  twenty-one  days. 

During  the  following  year,  in  consequence  of  the  favorable 
report  he  gave  of  his  voyage,  he  was  invested  with  the  command 
of  three  ships,  of  superior  size,  and  well  equipped  'with  all  sorts  of 
necessaries.  On-board  the  largest  of  these,  "La  Grande  Hermi- 
one,"  he  embarked  on  the  19th  of  May,  and  on  the  26th  of  July 
he  was  joined  by  the  oth'er  vessels,  which  had  been  separated 
from  him  during  a  storm,  at  an  appointed  place  of  rendezvous 
within  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  They  then  proceeded  together 
on  their  course  up  the  great  river  St.  Lawrence,  so  named,  accord- 
ing to  some,  from  Carder  having  either  returned  to.  the  gulf  on 
the  10th  of  August,  the  festival  of  St.  Laureate,  or  his  having 
called  a  cape  on  the  coast  of  Cape  Breton,  at  tne  entrance  of  the 
gulf,  by  the  name  of  the  Cape  St.  Laurente,  which  was  afterwards 
given  to  the  gulf  and  river  of  Canada.  There  appears,  however, 
some  uncertainty  in  the  account  transmitted  us  on  this  subject. 
He  named  the  island  pf  Anticosti,  Assumption,  an  appellation 
which  it  did  not  long  retain.  On  the  1st  of  August,  he  was  driven 
into  a  harbor  on  the  north  coast,  which  st'ill  retains  the  name  of 
St.  Nicholas,  which  he  gave  it.  He  fhen  proceeded  up  the  river 
St.  Lawrence,  until  he  entered  the  Saghunny,  from  which  he 
continued  his  course,  passing  the  islands,  which  he  named  Isle  aux 
Coudres  and  Isle  de  Bacchus,  now  Orleans.  He  then  proceeded 
in  the  Hermione  until  his  ship  grounded  on  the  shoals  of  Lake  St. 
Peter,  from  whence  in  two  boats  he  explored  the  river  to  the 
island  where  Montreal  now  stands,  and  which  was  at  that  time 
inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  the  Huron  nation,  who  lived  ih  a  village 
called  Hochelaga.  The  river  was  then  designated  the  Great 
Hochelaga,  and  afterwards,  before  it  acquired  that  of  St.  Law- 
rence, the  River  of  Canada.  Carder  was  received  by  the  natives 
with  great  kindness  and  hospitality. 

He  returned  from  the  village  of  Hochelaga  on  the  5th  of  October, 
and  on  the  llth  he  arrived  at  a  river  which  still  bears  his  name. 
but  which  he  named  the  St.  Croix.  Here  he  wintered,  and  dur- 


264  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

ing  the  inclemency  of  that  season,  Cartier  and  his  crew  weie 
subjected  to  a  violent  attack  of  scurvy,  which  the  natives  taught 
them  to  cure  by  means  of  a  decoction  prepared  of  the  bark  of  the 
species  of  fir  which  yields  the  Canada  balsam  of  our  pharmaco- 
peia. He  returned  next  summer  to  France ;  but,  notwithstanding 
the  favorable  and  unexaggerated  account  of  the  countries  he 
explored,  four  years  elapsed  before  any  farther  attempt  was  made 
to  prosecute  his  discoveries. 

In  January,  1540,  Frangois  de  la*  Roque,  Seigneur  de  Roberval. 
received  a  patent  from  Francis  I.,  declaring  him  Seigneur  de 
Norembegue,  (the  name  by  which  nearly  all  North  America  was 
then  designated,)  with  all  the  power  and  authority  possessed  by 
the  king  in  this  quarter.  Early  in  the  summer  of  1540,  Roberval, 
with  a  squadron  of  five  vessels,  sailed  for  America,  Jacques  Car- 
tier  having  the  supreme  naval  command.  This  voyage  was  suc- 
cessful, and  a  fort  was  erected  on  some  part  of  those  coasts,  but 
whether  in  Cape  Breton  or  in  Canada  appears  quite  uncertain. 
It  was,  however,  injudiciously  selected;  the  spot  was  much 
exposed  both  to  the  cold  and  to  the  incursions  of  the  natives. 
Cartier  was  left  at  this  station  as  commandant ;  but  he  was  so 
harassed  by  the  Indians,  who  were  offended  at  strangers  taking 
unceremonious  possession  of  a  hold  in  their  country,  and  having 
despaired  of  the  return  of  M.  Roberval,  that  he  embarked  with  all 
his  people  in  order  to  return  to  France. 

On  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  he  met  M.  de  Roberval,  with 
some  vessels  carrying  men,  arms  and  provisions,  and,  returning 
with  him,  reassumed  the  command  of  the  garrison.  M.  de  Rober- 
val then  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  landed  at  Tadousac,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Saghunny.  He  made  also  some  attempts,  of 
which  we  have  no  very  authentic  accounts,  to  explore  Labrador ; 
but  for  some  time  after  this  period,  Newfoundland  was  not  known 
to  be  an  island.  We  have  no  information,  on  which  we  can  rely, 
as  to  what  occured  for  some  years  afterwards,  when  we  find  Cartier 
embarking  again  for  America,  under  the  viceroy,  Roberval,  and 
with  the  brother  of  the  latter,  a  personage  whose  martial  reputa- 
tion, was  so  brilliant,  that  the  chivalrous  king,  Francis  I.,  always 
designated  him  the  "  Gen  d'arme  d'  Annibal."  Fate  decreed  that 
this  voyage  should  be  sealed  by  calamity.  After  leaving  France 
the  slightest  information  respecting  this  spirited  expedition  has 
never  been  traced ;  and  for  more  than  sixty  years,  American  colo- 
nization and  the  glory  of  discovery  seem  to  have  been  forgotten 
or  disregarded  by  the  French  government.  The  disastrous  attempt 
of  the  Marquis  de  la  Roche,  in  1598,  has  been  described  elsewhere; 
and  also,  in  the  history  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  departure  of  M.  Pont- 


CANADA.  265 

grave,  the  associate  of  M.  de  Monts,  from  Acadia,  to  trade  at 
Tadousac.  M.  de  Charwin  had  previously  made  two  voyages, 
in  1600  and  1601,  to  Tadousac,  and  returned  to  France  with  val- 
uable cargoes  of  furs.  He  died  soon  after. 

M.  Pontgrave,  who  was  at  first  an  intelligent  merchant  in  a 
house  at  St.  Malo,  and  afterwards  an  expert  navigator,  who  made 
several  voyages  to  Acadia  and  Canada,  succeeded,  along  with 
M.  Chatte,  governor  of  Dieppe,  who  had  procured  a  charter  with 
all  the  privileges  of  that  formerly  granted  to  M.  la  Roche,  in  form- 
ing a  company  of  merchants  at  Rouen,  for  prosecuting  discoveries 
under  the  king's  commission,  and  establishing  settlements  on  the 
River  of  Canada.  The  celebrated  navigator,  Samuel  Champlain, 
being  associated  with  them,  accompanied  Pontgrave,  in  1603,  to 
Tadousac,  from  whence  he  sailed  up  the  river  as  far  as  Hochelaga, 
which  he  found  nearly  deserted,  and  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Louis,  now 
called  the  Rapids  of  Lachine.  He  then  returned  to  Acadia,  and 
afterwards,  on  an  exploring  expedition  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, was  nearly  lost  on  Cape  Breton,  at  Cape  Mabon,  a  name 
corrupted  from  what  he  termed  it,  "  Mai-ban."  He  wintered  at 
Justau  Corps,  now  named  Port  Hood. 

The  spirit  that  actuated  the  company  of  which  Champlain  was 
an  associate,  was  exclusively  governed  by  the  gains  attendant  on 
the  peltry  trade,  to  which  all  other  considerations  were  made  sub- 
servient. Champlain,  however,  inherited  from  nature  a  mind,  the 
scope  of  which  extended  far  beyond  the  mere  collection  of  peltry  ; 
and  to  his  enterprising  spirit  and  superior  judgment,  does  Canada 
owe  the  founding  of  Quebec  on  a  spot,  the  choice  of  which,  for 
the  capital  of  a  great  transatlantic  empire,  does  him  immortal 
honor.  On  the  13th  of  July,  1608,  Champlain  fixed  on  a  most 
commanding  promontory,  on  the  north  side  of  the  River  St.  Law- 
rence, for  the  site  of  his  settlement,  the  name  of  which  is  said  to 
have  originated  from  its  very  peculiar  and  striking  appearance, 
when  it  first  burst  into  view  on  sailing  up  the  St.  Lawrence. 
This  caused  a  mariner,  who  was  stationed  on  the  foretop  of  the 
Hermione,  to  shout  loudly  to  those  on  deck,  the  words  "Quel- 
bec."*  Here  he  left  a  few  settlers;  and  on  returning  next  year 
with  Pontgrave  to  Canada,  he  found  his  young  colony  in  quiet 
possession  of  their  establishment,  and  clearing  and  cultivating  the 
soil  with  tolerable  success. 

At  this  period  the  Algonquins,  who  inhabited  the  adjacent  coun- 
try, and  the  Montagues  or  Mountaineers,  who  occupied  the  hilly 

*  Note.  A  more  probable  origin  of  the  name,  of  Quebec  may  be  found  in  the 
Algonquin  word  Quilibcc,  which  means  a  bold  and  lofty  promontory. 

23  H2 


266  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

grounds,  and  the  banks  of  the  Saghunny,  together  with  the 
Hurons  of  the  upper  country,  were  in  alliance,  as  the  common 
enemy  of  the  powerful  Iroquois  nation.  Champlain,  by  joining 
these  tribes  in  their  wars  against  the  Iroquois,  committed  a  fatal 
error,  which  exposed  the  French  settlements  in  Canada  to  all  the 
calamities  of  savage  warfare  for  nearly  a  hundred  years ;  and  the 
introduction  of  fire-arms,  first  among  the  Algonquins  and  after- 
wards among  the  other  Indian  nations,  was  turned  to  the  most 
terrible  account,  for  more  than  a  century,  against  the  European 
settlements. 

Champlain  explored  the  Ottawa,  and  many  other  parts  of  the 
country,  before  he  returned  to  France,  where  he  succeeded  in 
forming,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  assumed 
the  title  of  viceroy  of  New  France,  a  new  association  at  Rouen. 
He  returned  to  Canada  in  1612,  taking  with  him  four  Recollet 
friars  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  savages.  The  war  with 
the  Iroquois  seems  principally  to  have  occupied  the  next  eight 
years;  and,  in  1620,  Champlain  brought  his  family  to  Canada. 
The  Prince  of  Conde  surrendered  his  viceroyalty  this  year  to  the 
Marshal  de  Montmorency,  who  continued  Champlain  as  his  lieu- 
tenant. Two  years  after,  the  Duke  de  Ventadour,  having  entered 
into  holy  orders,  took  charge,  as  viceroy,  of  the  affairs  of  New 
France,  solely  with  the  view  of  converting  the  savages ;  and  for 
this  purpose  he  sent  some  Jesuits  to  Canada,  to  the  great  mortifi- 
cation of  the  Recollets. 

A  number  of  Calvin  ists,  associated  with  their  leader,  the  Sieur 
de  Caen,  were  at  this  period  actively  engaged  in  the  fur  trade; 
and  the  jealousies  and  bickerings  maintained  between  them  and 
the  Catholics,  arising  in  reality  from  the  spirit  of  trade,  but  attrib- 
uted, as  usual,  to  religious  scruples,  greatly  retarded  the  prosperity 
of  the  French  settlements.  Cardinal  Richelieu  endeavored  to  put 
an  end  to  these  causes  of  dissension  by  establishing  the  Company 
of  New  France.  This  company,  consisting  of  one  hundred  associ- 
ates, engaged  to  send  three  hundred  tradesmen  to  New  France, 
and  to  supply  all  those  whom  they  settled  in  the  country  with 
lodging,  food,  clothing  and  implements,  for  three  years,  after 
which  period  they  would  allow  each  man  sufficient  land  to  sup- 
port him,  with  the  grain  necessary  for  seed.  The  company  also 
engaged  to  have  six  thousand  French  inhabitants  settled  in  the 
countries  included  in  their  charter,  before  the  year  1643,  and  to 
establish  three  priests  in  each  settlement,  whom  they  were  bound 
to  provide  with  every  article  necessary  for  their  personal  comfort, 
as  well  as  the  expenses  attending  their  ministerial  labors,  for  fif- 
teen years ;  after  which,  cleared  lands  were  to  be  granted  by  the 


CANADA. 


267 


company  to  the  clergy  for  maintaining  the  Catholic  church  in 
Now  France.  The  prerogatives  which  the  king  reserved  to  him- 
self, were,  the  supremacy  in  matters  of  faith ;  homage,  as  sover- 
eign of  New  France,  with  the  acknowledgement  of  a  crown  of 
gold,  weighing  eight  marks,  on  each  succession  to  the  throne  of 
France  ;  the  nomination  of  all  commanders  and  officers  of  forts ; 
and  the  appointment  of  the  officers  of  justice,  whenever  it  became 
necessary  to  establish  courts  of  law. 

The  royal  charter  then  granted  to  the  company  of  New  France 
and  their  successors  forever,  in  consideration  of  their  engagements 
to  the  crown,  the  fort  and  settlement  of  Quebec,  all  the  territory 
of  New  France,  including  Florida,  with  all  the  countrfes  along  the 
course  of  the  great  River  of  Canada,  and  all  the  other  rivers 
which  discharge  themselves  therein,  or  which  throughout  those 
vast  regions  empty  themselves  into  the  sea,  both  on  the  eastern 
and  western  coasts  of  the  continent  with  all  the  harbors,  islands, 
mines  and  rights  of  fishery.  The  company  were  further  empow- 
ered to  confer  titles  of  distinction,  which,  however,  required,  in 
the  creation  of  marquisates,  earldoms,  baronies  and  counties,  the 
confirmation  of  the  sovereign,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  superintendant-in-chief  of  the  navigation 
and  commerce  of  New  France.  The  exclusive  right  of  traffic  in 
peltries  and  all  other  commerce,  for  fifteen  years,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  right  to  fish  for  cod  and  whales,  was  also  granted  to  the 
company. 

This  celebrated  charter  was  signed  in  April,  1627,  and  created 
the  greatest  and  most  flattering  expectations.  The  administra- 
tion under  a  viceroy  being  omitted,  the  company  continued  M. 
Champlain  as  governor  of  Canada;  but  untoward  circumstances, 
particularly  the  capture  by  the  English,  under  Sir  David  Kirk, 
of  the  first  ships  sent  from  France  with  stores,  reduced  the  colony 
to  great  distress:  He  even  appeared  with  his  squadron  before 
Quebec,  and  might  easily,  had  he  known  the  famished  condition 
of  the  garrison,  have  compelled  it  to  surrender.  The  prosperity 
of  New  France  wjas  not  only  retarded,  but  even  the  powerful 
mind  of  Champlain,  so  fertile  in  expedients  on  occasions  of  diffi- 
culty, was  subjected  to  the  most  vexatious  mortifications  by 
various  unfortunate  circumstances.  The  hostilities  of  the  savages 
were  not  the  least  of  the  evils  that  perplexed  him;  and  the 
Iroquois  "soon  perceived  the  advantages  which  the  continued  jeal- 
ousies and  quarrels  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  enabled 
them  to  obtain  over  men  whom  they  considered  the  usurping 
occupiers  of  their  country. 

In  1629,  a  period  when  Champlain  was  reduced  to  the  utmost 


268  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

extremity,  by  the  want  of  every  article  of  food,  clothing,  imple- 
ments and  ammunition,,  and  exposed  to  the  incessant  attacks  of 
the  Iroquois,  Sir  David  Kirk,  commanding  an  English  squadron, 
appeared  again  before  Quebec.  The  deplorable  situation  of  the 
colony,  and  the  very  honorable  terms  of  capitulation  proposed  by 
him,  induced  Champlain  to  surrender  the  fortress  of  Quebec,  with 
all  Canada,  to  the  crown  of  England.  Kirk's  generosity  to  the 
colonists  induced  most  of  them  to  remain;  but,  in  1632,  three 
years  afterwards,  Canada,  with  Acadia,  was  restored,  by  the 
treaty  of  St.  Germains,  to  France.  The  following  year,  Cham- 
plain,  who  was  most  justly  appointed  governor,  sailed  with  a 
squadron,  carrying  all  necessary  supplies,  to  Canada,  where  he 
found,  on  his  arrival,  most  of  his  former  colonists.  The  affairs  of 
New  France  now  assumed  a  more  prosperous  aspect ;  and  means 
were  adapted  for  maintaining  all  possible  harmony  among  the 
inhabitants,  and  preventing,  as  far  as  practicable,  those  religious 
disturbances  which  had  previously  convulsed  the  colony.  The 
company  was  taught,  by  former  experience,  that  their  indiscrimi- 
nate acceptance  of  all  who  presented  themselves  as  adventurers 
ready  to  embark  for  New  France,  constituted  the  leading  cause 
of  disorderly  conduct  and  unsteady  habits  among  the  colonists ; 
and  it  was  therefore  determined  that  in  future  none  but  men  and 
women  of  unexceptionable  character  should  be  sent  to  New 
France. 

In  1635,  the  Marquis  de  Gamoche,  who  had,  some  years  before, 
joined  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  commanded  the  establishment  of 
that  order  at  Quebec ;  and  we  must  acknowledge  that  this  insti- 
tution was,  for  the  time,  very  useful  in  maintaining  order,  and 
preserving  or  inculcating  morality,  among  the  colonists.  The 
death  of  Champlain,  who  was  drowned  this  year  in  the  lake 
which  bears  his  name,  was  a  grievous  misfortune  to  Canada.  In 
establishing  and  maintaining  the  colony,  he  surmounted  difficul- 
ties that  few  men  would  have  had  courage  to  encounter,  and 
under  which  thousands  of  men,  with  minds  even  above  the  com- 
mon standard,  would  have  succumbed.  The  soundness  of  his 
judgment,  which  led  him  to  conclude  that  a  region  possessing 
such  advantages  as  Canada,  must,  in  the  common  course  of  events, 
become  a  great  empire,  stimulated  and  supported  him  in  prose- 
cuting, with  undaunted  perseverance,  the  vast  undertaking  in 
which  he  engaged.  During  the  greater  part  of  his  active  life,  the 
sole  object  of  his  heart  was  to  become  the  founder  of  a  colony, 
which,  he  felt  confident,  would  eventually  attain  to  a  summit  of 
extraordinary  power  and  grandeur.  His  anticipations  have, 
since  that  period,  been  realized  beyond  those  of  most  men  who 


CANADA.  269 

have  spent  their  lives,  like  him,  in  great  undertakings.  After  his 
death,  however,  although  the  governor,  M.  de  Montmagny,  entered 
into  the  views  of  his  predecessor,  yet,  as  he  lacked  the  experience, 
the  scientific  and  professional  abilities,  and  probably  the  confi- 
dence of  the  inhabitants,  which  his  predecessor  had  enjoyed,  the 
improvements  of  the  society  slackened,  and  the  fur  trade  alone 
seems  to  have  been  followed  with  any  spirit. 

The  ardent  spirit  of  enthusiasm  which  went  forth  during  that 
age,  to  accomplish  the  conversion  of  the  aborigines  of  America, 
led  to  the  establishment  of  religious  institutions  in  Canada ;  and 
although  these  establishments  did  little  for  the  immediate  improve- 
ment of  the  colony,  yet,  as  points  of  possession,  occupied  by  per- 
sons whose  avocations  were  professedly  holy  and  useful,  they 
formed  the  foundation  on  which  arose  the  superstructure  of  those 
morals  and  habits  that  still,  and  will  long,  characterize  the  Gallo- 
Canadians.  The  conduct  of  the  nuns  was,  however,  highly  rep- 
robated in  the  following  century. 

The  company  of  New  France,  who  fulfilled  none  of  the  stipu- 
lations of  their  charter,  and  who  also  found  means  to  'prevent  the 
complaints  of  the  inhabitants  being  heard,  by  the  ministers  of  the 
crown,  did  nothing  towards  settling  or  cultivating  the  country; 
and  the  forts  which  they  erected  at  Richelieu  and  other  places, 
were  merely  posts  of  defence,  or  store-houses  for  carrying  on  the 
fur  trade.  The  habits  of  those  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
company,  were  also  described  as  generally  licentious,  with  char- 
acters stamped  with  infamy.  From  among  those  men  arose  the 
race  of  vagabonds,  known  since  that  period  by  the  name  of 
Cov.reu.rs  du  Bois.  Under  such  management,  Canada  languished 
for  several  years,  while  the  Iroquois,  with  more  experience  in 
war,  continued  to  harass  the  colony  with  unabated  ferocity.  The 
settlement  at  Montreal,  which  was  very  much  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Iroquois,  suffered  severely,  and  its  extinction  was 
only  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  M.  D'Aillebout,  in  1647,  from 
France,  with  a  reinforcement  of  one  hundred  men. 

In  1658,  the  Marquis  d'Argenson  arrived  in  Canada  with  the 
commission  of  governor-general;  ,and  in.  the  following  summer 
Laval,  Abbe  de  Montigny,  and  titular  Bishop  of  Petrie,  landed  at 
Quebec,  with  a  brief  from  the  pope  constituting  him  apostolic 
vicar.  Curacies  were  at  the  same  time  established  in  Canada. 
The  condition  of  the  colony,  at  this  period,  appears  to  have 
been  truly  wretched.  Its  defence  and  support  were  completely 
neglected  by  the  company  of  New  France,  the  associates  of  which: 
reduced  to  forty  in  number,  at  last  gave  up  even  the  fur  trade,  for 
the  seigneurial  acknowledgement  of  one  thousand  beaver  skins. 
23* 


270  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

The  Iroquois,  who  had  spread  terrible  destruction  among  their  old 
enemies,  the  Hurons  and  Algonquins,  seemed  also  determined  at 
this  time  to  exterminate  the  French,  and  several  hundreds  of  their 
warriors  kept  Quebec  in  a  state  little  short  of  actual  blockade, 
while  another  band  massacred  a  great  number  of  the  settlers  at 
Montreal.  The  governor,  who  complained  of  ill  health,  requested 
his  recall,  and,  in  1661,  he  was  relieved  by  the  Baron  D'Avargour, 
aft  officer  of  great  integrity  and  resolution,  but  considered  too 
inflexible  for  the  situation  he  held.  His  decisive  measures  appear, 
however,  to  have  saved  Canada;  the  defenceless  state  of  which, 
and  the  natural  beauty  and  importance  of  the  country,  he  stated 
in  such  forcible  language  to  the  king,  who  was  previously  ignorant 
of  its  value  or  condition,  that  he  immediately  ordered  four  hun- 
dred troops,  with  all  necessary  supplies,  to  Canada,  accompanied 
by  a  special  commission.  Their  arrival  gave  life  and  confidence 
to  the  colonists,  who  were  then,  for  the  first  time,  enabled  to 
cultivate  the  soil  with  any  security. 

A  tremendous  earthquake,  which  seems  to  have  agitated  the 
whole  of  Canada  and  a  vast  extent  of  the  adjacent  countries  in 
1663,  is  described  by  the  French  writers  of  that  time,  as  accom- 
panied by  the  most  alarming  phenomena,  rendered  more  than 
usually  terrific  by  the  continuation  of  the  shocks  for  nearly  six 
months.  About  the  same  time,  on  the  5th  of  February,  a  loud 
rumbling  noise,  seemingly  occasioned  by  the  detonation  of  the 
atmosphere,  was  heard  throughout  the  whole  of  these  regions. 
The  terrified  inhabitants,  having  never  heard  of  an  earthquake 
in  the  country,  at  first  conceived  their  houses  to  be  on  fire,  and 
immediately  flew  out  of  doors,  when  their  astonishment  was 
increased  by  the  violent  agitation  of  the  earth  and  everything  on 
its  surface.  The  walls  shook,  the  bells  of  the  churches  rang,  and 
the  doors  flew  open  and  closed  again  of  themselves.  The  forest 
trees  were  seen  all  in  violent  motion,  some  thrown  up  by  the  roots, 
then  with  their  tops  bending  nearly  to  the  ground,  first  to  one 
side,  then  to  the  other,  or  laid  prostrate  on  the  surface,  from  which 
again  they  were  thrown  up  into  the  air.  The  ice,  which  covered 
the  lakes  and  rivers,  in  many  places  some  feet  thick,  was  broken 
open,  and  frequently  thrown,  with  rocks  and  mud  from  the  bottom, 
up  into  the  air.  Clouds  of  dust  obscured  the  sky.  The  waters 
were  impregnated  with  sulphur,  exhibiting  yellow  or  reddish 
colors.  From  Tadousac  to  Quebec,  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
miles,  the  St.  Lawrence  appeared  white  and  thickly  impregnated 
with  sulphureous  matter. 

The  convulsion  of  elements  produced  the  most  awful  and 
incessant  sounds,  roaring  at  one  time  like  the  sea,  then  reverber- 


CANADA.  271 

a  ting  like  the  rolling  of  thunder,  and  again  as  if  mountains  were 
bursting,  and  the  rocks  which  composed  them  cracking  and 
rolling  over  each  other.  The  darkness  was  rendered  still  more 
awful  by  the  frequent  flashes  of  lightning,  or  by  the  lamenta- 
tions of  the  women,  the  cries  of  the  children,  and  the  howling 
of  dogs  and  other  animals.  Walrusses  and  porpoises  were  said 
to  have  been  seen  as  far  up  the  St.  Lawrence  as  Three  Rivers, 
where  they  never  appeared  before,  as  if  equally  terrified  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land  ;  the  former  howling  in  the  piteous  man- 
ner peculiar  to  them.  The  first  shock  continued  without  inter- 
mission, for  about  half  an  hour;  this  was  followed  by  a  second, 
equally  violent.  Thirty  shocks  were  numbered  during  the  night, 
and  the  whole  country  continued  to  be  violently  agitated  at  inter- 
vals until  the  end  of  July. 

The  company  of  New  France,  who  had  all  along  mismanaged 
the  affairs  of  Canada,  and  who  even  lost  the  vast  profits  of  its 
trade  by  neglecting,  from  ill-timed  avarice,  to  provide  for  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  colony,  at  length  surrendered  their  charter  to  the 
king,  the  powers  and  immunities  of  which  were  transferred,  in 
1664,  to  the  company  of  the  West  Indies. 


Discovery  of  the  great  lakes. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

Tranquillity  of  the  colony. — Mortality  among  the  savages. —  Voyages  of  Joliet  and 
Marquette. — Discovery  of  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi  and  the  Great  Lakes. — 
Voyages  of  La  Salla,  Tonti  and  Hennipen. — English  expedition  against  Quebec. 
— Ravages  of  the  Iroquois. — Administration  of  De  Vandreuil. — An  English 
army  poisoned  by  the  savages. — General  state  of  Canada. — Indian  massacres. — 
Wolfe's  expedition. —  Capture  of  Quebec. — Submission  of  the  whole  province  to 
the  British.  • 


Death  of  Wolfe. 

FROM  the  year  1668,  we  find  the  affairs  of  Canada  so  far  pros- 
perous, that  little  apprehension  was  entertained  as  to  the  colony 
being  established  on  a  permanent  foundation,  although  the  ferocity 
of  the  savages  left  no  grounds  for  expecting  a  cessation  of  hostili- 
ties for  any  definite  period.  The  fur  trade,  however,  was  in  a 
great  measure  intercepted  by  a  fatal  calamity,  previously  unknow^ 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  world.  The  small  pox,  more 
terrible  to  the  savages  than  all  the  fire-arms  of  Europe,  made  its 
appearance  this  year  among  the  tribes  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence ; 
and  its  ravages  carried  off  more  than  half  their  number.  This 
contagion  and  the  use  of  ardent  spirits  have  probably  since  that 
time  destroyed  a  greater  portion  of  the  aborigines  of  North  Amer- 


CANADA.  273 

ica,  than  war  and  all  the  diseases  to  which  they  were  previously 
subjected. 

Fort  Frontenac  was  built  in  1672,  where  Kingston  now  stands, 
for  the  purpose  of  awing  the  Indians,  by  Louis  de  Baude,  Count 
de  Frontenac,  for  whom,  however,  the  right  of  ground  was  ob- 
tained with  great  adroitness  by  his  predecessor,  M.  de  Courcelles, 
a  man  of  great  personal  worth  and  practical  abilities,  but  neither 
gifted  with  the  splendid  talents,  nor  blemished  with  the  preju- 
dices or  defects  of  M.  de  Frontenac.  During  the  administration  of 
M.  de  Frontenac  and  his  predecessor,  M.  de  Courcelles,  the  French 
explored  ihe  greater  part  of  Canada,  and  the  savages  were  taught 
to  regard  the  colonists  with  some  degree  of  awe.  M.  Perrot,  an 
indefatigable  traveller,  visited  all  the  nations  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
great  lakes,  who  shortly  afterwards  sent  deputies  to  meet  the  sub- 
delegates  of  the  Intendant  of  New  France,  at  the  Falls  of  St. 
Mary,  where  they  finally  agreed  that  he  should  possess  and 
occupy  the  place-  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  and  a  cross  was 
then  erected,  on  which  were  placed  the  arms  of  France.  A  tribe 
of  the  Hurons,  who  were  converted  and  guided  by  Father  Mar- 
quette,  were  soon  after  established  at  Michilimakinak ;  and  the 
Iroquois,  who  were  converted  and.  separated  from  the  rest  of  their 
nation,  were  settled  about  the  same  time  on  the  south  side  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Louis,  near  Montreal. 

In  1672,  M.  Talon,  who,  during  the  period  when  he  held  the 
office  of  Intendant  General,  in  which  he  was  succeeded  by  M.  de 
Chezneau,  had  extended  the  authority  of  France  into  the  most 
distant  part  of  Canada,  concluded,  from  the  reports  of  the  Indians, 
that  there  existed,  west  of  the  great  lakes,  a  vast  river,  which 
some  of  the  savages  called  Mississippi,  and  others  Meshashepi; 
and  the  course  of  which  flowed  towards  the  south.  He,  there- 
fore, determined  not  to  leave  America  until  he  should  ascertain 
the  truth  of  this  important  information.  For  this  purpose  he 
employed  Father  Marquette,  who  had  previously  travelled  over 
the  greater  part  of  Canada,  and  who  was  besides  peculiarly 
qualified  to  gain  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  the  savages.  M. 
Joliet,  a  merchant  of  Quebec,  and  a  man  of  well  known  abilities 
and  experience,  was  associated  with  Father  Marquette,  in  order  to 
examine  more  fully  the  commercial  resources  of  the  countries  they 
should  discover.  They  proceeded  to  Lake  Michigan,  ascended 
the  river,  which  falls  into  an  arm  of  the  lake  called  Green  Bay, 
nearly  up  to  its  source;  from  whence  they  crossed  the  coun- 
try to  the  River  Esconsin,  or  Wisconsin,  which  they  descended 
until  it  unites  with  the  Mississippi.  The  magnitude  and  depth  *rf 
the  Mississippi,  even  at  this  point,  so  many  thousand  miles  from 

i2 


BRITISH    AMERICA. 

its  mouth,  exceeded  the  most  exaggerated  accounts  they  had 
received  from  the  Indians.  They  floated  down  the  stream,  which 
was  deep,  smooth  and  seldom  rapid,  in  a  bark  canoe,  until  they 
arrived  at  some  villages  of  the  Illinois,  a  few  miles  below  the 
confluence  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri.  The  Illinois,  who 
had  heard  of,  but  never  before  seen  the  French,  seemed  anxious 
to  form  an  alliance  with  them,  and  they  treated  Marquette  and 
Joliet  with  great  hospitality.  Leaving  the  Illinois,  they  descended 
the  river  to  Arkansas,  or  about  thirty  degrees  north,  when  the 
exhausted  state  of  their  stock,  and  the  belief  that  the  river  dis- 
embogued in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  induced  them  to  return.  They 
ascended  the  Mississippi  to  the  point  where  it  receives  the  Illinois, 
up  which  they  proceeded,  and  then  crossed  the  country  to  Michi- 
gan, where  they  separated,  Marquette  remaining  among  the 
Miami s,  while  Joliet  proceeded  to  Quebec. 

Although  the  Mississippi  was  thus  discovered  by  way  of  Can- 
ada, yet  the  advantages  which  the  discovery  held  out  were  neg- 
lected for  some  time,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Father 
Marquette  and  the  return  of  M.  Joliet  to  France.  In  1678.  the 
Sieur  de  la  Salle,  accompanied  by  the  Chevalier  Tonti,  an  Italian, 
arrived  from  France.  He  had  previously  spent  some  years  in 
Canada,  where  he  maintained  a  favorable  understanding  with  M. 
de  Frontenac.  The  king  having  granted  him  the  seigniory  of 
Cataracony,  he  proceeded  thither  and  rebuilt  the  fort  with  stone. 
He  then  constructed  a  vessel  and  sailed  to  Niagara,  accompanied 
by  Tonti  and  Father  Hennepin,  a  Flemish  Recollet.  Here  they 
remained  during  the  winter,  attending  to  the  fur  trade ;  and  on 
the  following  summer,  they  built  a  vessel  for  navigating  Lake 
Erie.  They  sailed  up  that  lake,  and  proceeded  afterwards  by 
different  routes  to  Michilimakinak.  Hennepin  then  proceeded  to 
the  Illinois,  and  La  Salle  returned  to  Cataraqui.  Hennepin  was 
afterwards  despatched  to  the  Mississippi,  which  he  ascended  to 
the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  Three  years  were  spent  by  La  Salle, 
Tonti  and  Father  Hennepin,  in  exploring  these  extensive  regions 
and  endeavoring  to  secure  the  alliance  of  the  savages  and  the 
gains  of  the  fur  trade.  Their  sufferings  on  many  occasions  were 
exceedingly  severe,  and  the  difficult  situations  in  which  they 
frequently  found  themselves  among  the  Indian  tribes,  required 
extraordinary  address  and  resolution.  On  the  2d  of  February, 
1682,  La  Salle,  having  reached  the  Mississippi,  determined  on 
sailing  down  to  the  ocean.  On  the  4th  of  March,  he  reached 
Arkansas,  of  which  he  took  formal  possession;  and  on  the  9th 
of  April,  he  arrived  at  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  by  one  of  the  mouths 
by  which  the  Mississippi  passes  through  its  delta  to  the  sea.  He 


CANADA.  275 

returned  by  the  same  route  to  Canada;  but,  suffering  severely 
from  fatigue  and  sickness,  he  first  sent  Tonti  before  him,  with  the 
news  of  his  discovery. 

The  vast,  regions  explored  by  these  bold,  adventurous  men, 
watered  by  such  immense  rivers  as  the  Mississippi  and  its  magnif- 
icent tributaries,  although  for  some  years  closely  connected  with 
the  affairs  of  New  France,  do  not  claim  further  notice  in  this 
portion  of  our  history.  Their  great  importance,  as  a  part  of  the 
vast  empire  which  now  forms  the  American  Republic,  we  shall 
notice  when  treating  of  the  United  States. 

The  peace  of  Canada  still  continued  to  be  disturbed  by  various 
causes,  which  readily  excited  the  ferocious  spirit  of  the  Iroquois, 
and  which  involved  the  Hurons,  Algonquins  and  Abenaquis,  in 
the  wars  occasioned  by  their  suspicions,  or  by  the  jealousies  of 
the  French  and  English  colonists. 

During  the  war  which  ensued  between  England  and  France,  an 
expedition,  fitted  out  under  the  command  of  Sir  W.  Phipps,  sailed 
from  Boston  for  the  conquest  of  Quebec,  and  appeared  in  October, 
1690,  as  far  up  the  river  as  Tadousac,  before  its  destination  for 
Quebec  was  known.  The  defence  of  the  town  required  all  the 
vigilance  of  M.  de  Frontenac,  and  he  lost  no  time  in  placing  it  in  a 
fit  condition  to  stand  a  siege.  The  squadron,  consisting  of  thirty- 
four  vessels  of  different  descriptions,  with  seven  thousand  men 
on  board,  advanced  as  far  as  Beaufort,  when  Phipps  sent  a  flag 
of  truce  to  summon  the  town  to  surrender,  which  summons  was 
gallantly  rejected  by  M.  de  Frontenac.  On  the  18th,  the  English 
troops  disembarked  near  the  river  St.  Charles,  but  not  without 
great  loss  by  the  sharp  fire  from  the  French  musketry.  Four  of 
the  largest  ships,  which  anchored  opposite  the  town,  commenced  a 
bombardment;  but  the  fice  from  the  batteries  was  directed  with 
such  effect,  as  to  compel  these  vessels  to  remove  up  the  river, 
beyond  the  range  of  the  fortifications.  A  sharp  skirmish  took 
place  between  the  troops  next  day,  in  which  neither  side  appears 
to  have  obtained  much  advantage ;  and,  on.  the  20th,  an  action 
was  fought,  in  which  the  English  at  first  had  the  advantage,  and 
pursued  the  French  to  the  palisades  of  a  large  house,  but  here 
the  French  made  a  gallant  stand,  and  compelled  the  English  to 
retreat  towards  Beaufort,  from  which  place  they  reembarked  two 
days  after,  when  Sir  W.  Phipps  raised  the  siege,  and  sailed  with 
his  squadron  down  the  river  on  the  23d.  Seven  or  eight  of  his 
vessels  were  lost  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Before  Phipps  left  Boston,  it  was  arranged  that  a  strong  body 
of  troops  should  march  against  Montreal,  in  order  to  create  a 
division  in  the  French  forces.  This  was  prevented  by  the  defeo- 


BRITISH    AMERICA. 

lion  of  the  Iroquois ;  and  M.  de  Frontenac  was  consequently 
enabled  to  concentrate  all  his  strength  to  defend  Quebec.  This 
circumstance,  the  failure  of  ammunition,  and  the  approaching 
winter,  rendered  it  expedient  for  Phipps  to  abandon  the  enter- 
prise. 

In  the  following  year  the  Iroquois  renewed  their  depredations. 
About  one  thousand  warriors  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ottawa,  landed  on  the  Island  of  Montreal,  at  Point  au  Trembles, 
pillaged  and  burned  thirty  houses  and  barns,  and  carried  off  sev- 
eral prisoners,  whom  they  put  to  the  most  cruel  tortures.  Depre- 
dations and  cruelties  were  also  extended  to  many  of  the  other 
French  settlements;  and  various  skirmishes  took  place  between 
the  French  troops  and  the  Troquois,  in  which  great  numbers  on 
both  sides,  and  several  French  officers  of  rank  and  distinction, 
were  sacrificed.  The  French,  at  last,  treated  their  prisoners  with 
nearly  as  much  cruelty  as  was  practised  by  the  savages ;  and  M. 
de  Frontenac,  at  length,  by  the  unremitting  vigor  of  his  measures, 
secured  the  defence  of  the  colony  so  far  that,  in  1692,  the  inhabi- 
tants were  enabled  to  cultivate  their  lands.  The  commerce  in 
furs,  although  frequently  interrupted,  was  also  renewed  and  car- 
ried on  with  considerable  advantage. 

In  1695,  the  fort  at  Frontenac  was  rebuilt,  and  additional  se- 
curity extended  to  the  outposts  at  Michilimakinak  and  St.  Joseph. 
In  the  following  year  M.  de  Frontenac  made  an  expedition  to  the 
country  of  the  Iroquois.  and  without  proceeding  to  such  extremity 
as  his  force  empowered  him,  he  burnt  some  of  their  villages,  and 
liberated  a  number  of  French  prisoners.  Peace  was  concluded 
by  England  and  France  in  1698,  and  the  English  and  French 
governors  entered  mutually  into  arrangements  for  maintaining 
harmony  with  the  Indians.  Although  either  the  English  or  French, 
could  now  have  crushed  forever  the  power  of  the  Iroquois,  yet 
the  anxieties  manifested  by  each  government  to  conciliate  the 
regard  of  those  savages,  were  carried  to  an  extent  which  must 
have  greatly  flattered  those  people.  This  gave  them  an  opinion 
of  themselves  that  nothing  but  the  jealousies  of  the  English  and 
French  could  warrant,  and  which  the  savages  well  knew  how  to 
turn  to  their  own  advantage. 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  the  Iro- 
quois, Louis  Count  de  Frontenac  died,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year 
of  his  life,  twenty  of  which  he  had  spent  in  Canada,  where  his 
vigorous  administration  and  his  great  personal  abilities  preserved 
the  colony,  with  little  assistance  from  France,  and  always  secured 
to  him  the  confidence  of  the  king,  the  respect  of  his  officers,  even 
of  those  who  were  hostile  to  many  of  his  measures,  and  the 


CANADA.  277 

esteem  of  the  Indians.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Chevalier  de 
Callieres,  who  had  been  for  some  years  governor  of  Montreal, 
which  office  was  supplied  in  the  person  of  the  Chevalier  de  Vau- 
dreuil.  Some  difficulties  arose  soon  after  in  maintaining  a  good 
understanding  with  the  savages,  which  were  principally  occa- 
sioned by  the  English  governor;  but  the  address  of  the  French 
missionaries  gave  M.  de  Callieres  an  ascendant,  which  he  held 
with  great  tact  and  able  management,  until  his  death,  in  1703. 
His  loss  was  great  to  Canada ;  and  although  his  powers  of  mind 
wanted  the  splendid  points  that  cast  such  brilliant  lustre  on  the 
government  of  M.  de  Frontenac,  yet,  from  his  great  excellence  of 
character,  he  was  beloved  and  respected  by  all ;  and  having  never 
violated  his  word  to  the  Indians,  he  always  retained  their  implicit 
confidence. 

The  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil  was  then  appointed  to  the  chief 
command,  on  account  of  his  great  services  in  Canada,  and 
agreeably  also  to  the  unanimous  petition  of  the  inhabitants  to 
the  king.  The  Indian  tribes,  among  whom  jealousies  were  fo- 
mented by  the  English,  and  by  numerous  murders  among  them- 
selves, occasioned  much  embarrassment  in  the  affairs  of  Canada, 
during  the  administration  of  M.  de  Vaudreuil.  He,  however, 
managed  to  prevent  the  colonists  from  being  molested,  and  the 
trade  and  cultivation  of  the  country  continued  to  improve  and 
prosper. 

England  and  France  being  again  at  war,  an  expedition  was 
sent,  in  1 709,  from  New  York,  which  was  joined  by  a  great  body 
of  Iroquois  and  Mahingans.  M.  de  Ramsey,  with  one  thousand 
regular  troops,  together  with  a  body  of  militia  and  savages,  were 
sent  to  intercept  them ;  but  the  want  of  confidence  in  this  com- 
mander, or  some  jealous  feelings  entertained  by  the  other  officers, 
rendered  the  expedition  fruitless,  and  it  returned  to  Montreal  with 
a  few  prisoners  only.  M.  de  Vaudreuil,  however,  lost  no  time  in 
putting  Quebec  in  a  proper  state  of  defence,  and  took  every  pre- 
caution, by  strengthening  the  outposts,  to  prevent  the  English 
entering  Canada. 

The  English  were  at  this  time  fully  confident»of  success;  but 
the  policy  of  an  Iroquois  chief  not  only  blasted  the  hopes  they  had 
reasonably  entertained,  but  subjected  the  army  to  the  most  severe 
distress.  While  the  Iroquois  warriors  were  exulting  in  the  pros- 
pect of  entirely  destroying  the  French,  this  crafty  leader,  to  whom 
they  had  always  listened  with  respect  and  deference,  said  to  his 
people,  "  Ah !  but  I  have  been  considering  what  will  become  of 
us,  if  we  destroy  the  French,  who  keep  the  English  in  checK. 
The  latter  will  then  assuredly  crush  us  in,  order  to  possess  our 
24 


278  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

country.  Let  us  not,  therefore,  foolishly  bring  certain  ruin  upon 
ourselves,  merely  to  indulge  our  passions  or  to  please  the  English 
Let  us  rather  leave  the  French  and  English  in  a  position  which 
will  make  either  of  them  set  a  high  value  on  our  friendship." 
This  was  their  former  and  favorite  system ;  but  as  they  considered 
it  shameful  to  desert  the  English  openly,  they  concluded  on  effect- 
ing their  purpose  by  enveloping  their  treachery  under  the  most 
profound  secrecy  and  diabolical  cruelty.  "The  lawless  savages," 
says  Raynal,  "  the  religious  Hebrews,  the  wise  and  warlike 
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  a  word,  all  people,  whether  civilized  or 
not,  have  always  made  what  is  called  the  rights  of  nations  to 
consist  in  craft  or  violence." 

The  English  army  halted  on  the  banks  of  a  small  river,  where 
they  encamped  and  waited  for  the  artillery  and  ammunition, 
which  were  following  at  a  slower  rate  than  the  march  of  the 
main  body  of  the  troops.  The  Iroquois,  who,  in  the  meantime, 
spent  their  leisure  hours  in  hunting,  flayed  all  the  animals  they 
killed,  and  sunk  their  skins  in  the  river,  a  little  above  the  English 
camp.  The  English,  who  had  no  suspicion  of  the  fatal  treachery, 
continued  to  drink  of  the  poisoned  water,  and  such  numbers  were 
carried  off  in  consequence,  that  it  soon  became  necessary  to  sus- 
pend all  military  operations.  They  were,  therefore,  compelled  to 
return  to  New  York,  where  they  learned  that  the  destination  of 
the  fleet,  which  was  to  proceed  with  troops  to  besiege  Quebec, 
was  changed,  and  that  they  were  ordered  to  Lisbon,  to  protect 
Portugal  from  the  Spaniards. 

Soon  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  the  English  built  a  fort  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Ontario,  which  secured  them  a  great  share  of  the 
fur  trade.  The  French,  also,  rebuilt  the  fort  at  Niagara,  and 
strengthened  their  garrison  at  Detroit,  which  commanded  the 
great  line  of  intercourse  in  their  dealings  with  the  Indians  of  the 
west,  as  well  as  the  track  of  communication  with  Louisiana,  the 
Illinois  and  the  Mississippi,  which  was  frequently  interrupted  by 
the  warlike  Antigamis,  and  their  allies  the  Sioux  and  Chickasaws. 
M.  de  Vaudreuil,  at  length,  brought  these  savages  to  pacific  over- 
tures; and  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  population  of  the  French 
settlements  and  strengthening  the  garrison,  he  proposed  that  one 
hundred  and  fifty  of  the  convicts  which  were  condemned  in 
France  to  the  galleys,  should  be  annually  sent  to  Canada.  At 
this  period,  (1714,)  there  were  no  more  than  four  thousand  five 
hundred  men,  from  fourteen  to  sixty  years  of  age,  able  to  bear 
arms,  in  all  Canada.,  while  the  English  colonies  could  raise  about 
sixty  thousand. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

General  stale  of  Canada. — Indian  massacres. —  Wolfe's  expedition. —  Capture  of 
Quebec  by  the  British. — Submission  of  the  whole  province  to  the  British. — 
Government  adopted  for  Canada. — The  British  constitution  introduced  into 
Canada. — Mai-administration. — Disaffection  of  the  Canadians. — Demand  for 
reforms. — Insurrection  of  1837. — The  American  "sympathizers." — Affair  of 
the  steamboat  Caroline. — Lord  Durham  appointed  governor. — Battle  of  Odell- 
town. — Declaration  of  independence. — Battle  of  Prescott. — Incursion  of  the 
sympathizers  at  Sandwich. —  The  insurrection  suppressed. — Affair  of  WLeod. 


Farm  in  Canada. 

CANADA  enjoyed  a  long  period  of  tranquillity  under  the  adminis- 
trations of  DeVaudreuil,  and  Beauharnois,  Galissoniere,  Jonquiere, 
Longneil  and  Du  Q.uesnc,  his  successors.  In  1755,  the  Sieur  de 
Vaudreuil  Cavagnal  assumed  the  government.  The  origin  of  the 
war,  which  broke  out  at  this  period  between  England  and  France, 
will  be  related  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Canada  was 
soon  menaced  with  hostilities.  The  defeat  of  Braddock  took  place 
in  1755,  and  the  following  year  the  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  who  had 
arrived  in  Canada  from  France,  with  a  strong  force,  destroyed  the 
English  fort  of  Oswego,  the  outworks  of  Fort  George,  and  a 
flotilla,  designed  to  attack  Crown  Point.  Fort  George  was  cap- 
tured by  the  French  and  Indians  the  year  after,  and  two  thou- 
sand people  were  massacred  by  the  savages,  under  the  command 
of  Montcalm.  This  outrage,  instead  of  striking  a  terror  into  the 
British  and  Americans,  aroused  them  to  resistance,  and  led  the 
way  to  a  series  of  vigorous  military  operations,  which,  in  a  short 
space  of  time,  resulted  in  the  total  overthrow  of  the  French 


280  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

power  in  North  America.  A  grand  scheme  was  projected  for  the 
conquest  of  Canada,  by  attacking  Quebec,  Fort  Niagara,  Ticori- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point.  The  army  despatched  against  Quebec 
was  placed  under  the  command  of  General  Wolfe;  the  fleet 
designed  for  the  same  service  was  commanded  by  Admiral 
Saunders.  General  Amherst  marched  against  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point,  and  Sir  William  Johnson,  who  succeeded  General 
Prideaux,  against  Niagara. 

In  the  month  of  June,  1759,  the  English  fleet  reached  the 
island  of  Orleans,  where  Wolfe  landed  with  an  army  of  eight 
thousand.  The  French  disposable  forces,  exclusive  of  the  garri- 
son of  Quebec,  consisted  of  about  ten  thousand  men,  with  a 
reserve  of  two  thousand.  Wolfe  first  attempted  the  entrench- 
ments of  Montmorenci,  landing  his  troops  under  cover  of  the  fire 
from  the  ships  of  war;  but  he  was  gallantly  repulsed  by  the 
French.  After  some  delay,  it  was  determined  to  effect  a  landing 
so  as  to  carry  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  above  Quebec.  This 
daring  resolution  was  effected  on  the  12th  of  September,  with 
surprising  secrecy  and  intrepidity.  The  ships  of  war  sailed  nine 
miles  up  the  river,  above  Quebec,  to  Cape  Rouge.  This  feint 
deceived  M.  Bourgainville,  who,  with  his  division  of  the  French 
army,  proceeded  still  farther  up  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  to 
prevent  the  British  debarking.  During  the  night  the  English 
ships  dropped  down  silently  with  the  current  to  Wolfe:s  Cove,  and 
at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  troops  began  to  land.  At 
eight,  the  British  army  ascended  the  precipitous  heights,  with 
two  field-pieces  in  front;  the  forty-eighth  regiment  and  the  light 
infantry  forming  a  reserve,  and  the  royal  Americans  covering  the 
landing. 

The  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  who  was  then  at  Beauport,  marched 
across  the  St.  Charles  on  the  13th,  and  imprudently  formed  in 
front  of  the  British  army,  with  only  one  field-piece,  and  before  he 
could  concentrate  all  his  disposable  forces.  He  then  advanced 
most  gallantly ;  but  the  scattered,  quick  firing  of  the  troops,  which 
commenced  when  within  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards  of 
the  English  line,  was  far  from  being  so  effective  as  that  of  the 
British.  The  latter  moved  forward  regularly,  firing  steadily, 
until  within  twenty  or  thirty  yards  of  the  enemy,  when  they  gave 
a  general  volley,  and  the  French  were  soon  after  routed.  Bour- 
gainville had  just  then  appeared  in  sight,  but  the  fate  of  Canada 
was  decreed, — the  critical  moment  was  gone, — and  he  retired  to 
Point  au  Trembles,  where  he  encamped,  and  from  thence  he 
retreated  to  Three  Rivers  and  Montreal.  There  was  also  a  body 
of  French  troops  near  Beauport,  which  were  not  engaged.  Had 


CANADA.  281 

all  the  forces  been  concentrated  under  Montcalm,  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  heroism  of  the  British  troops  could  have  secured  the  victory. 
The  most  extraordinary  bravery  was  displayed  both  by  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  French.  Both  armies  lost  their  commanders. 
Wolfe  expired  with  victory  accompanying  the  close  of  his  splen- 
did career.  At  the  age  of  thirty-five,  when  but  few  men  begin 
even  to  appear  on  the  theatre  of  great  deeds,  inheriting  no  family 
pretensions,  and  unassisted  by  faction  or  intrigue,  he  held  a  com- 
mand of  the  highest  responsibility,  and  with  a  truly  unblemished 
character,  fulfilled  the  most  sanguine  expectations  of  his  country. 

The  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  an  officer  of  equal  bravery,  died  of 
his  wounds  a  few  days  after.  Quebec  capitulated  on  the  18th,  to 
General  Murray,  who  succeeded  to  the  command.  He,  however, 
committed  a  most  egregious  error  sometime  afterwards,  by  leaving 
Quebec  to  attack  M.  Levi,  who  was  encamped  with  the  French 
army  at  Sillery,  and  who  completely  defeated  General  Murray, 
and  compelled  him  to  retire  within  the  walls  of  Quebec,  with  the 
loss  of  his  artillery  and  nearly  one  third  of  his  army. 

The  fort  at  Niagara  was  in  the  meantime  reduced  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Johnston,  and  the  forts  at  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  by 
General  Amherst.  They  were  consequently  enabled  to  concen- 
trate their  forces  and  form  a  junction  with  General  Murray. 
Previously  to  this,  on  learning  that  the  English  fleet  was  in  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  that  the  armament  sent  from  France  to  relieve 
Quebec  was  captured  in  the  Bay  de  Chaleur,  by  a  squadron  from 
Louisburg  .under  Captain  Byron,  the  French  forces  retreated 
to  Montreal,  where  the  governor-general,  M.  de  Vaudreuil,  deter- 
mined to  make  a  desperate  stand.  Being,  however,  invested  by 
the  united  forces  of  the  three  British  generals,  he  found  further 
resistance  useless,  and  capitulated  on  the  8th  of  September,  1760. 
when  Montreal  and  all  the  French  fortresses  in  Canada  were 
surrendered  to  Great  Britain.  The  peace  of  1762  secured  the 
permanent  possession  of  Canada  to  that  nation. 

An  attempt  was  made  at  first  to  give  an  English  form  of  gov- 
ernment to  Canada,  but  this  policy  was  changed  at  the  period  of 
the  American  revolution,  and  care  was  then  taken  to  separate 
Canada  as  much  as  possible  from  the  other  British  colonies,  by  a 
close  observance  of  French  usages.  In  1791,  however,  through 
the  exertions  of  Mr.  Pitt,  a  constitution  was  established,  similar  in 
general  spirit  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  with  legislative  bodies  con- 
sisting partly  of  hereditary  and  partly  of  representative  members. 
There  appears  to  have  been  considerable  mal-administration  from 
the  beginning,  and  the  Canadians  were  uttering  constant  com- 
plaints. Nothing  particularly  worthy  of  attention  occurred  for  a 
24*  32 


282  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

long  period,  except  the  events  connected  with  the  war  of  the  rev- 
olution and  that  of  1812,  which  are  reserved  for  the  history  of  the 
United  States. 

Great  uneasiness  began  to  manifest  itself  among  the  Canadians 
in  1834.  Complaints  against  the  authority  of  the  council  which 
was  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  the  oppressive  action  of  the  law 
of  tenures,  showed  the  deep  dissatisfaction  of  the  people  with  the 
government.  These  grievances  increased  from  year  to  year ;  the 
legislature  became  involved  in  altercations  with  the  governor ;  the 
English  cry  of  "  Reform"  was  raised  in  Canada,  and,  in  1837,  the 
Canadian  House  of  Assembly  boldly  protested  against  the  arbi- 
trary conduct  of  the  British  government,  and  declared  that  they 
should  suspend  their  deliberations  till  the  proposed  reforms  were 
effected.  The  French  population,  particularly,  were  enthusiastic 
in  their  opposition  to  the  British  government,  and  one  of  their 
class,  Papineau,  distinguished  himself  above  all  others  of  the 
reform  party  in  the  legislature.  Towards  the  end  of  1837,  the 
disaffection  had  risen  to  an  alarming  height.  The  troops  were 
put  in  preparation  for  a  popular  outbreak,  and  reinforcements 
ordered  from  Halifax.  A  great  popular  meeting  of  the  French 
patriots  was  held  at  St.  Charles,  in  the  county  of  Richelieu,  and 
many  attended  with  arms.  They  set  up  a  pole,  surmounted  by  a 
cap  of  liberty;  Papineau  and  other  popular  orators  addressed 
them ;  patriotic  hymns  were  sung,  and  the  whole  assembly  took 
an  oath  to  devote  themselves  to  their  country.  This  was  the 
signal  for  open  insurrection.  Acts  of  violence  soon  followed,  and 
many  arrests  were  made.  A  troop  of  cavalry,  escorting  a  number 
of  prisoners,  was  attacked  and  put  to  the  rout  by  the  insurgents. 
The  disturbances  extended  from  the  city  of  Montreal  to  the 
Niagara  frontier.  The  revolutionary  forces  were  much  augmented 
by  bands  of  adventurers,  or  "  sympathizers,"  from  the  United 
States.  This  caused  much  ill  blood  between  the  two  nations,  and 
led  to  an  affair  which  threatened  to  involve  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  in  war.  A  body  of  the  revolutionists  had  encamped 
on  Navy  Island,  in  the  River  Niagara,  just  above  the  falls.  A 
steamboat  called  the  Caroline,  belonging  to  an  American,  had 
been  employed  in  making  trips  between  the  American  shore  and 
this  island.  On  the  night  of  the  29th  of  December,  1837,  while 
the  Caroline  was  lying  at  Schlosser,  within  the  limits  of  the  state 
of  New  York,  she  was  boarded  by  an  armed  party  of  British,  set 
on  fire,  and  sent  over  the  cataract.  One  of  her  crew  was  killed. 
This  occurrence  became  the  subject  of  a  long  correspondence 
between  the  American  and  British  governments,  which  we  shall 
advert  to  more  particularly  in  its  place. 


CANADA.  283 

The  British  had  a  strong  military  force  in  Canada,  and  the 
attempts  at  insurrection,  in  1837,  were  quickly  suppressed.  Papi- 
neau  and  other  leaders  fled  the  country ;  others  were  arrested.  In 
1838,  Lord  Durham  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Canada; 
but  before  he  could  reach  his  government,  the  insurrectionary 
movements  had  recommenced.  On  the  30th  of  May,  a  body  of 
persons,  principally  from  the  American  border,  captured  and  burnt 
the  British  steamboat  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  Acts 
of  hostility  against  the  government  now  began  to  multiply,  not- 
withstanding the  most  strenuous  exertions  made  by  the  troops  to 
suppress  them.  An  insurrection  at  Montreal  was  projected,  but 
the  plot  was  discovered  in  season ;  the  leaders  were  arrested,  and 
guards  placed  all  over  the  city.  The  country,  however,  was  now 
rising.  On  the  6th  of  November,  four  thousand  of  the  insurgents 
collected  at  Napierville,  but  withdrew  on  the  approach  of  a  strong 
British  force.  A  body  of  sympathizers,  on  their  march  to  join 
them,  were  attacked  and  defeated  by  the  British,  with  the  loss  of 
several  killed,  three  hundred  stand  of  arms,  and  a  field-piece 
taken.  On  the  9th,  a  battle  was  fought  at  Odelltown,  where  a 
body  of  nine  hundred  insurgents  attacked  the  royalists,  who  were 
posted  in  a  church ;  the  former  were  repulsed,  with  the  loss  of  one 
hundred  killed  and  wounded. 

Early  in  November,  a  meeting  of  fourteen  thousand  persons, 
principally  of  the  French  population,  was  held  near  Montreal. 
A  declaration  of  independence  was  issued,  and  various  reforms 
proclaimed ;  among  others,  the  abolition  of  feudal  tenures  and  the 
confiscation  of  the  crown  lands.  On  the  12th,  a  force  of  five  hun- 
dred sympathizers  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the  American 
shores,  and  landed  at  Prescott,  in  Upper  Canada.  The  British 
had  three  armed  steamboats  and  a  strong  force  of  regulars, 
marines  and  militia,  at  that  place.  The  invaders  took  possession 
of  a  stone  building  and  a  windmill.  The  British  attacked  them, 
but  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter,  and  drew  off  to  a  place  of 
safety.  Four  days  afterwards,  the  British  received  a  strong  rein- 
forcement of  troops,  with  heavy  artillery.  The  attack  was  now 
repeated,  and  after  repeated  assaults,  which  continued  till  near 
night,  the  sympathizers  were  defeated,  and  two  hundred  and 
forty  of  them  taken  prisoners.  In  the  meantime,  the  sympathizers 
extended  their  incursions  as  far  as  the  Detroit  frontier.  On  the 
4th  of  December,  a  body  of  four  hundred  landed  at  Sandwich  and 
burnt  a  steamboat  and  the  military  barracks.  The  president  of 
the  United  States  issued  his  proclamation,  calling  upon  the  mili- 
tary and  civil  authorities  and  all  good  citizens  to  use  their  utmost 
endeavors  to  suppress  these  lawless  irruptions ;  but  from  the  great 


284  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

extent  of  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  the  small  force  maintained  at 
the  military  posts,  such  proceedings  could  not  be  wholly  prevented. 

All  the  attempts  of  the  insurgents,  however,  proved  unavailing; 
the  rebellion  was  crushed  by  the  vigilance  and  activity  of  the 
Canadian  government,  and  the  prisoners  were  put  upon  their  trial. 
Many  were  executed,  but  the  greater  part  were  transported  to 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  where  they  remain  to  the  present  day.  Lord 
Durham  resigned  his  office,  and  soon  after,  the  British  parliament 
united  the  two  provinces  of  Canada  into  one.  The  new  govern- 
ment went  into  operation  in  February,  1841. 

During  this  year  the  amicable  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  seriously  threatened,  by  an  occur- 
rence which  grew  out  of  the  affair  of  the  steamboat  Caroline.  In 
January,  1841,  a  British  resident  in  Canada,  named  M'Leod, 
while  on  a  visit  to  the  state  of  New  York,  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned at  Lockport,  on  a  charge  of  having  been  concerned  in 
that  affair.  The  British  cabinet  now,  for  the  first  time,  avowed 
the  act  of  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline,  and  their  minister  at 
Washington  called  upon  the  American  government  for  the  imme- 
diate liberation  of  M'Leod,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  not  respon- 
sible for  his  conduct  when  acting  under  orders  from  his  superior. 
The  American  secretary  of  state  replied  that  M'Leod's  offence  was 
one  committed  against  the  laws  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
that  the  federal  authority  could  not  interfere.  Much  more  cor- 
respondence ensued,  and  the  subject  caused  great  excitement  both 
in  the  United  States  and  England.  M'Leod  was  indicted  for 
murder  at  Utica  in  New  York,  and  the  announcement  of  this 
proceeding  caused  great  indignation  and  threats  of  war  in  Eng- 
land. The  borders  of  Canada  were  again  menaced  with  distur- 
bances, and  during  the  progress  of  the  trial,  a  party  of  royal 
dragoons  crossed  the  Vermont  line,  made  prisoner  of  an  American 
citizen,  and  carried  him  off  into  Canada.  The  governor,  however, 
instantly  disavowed  this  act,  and  set  the  prisoner  at  liberty.  The 
trial  of  M'Leod  took  place  at  Utica,  and  after  the  examination  of 
a  great  number  of  witnesses,  it  was  fully  proved  that  he  had  no 
share  in  the  destruction  of  the  Caroline.  On  this  ground,  he  was 
acquitted,  and  allowed  to  return  to  Canada  unmolested.  Since 
this  period  nothing  has  happened  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the 
province. 


CHAPTER   XXX. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  discovered  by  Cabot. — Expedition  of  De  Monts. — Settlement  ou  the 
•St.  Johns. — Port  Royal. — Labors  of  Polnncourt. — Settlement  of  the  French  at 
Mount  Desert. — The  English  attack  the  Acadian  settlements,  and  expel  the 
French. — Attempt  of  Sir  William  Alexander  to  colonize  the  country  with 
English. — The  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia. —  The  country  restored  to  France. — 
La  Tour's  colony. — Heroism  and  tragical  fate  of  Madame  La  Tour. — Nova 
Scotia  subjected  by  the  arms  of  Cromwell. — Expedition  of  Phipps  against  Port 
Royal. — The  country  again  ceded  to  the  French. — Expedition  of  Colonel  Church 
against  Nova  Scotia. — Final  acquisition  of  the  country  by  Great  Britain. 


Discovery  of  Nova  Scotia. 

THE  discovery  of  Nova  Scotia  by  Cabot,  in  1497,  and  the  pos- 
session taken  of  Newfoundland  by  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  and 
afterwards  of  the  continent  by  his  brother,  Sir  John,  form  the 
foundation  of  right  by  which  England  claimed  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  adjacent  countries.  The  spirit  of  colonizing  it,  however, 
seems  to  have  languished  on  the  part  of  the  English.  It  was 
otherwise  with  France.  De  Monts,  a  French  Protestant,  and  a 
gentleman  of  enterprising,  resolute  spirit,  obtained  a  commission, 
in  1603,  from  Henry  IV.,  of  France,  constituting  him  governor  of 
all  the  countries  of  America,  from  forty  to  forty-six  degrees  north, 
under  the  name  of  New  France,  which  included  Nova  Scotia,  then 
and  long  after  called  Acadia.  Several  French  adventurers  having 
previously  visited  Acadia  and  Canada,  the  vast  profits  they  real- 


286  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

ized  by  bartering  European  commodities  for  furs,  created  at  that 
time  an  extraordinary  spirit  of  enterprise  among  the  French 
merchants ;  and,  as  De  Monts  had,  by  his  charter,  secured  a 
monopoly  of  the  fur  trade,  a  great  number  of  the  wealthy  men 
readily  associated  themselves  with  him.  They  soon  equipped 
and  fitted  out  four  ships,  loaded  with  all  necessary  stores  and 
suitable  goods;  and  in  March,  1604,  they  sailed  from  Havre. 
De  Monts  having  the  chief  command,  accompanied  by  Samuel 
Ohamptain,  the  celebrated  navigator  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  as 
pilot,  and  Potrincourt  and  Champdore,  with  numerous  volunteer 
adventurers.  De  Monts  arrived,  on  the  15th  of  May,  at  the  har- 
bor in  Nova  Scotia,  which  now  bears  the  name  of  Liverpool, 
where  he  found  a  French  adventurer,  named  Rossignol,  trading 
without  commission  for  furs  with  the  Indians.  He  confiscated 
this  man's  property,  naming  the  harbor  Port  Rossignol,  as  if  to 
console  him,  for  the  loss  of  his  wealth,  by  this  mark  of  honor. 
From  this  place  De  Monts  coasted  westward  to  Port  Morton, 
where  he  landed  and  formed  an  encampment. 

De  Monts  soon  after  despatched  a  ship  to  Tadousac,  a  spacious 
harbor  on  the  north  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Saghunny.  The  other  two  vessels  were  ordered  to  cruise 
along  the  shores  of  Cape  Breton  and  the  island  of  St.  John,  and 
off  the  coast  of  Acadia,  within  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  in 
order  to  prevent  unauthorized  adventurers  from  trading  with  the 
natives.  De  Monts,  in  the  ship  immediately  under  his  command, 
then  proceeded  westerly  and  sailed  into  St.  Mary's  Bay,  where 
he  discovered  iron  ore.  He  traversed  the  coasts  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  which  he  called  La  Baie  FranQoise;  and,  by  the  narrow 
strait  now  called  Digby  Gut,  on  the  east  side,  entered  a  beautiful 
and  extensive  basin,  with  which,  and  the  surrounding  prairies  and 
luxuriant  woods,  Potrincourt  was  so  much  charmed  as  to  select 
it  for  his  place  of  settlement.  He,  accordingly,  received  a  grant 
of  it  from  De  Monts,  named  it  Port  Royal,  and  soon  after  returned 
to  France,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  his  family  and  the 
means  of  establishing  himself  in  Acadia. 

De  Monts,  meantime,  discovered,  on  the  festival  of  St.  John,  a 
large  river,  which  he  named  after  that  saint.  He  afterward  sailed 
southward  till  he  came  to  the  river  now  called  St.  Croix.  On  a 
small  island  at  the  entrance  of  this  river,  they  commenced  form- 
ing a  settlement,  by  clearing  some  acres  of  land,  building  a  maga- 
zine, a  place  of  worship,  several  houses,  and  erecting  a  fort  and 
battery.  This  place  had,  however,  scarcely  any  advantage  to 
recommend  it,  except  its  being  easily  defended.  It  was  most  im- 
providentty  chosen,  as  it  afforded  neither  fresh  water  nor  proper 


NOVA    SCOTIA.  287 

\ 

fuel  for  winter,  nor  was  it  the  haunt  of  game.  Out  of  the 
whole  number  of  seventy-six,  which  formed  De  Monts'  colony, 
thirty-seven  were  carried  off  by  scurvy,  produced  by  living  on 
salt  meat  and  having  no  water  but  what  was  procured  by  melting 
snow. 

When  the  winter  broke  up,  De  Monts,  after  examining  the  coast 
as  far  as  Cape  Cod,  in  search  of  a  more  fit  place  for  settlement, 
resolved  on  abandoning  St.  Croix,  and  removing  altogether,  along 
with  Pontgrave,  who  had  then  arrived  with  supplies  from  Europe, 
to  Port  Royal.  In  this  place  they  soon  established  themselves, 
and,  with  the  usual  success  of  the  French  in  negotiating  with  the 
savages,  secured  the  friendship  of  the  Indians.  De  Monts  sailed 
for  Prance  in  autumn,  leaving  Pontgrave,  Champdore  and  Cham- 
plain,  in  command  of  the  colony. 

In  May  following,  De  Monts  and  Potrincourt  sailed  from  France, 
and  after  a  tedious  passage,  reached  Canseau,  from  whence  he  de- 
spatched a  party  of  Indians  to  communicate  his  arrival  to  the 
settlers  at  Port  Royal.  Pontgrave  had  previously  attempted  to 
explore  the  coast  south  of  Cape  Cod,  agreeably  to  the  instructions 
of  De  Monts,  but  was  driven  back  and  shipwrecked  near  the 
entrance  of  Port  Royal.  In  consequence  of  this  disaster,  he  built 
two  small  vessels,  and  putting  all  he  could  on  board  of  them, 
and  leaving  two  volunteers  in  charge  of  the  remaining  stores,  he 
then  proceeded  to  Canseau,  before  the  arrival  of  the  messengers 
from  De  Monts,  but  returned  on  meeting  with  a  boat's  crew 
which  De  Monts  had  left  at  that  place. 

It  was  considered  that,  notwithstanding  the  energy  of  De  Monts, 
the  settlements  of  Port  Royal  would  have  been  unsuccessful,  were 
it  not  for  measures  pointed  out  by  Lescarbot,  a  gentleman  bred  to 
the  law,  but  who,  from  personal  attachment,  accompanied  Potrin- 
court. He  showed  the  urgent  necessity  of  importing  and  breed- 
ing domestic  cattle,  and  of  cultivating  the  soil,  in  order  to  become 
independent  of  the  Indians  for  food,  or  of  receiving  supplies  of 
provisions  from  Europe.  The  settlers  would  then,  he  contended, 
be  more  secure  in  trading  with  the  natives,  by  living  more  com- 
pactly, and  not  subjected  to  chance  for  the  means  of  procuring  food. 

De  Monts  left  Acadia  for  France,  in  August,  1606.  Still  anxious 
to  establish  a  colony  further  south,  he  despatched  Potrincourt,  in 
another  vessel,  to  explore  the  country  to  the  southward  of  Cape 
Cod;  but  this,  like  his  former  voyage,  was  quite  unsuccessful, 
and  he  returned  to  Port  Royal  in  November,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  joy,  friendship  and  respect,  by  Pontgrave, 
Lescarbot  and  Champlain.  The  winter  being  remarkably  mild 
and  the  spring  early,  these  respectable  adventurers  appear,  from 


283  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

Lescarbot's  account,  to  have  passed  their  time  most  agreeably  and 
socially.  At  their  principal  mess-table,  Pontgrave,  Champlain, 
Lescarbot,  and  twelve  others,  dined,  taking  upon  them  the  offices 
of  president  and  caterer,  in  daily  rotation.  They  diverted  them- 
selves in  making  short  hunting  excursions,  and  in  employing  their 
people  in  building  two  small  shallops,  and  in  erecting  a  mill. 
After  waiting,  however,  a  long  time  for  the  arrival  of  De  Monts 
with  supplies  from  France,  a  vessel  at  last  appeared  from  Can- 
seau,  bringing  only  a  few  provisions  and  stores,  and  the  mortify- 
ing information  that  the  charter  of  De  Monts  was  revoked,  in 
consequence  of  the  remonstrances  made  against  it  by  the  French 
merchants,  and  that  he  was  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  re- 
linquishing all  connexion  with  Acadia. 

The  highminded  Potrincourt,  distressed,  but  not  disheartened, 
at  this  intelligence,  received  at  a  time  when  the  colony  was  so  far 
established,  that  nothing  but  a  substantial  right  to  the  soil  and 
some  further  assistance  in  the  way  of  supplies,  were  necessary 
to  ensure  its  prosperity  and  permanency,  resolved  to  return  to 
France,  for  the  purpose,  if  possible,  of  obtaining  both.  He  did 
not  leave  Acadia,  however,  until  he  was  enabled  to  carry  with 
him  samples  of  wheat  and  other  agricultural  produce,  some  native 
animals  and  several  specimens  of  minerals,  which,  on  his  arrival 
in  France,  he  presented  to  the  king.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
grant  of  Port  Royal,  encumbered,  however,  with  a  stipulation  to 
provide  for  two  Jesuits,  who  were  to  accompany  him  for  the  con- 
version of  the  savages.  This  condition  was  exceedingly  disa- 
greeable to  such  a  spirit  as  that  of  Potrincourt;  and  soon  after  his 
arrival  at  Port  Royal,  he  did  not  scruple  to  let  them  know  his 
determination  to  exclude  them  from  all  interference  with  his 
affairs.  He  justly  told  them  "that  their  duty  was  limited  t'o 
teaching  men  the  way  to  heaven,  and  that  it  remained  for  him 
to  govern  and  direct  those  under  him  on  earth."  Potrincourt. 
who,  unwisely,  though  honestly,  despised  them,  made  their 
situation  far  from  agreeable;  and  their  repeated  complaints 
against  him  and  his  son,  Biencourt,  were  apparently  terminated 
by  the  arrival  of  a  vessel,  despatched  in  1613,  by  their  patroness, 
a  pious  lady,  of  the^  name  of  De  Gaucherville.  This  ship,  having 
on  board  two  priests  and  some  emigrants,  carried  away  the  two 
Jesuits  from  Port  Royal;  and,  sailing  out  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
they  fixed  on  the  island  of  Mount  Desert,  lying  a  few  miles  north 
of  Penobscot  Bay,  as  a  proper  situation  for  a  settlement.  Here 
they  commenced  by  erecting  a  cross,  setting  up  the  arms  of  their 
lady  patroness,  and  naming  the  place  St.  Saviour's. 

While  proceeding  rapidly  with  their  buildings  and  improve- 


NOVA    SCOTIA.  289 

merits,  they  were  surprised  by  an  English  ship-of-war  from  Vir- 
ginia, commanded  by  Captain  Argall,  who  pillaged  the  place  and 
compelled  them  to  surrender  as  prisoners  of  war,  for  having  en- 
croached upon  and  settled  within  the  English  limits.  One  of  the 
Jesuits  was  shot  through  the  head,  while  urging  the  settlers  to 
defend  themselves;  two  ships  that  lay  at  anchor  were  seized,  in 
one  of  which  most  of  the  prisoners  were  sent  to  France;  the  others 
were  carried  to  Virginia.  This  affair  led  to  the  fitting  out  of  an 
armament  from  Virginia,  commanded  by  Argall,  for  the  purpose 
of  dislodging  the  French  settled  in  Acadia.  Argall,  piloted  by 
the  Jesuit,  Beart,  who  thirsted  for  revenge  against  his  persecutor, 
Potrincourt,  proceeded  to  Port  Royal,  now  commanded  by  Bien- 
court,  the  son  of  Potrincourt,  and  destroyed  the  fort,  but  spared 
the  mills  and  cornfields.  Biencourt  attempted  to  treat  with  him, 
offering  Argall  an  equal  share  in  the  trade,  if  he  could  obtain  the 
protection  of  England,  and  the  person  of  the  hated  Jesuit ;  but  the 
conference  ended  by  some  of  the  French  associating  themselves 
xvith  the  savages,  others  leaving  the  place  for  Quebec,  to  join 
Ohamplain,  and  by  those  who  surrendered  being  sent  to  England. 

This  outrageous  proceeding  of  Argall,  during  a  time  of  pro- 
found peace  between  England  and  France,  cannot  be  defended  on 
the  slightest  ground  of  justice;  and  it  maybe  safely  assigned 
principally  to  the  thirst  for  plunder,  and  partly  to  religious  bigotry. 
By  this  unwarrantable  waste,  robbery  and  violation  of  private 
property,  to  which  force  alone  gave  authority,  the  first  settlement 
made  in  Acadia  was  destroyed  in  1613  or  1615,  after  prospering 
for  eight  or  ten  years,  and  without  experiencing  a  share  of  that 
ferocious  opposition  from  the  savages,  which  proved  so  dreadfully 
fatal  to  the  early  attempts  of  the  English  at  colonization. 

Although  the  French  settlements  in  Acadia  were  destroyed,  the 
country  was  neglected  by  England  until  1621,  when  Sir  William 
Alexander  obtained  a  grant  of  the  whole  territory  called  Acadia, 
from  James  I.,  and  the  name  of  the  country  was  changed  to  that 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Sir  William  was  an  accomplished  gentleman,  of 
high  literary  attainments,  the  author  of  several  tragedies,  and 
well  known  at  the  court  of  James  I.,  who  afterwards  appointed 
him  a  secretary  of  state,  and  created  him  a  baron,  with  the  title 
of  Viscount  Stirling.  During  the  summer  which  followed  the 
date  of  his  patent,  Sir  William  Alexander  despatched  a  vessel, 
with  a  small  colony,  for  Nova  Scotia,  which,  owing  to  delay  and 
a  long  passage,  was  forced  to  winter  at  Newfoundland.  This 
ship  proceeded  on  her  voyage  in  the  spring,  visited  a  few  harbors 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  then  returned  to  England,  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  establish  a  settlement.  A  most  Utopian 
25  K2 


290  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

account  of  the  country  and  climate  was  published  from  the  de- 
cnptions  of  those  who  performed  this  voyage. 

From  the  time  Port  Royal  was  destroyed,  to  1623,  great  num- 
bers of  French  and  several  Dutch  adventurers  resorted  to  the 
province,  and  occupied  different  parts  of  the  country,  where  they 
carried,  on  a  profitable  fur  trade,  as  well  as  a  fishing  at  Canseau 
and  in  some  other  harbors.  The  Avar  with  France,  however, 
which  commenced  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  L, 
completely  crushed  the  French  plantations  in  Acadia;  and  that 
monarch  not  only  confirmed  the  grant  to  Sir  William  Alexander, 
but  completed  what  James  had  intended,  namely,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  order  of  baronets  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  institution  of 
this  order  was  ratified  by  parliament,  and  the  number  limited  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty.  Certain  stipulations  contained  in  the 
grants  of  land  attached  to  these  titles,  were  at  first  required  to  be 
fulfilled  before  they  were  confirmed  by  the  king.  At  present  the 
title  of  baronet  of  Nova  Scotia  is  conferred  without  regard  to 
number,  according  to  the  sovereign's  pleasure,  and  with  all  the 
privileges  and  rank  of  baronets  of  Scotland. 

In  1627,  Sir  William  Alexander,  assisted  by  a  French  Calvin- 
ist,  by  the  name  of  Kirckt,  who  fled  to  England  from  Dieppe,  in 
France,  on  the  score  of  religious  persecution,  fitted  out  a  few  ves- 
sels, well  armed,  for  Nova  Scotia.  .  This  squadron,  commanded 
by  Kircht,  who  was  also  made  a  baronet,  under  the  title  of  Sir 
David  Kirk,  proceeded  on  the  voyage,  and  fell  in  with  a  fleet  of 
French  transports,  laden  with  stores  and  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  pieces  of  ordnance,  intended  for  Quebec  and  Port  Royal. 
These  vessels  they  captured,  and  in  the  following  year  reduced 
Port  Royal.  No  settlement,  however,  was  made  at  this  period ; 
and  two  years  after,  Sir  William  Alexander,  discouraged  at  the 
failure  of  his  attempts  to  colonize  Nova  Scotia,  transferred  the 
whole,  except  Port  Royal,  to  Claude  de  la  Tour,  a  French  Protes- 
tant, who  was  on  board  the  transports  captured  by  Sir  David 
Kirk.  La  Tour  possessed  wealth,  spirit  and  an  enterprising  mind  ; 
and  while  residing,  after  his  capture,  in  England,  he  married  a 
lady  of  the  queen's  household,  and  was  knighted.  He  proceeded 
to  Nova  Scotia,  where  he  had  a  son,  Etienne  de  la  Tour,  still  at 
Cape  Sable,  and  commanding  a  fort  on  the  part  of  France.  No 
entreaty  which  his  father  could  use,  would  induce  him  to  submit 
to  the  power  of  England,  and  in  consequence  Sir  Claude  was 
unsuccessful  in  forming  a  settlement. 

The  treaty  of  St.  Germain,  in  1632,  gave  Nova  Scotia,  with  Cape 
Breton  and  Canada,  again  to  France;  and  a  long  train  of  unfor- 
tunate and  vexatious  circumstances  attended  the  American  colo- 


NOVA    SCOTIA.  291 

nies  in  consequence.  Canada,  Acadia,  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John's 
Island,  were  then  placed  under  the  government  of  a  company  of 
merchants.  These  were  embodied  by  royal  charter,  and  styled, 
"  The  Company  of  New  France,"  under  whose  vassalage  Acadia 
was  now  governed  by  M.  Razillais.  The  lands  of  the  colony 
were  divided  principally  between  the  governor,  whose  share  fell 
to  his  successors,  Daubre  Charnise  Mon.  Denys  and  Etienne  de  la 
Tour.  The  jealousies  of  Charnise  and  La  Tour,  arising  prin- 
cipally from  rivalship  in  the  fur  trade,  partook  for  many  years  of 
a  similar  spirit  to  that  which  directed  the  predatory  warfare  of 
feudal  chieftains;  and  Mon.  Denys,  who  occupied  the  country 
from  Cape  Canseau  to  Gftspe,  and  who  built  a  fort  and  resided  at 
Chedebucto,  where  he  carried  on  a  profitable  fur  trade,  was 
finally  ruined  by  the  intrigues  of  his  countrymen,  and  driven 
from  this  country. 

La  Tour's  principal  establishment  was  on  the  river  St.  John. 
His  wife  appears,  from  the  records  of  that  period,  to  have  been  a 
most  extraordinary  woman,  possessing  fortitude  and  courage  sel- 
dom surpassed  even  by  the  heroines  of  romance.  Madame  de  la 
Tour,  having  had  occasion  to  visit  England,  on  the  affairs  of  her 
husband,  engaged,  on  her  return,-  with  the  master  of  a  vessel,  to 
land  her  at  the  river  St.  John.  This  person,  instead  of  doing  so, 
proceeded  to  Cape  Breton  and  the  countries  within  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  where  he  continued  during  the  summer,  trading 
with  the  savages,  and  afterwards  sailed  for  Boston.  Madame  de 
la  Tour  was  detained  during  this  period  on  board  the  ship  of  this 
European  savage,  suffering  all  the  miseries  of  a  protracted  voyage 
and  the  most  painful  uneasiness  of  mind.  On  landing  at  Boston, 
she  commenced  an  action  against  the  villanous  captain,  and 
recovered  about  two  thousand  pounds  damages.  She  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  fort  at  the  river  St.  John,  where,  during  the  absence 
of  her  husband,  she  was  besieged  by  Charnise,  whom  she  beat 
off  with  extraordinary  heroism,  by  disabling  his  ship,  and  killing 
and  wounding  several  of  his  men.  Some  time  after,  the  brutal 
Charnise,  taking  again  the  advantage  of  La  Tour's  absence, 
attacked  his  fort,  and  Madame  de  la  Tour,  with  astonishing 
bravery,  undertook  its  defence ;  but,  at  length,  in  order  to  save 
the  lives  of  her  few  remaining  men,  she  accepted  the  terms  of 
capitulation  proposed  by  Charnis£. 

On  entering  the  fort,  this  brutal  tyrant,  enraged  at  having  been 
once  so  gallantly  repulsed,  and  a  second  time  so  gallantly  resisted 
by  a  female,  hanged  all  the  prisoners  except  one,  whom  he  com-i 
pelled  to  execute  the  rest.  He  then  led  Madame  de  la  1  our,  vifli 
a  halter  round  her  neck,  to  a.  tree,  where  she  was  exposed  for 


292  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

some  time,  and  then  hanged ;  although  some  accounts  state  that 
she  died  from  the  effects  of  the  indignant  treatment  she  had  re- 
ceived, and  grief  for  the  fate  of  her  brave  and  faithful  people. 
Charnise  then  destroyed  the  fort,  and  carried  the  ordnance  and 
all  La  Tour's  effects  to  Penobscot,  to  which  place  he  had  removed 
from  La  Have. 

La  Tour's  own  character,  however,  was  none  of  the  fairest,  and 
the  records  of  Massachusetts  Bay  charge  him  with  disgraceful 
conduct.  He  afterwards  went  to  Canada  and  Hudson's  Bay, 
where  he  was  concerned  in  the  fur  trade,  but  returned  on  the 
death  of  Charnise,  whose  widow  he  married  ;  and  by  the  death  of 
a  pious  lady  of  St.  Omer's,  a  sister  of  Charnise.  he  became  pos- 
sessed of  all  his  property  in  Nova  Scotia.  La  Tour  remained  in 
peaceable  possession  till  1654,  when  an  armament,  despatched  by 
Oliver  Cromwell,  conquered  the  province.  Disgusted  with  his 
own  countrymen,  who  were  about  to  dislodge  him  by  intrigue 
and  force,  when  Acadia  submitted  to  the  arms  of  England,  La 
Tour  transferred  his  allegiance,  and  two  years  after,  he  obtained 
a  grant  of  his  lands  from  Cromwell.  He  afterwards  sold  his 
lands  and  property  in  Nova  Scotia,  to  Sir  Thomas  Temple,  who, 
after  spending  large  sums  in  forming  establishments  and  securing 
a  profitable  share  in  the  fur  trade,  was  most  unjustly  deprived  of 
the  whole  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  which  ceded  the  province  again 
to  France. 

An  armament,  sent  in  1690,  from  Massachusetts,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  William  Phipps,  retook  Port  Royal,  levelled  its 
fortifications,  and  burnt  the  establishments  at  Chedebucto.  The 
object  of  this  expedition  appears  to  have  been  more  to  annoy  the 
French  than  to  possess  the  country.  It  was,  however,  considered 
as  a  conquered  province,  and  added,  by  a  new  charter,  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Massachusetts.  Some  aggressions  on  the  part  of 
France,  who  still  occupied  the  usual  places  of  resort  for  the  fur 
trade,  and  the  demolition  by  Villibon,  the  French  governor,  and 
the  Baron  Castine,  reinforced  by  two  ships  of  war,  of  the  English 
fort  of  Pemaquid,  were  resented  by  an  expedition  from  Boston, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Church.  He  sailed  up  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  drove  most  of  the  Acadians  to  the  woods,  and  on  the 
refusal  of  those  who  surrendered  to  join  the  English  in  pursuit  of 
the  Indians,  he  burnt  their  church  and  all  their  houses,  destroyed 
their  cattle,  and  demolished  the  dikes  which  guarded  their  rich 
marshes  from  the  sea. 

In  1696,  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  gave  Nova  Scotia  again  to 
France,  and  that  government  soon  after  entered  with  spirit  and 
resolution  into  measures  for  colonizing  the  province,  and  securing 


NOVA    SCOTIA.  293 

us  fur  trade,  and  especially  its  fisheries.  The  latter,  in  which  for 
some  time  the  English  had  participated  largely,  became  th"  fertile 
cause  of  dispute  between  the  New  England  colonists  and  the 
French  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  French  government  also  encour- 
aged the  pirates,  who  infested  the  coasts,  to  commit  depredations 
on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  and  on  the  English  fishing  ves- 
sels, by  offering  them  an  asylum,  and  the  means  of  disposing  of 
their  plunder  at  La  Have.  The  people  of  New  England  retalia- 
ted in  1704,  by  despatching  Colonel  Church  a  second  time,  with 
about  six  hundred  troops,  to  pillage  the  French  settlements  in 
Nova  Scotia.  He  proceeded  to  Passamaquoddy,  where  he  burnt 
all  the  houses,  and  seized  the  property  of  the  inhabitants.  He 
then  crossed  the  bay  to  Port  Royal,  and  sent  boats,  with  a  detach- 
ment, to  Minas,  where  they  plundered  and  destroyed  three  flour- 
ishing villages.  On  their  return  to  Port  Royal,  Church  discovered 
that  the  fortresses  built  since  he  destroyed  the  place  eight  years 
before,  were  too  strong  to  be  taken  by  the  force  under  his  com- 
mand. He,  therefore,  sailed  to  Chignecto,  where  he  laid  waste 
all  the  settlements,  and  carried  all  the  plunder  to  Massachusetts. 
The  New  England  states,  still  -unwilling  to  relinquish  the  con- 
quest of  Nova  Scotia,  raised  a  thousand  troops,  who  were 
despatched,  in  1707,  with  two  ships  of  war,  to  take  Port  Royal ; 
but  they  were  repulsed  by  M.  Subercuse,  who  succeeded  Brouil- 
lard.  The  same  force  was  soon  after  sent  again  from  New 
England  to  Port  Royal,  but  they  returned  a  second  time  equally 
unsuccessful. 

The  conquest  of  Port  Royal,  was,  however,  determined  upon 
by  the  English;  and,  in  1710,  an  armament,  commanded  by 
General  Nicholson,  an  able  and  brave  officer,  consisting  of  four 
men-of-war,  nineteen  transports,  and  four  provincial  regiments, 
appeared  before  Port  Royal.  With  the  exception  of  those  on 
board  one  vessel  that  was  wrecked,  the  troops  landed  without 
difficulty.  Batteries  were  immediately  erected  by  the  English, 
and,  after  a  heavy  cannonading  on  both  sides,  the  garrison  capitu- 
lated. The  conditions  were  most  honorable  both  to  General 
Nicholson  and  the  gallant  Subercuse.  Notwithstanding  this, 
France  still  seemed  anxiously  disposed  to  regain  possession  of 
Nova  Scotia;  but  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  secured  the 
province  to  England. 

The  name  of  Port  Royal  was  now  changed,  in  honor  of  Queen 
Anne,  to  Annapolis ;  the  fortifications  were  repaired  and  strength- 
ened, and  General  Nicholson  appointed  as  first  resident  British 
governor.  He  arrived  at  Annapolis  in  1714,  but  could  not  suc- 
ceed in  obtaining  the  allegiance  of  the  French  settlers,  who,  by 
25* 


294 


BRITISH   AMERICA. 


the  capitulation  of  Port  Royal,  were  allowed  two  years  to  retire 
with  their  effects  from  the  province.  In  1719,  Colonel  Phipps 
arrived,  and  succeeded  Governor  Nicholson  ;  and,  by  the  royal 
instructions,  established  a  council  to  assist  him  in  managing  the 
civil  affairs  of  the  colony.  The  province,  at  this  period,  was  re- 
sorted to  only  by  trading  adventurers,  and  there  were  no  resident 
inhabitants  but  the  Acadian  French.  These  colonists,  although 
abandoned  by  their  hereditary  sovereign,  refused  to  transfer  their 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown.  Clinging,  with  extraordinary 
affection  and  lingering  hopes,  to  France,  it  was  long,  and  then 
with  wonderful  reluctance,  before  many  of  these  unfortunate  and 
ill-used  people  were  induced  to  swear  fealty  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land. From  this  period  to  the  peace  of  1763,  that  succeeded  the 
conquest  of  Louisburg  and  Canada,  Nova  Scotia  was  incessantly 
harassed  by  the  savages. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

Slow  progress  of  the  settlement. — Indian  hostilities. — The  Acadian  French.— 
Conquest  of  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John's. — Expedition  of  D'Anville  against 
Nova  Scotia. — Disasters  of  the  French. — Cape  Breton  given  up. — Foundation 
of  Halifax. — Indian  wars. — Expedition  to  Chignecto. —  Continuation  of  hostili- 
ties by  the  Indians  and  Acadian  French. —  Capture  of  Beau  Sejour. — Devasta- 
tion of  Chignecto  and  expulsion  of  the  French  inhabitants. — Expedition  of 
Admiral  Holborne. — Re-conquest  of  Cape  Breton. — Nova  Scotia  and  its  depen- 
dencies finally  secured  to  Great  Britain.  HUDSON'S  BAY  TERRITORY. — The 
Boston  settlers. — Prince  Rupert's  expedition. — Incorporation  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company. — Discoveries  of  Hearne,  Mackenzie,  Ross,  Parry,  Franklin  and 
Back.  RUSSIAN  AMERICA. — Discoveries  of  Behring  and  Tchirikow. — Settle- 
ments of  the  Russians. 

THE  settlement  of  Acadia  was  long  disregarded  by  the  British, 
although  the  governors  issued  proclamations,  which  stated  their 
readiness  to  grant  lands  on  favorable  terms  to  emigrants.  But 
the  New  England  and  Southern  States  were  at  this  time  in  a  con- 
dition to  afford  abundant  room  for  new  settlers,  and  the  emigrants,' 
especially  farmers,  preferred  removing  to  those  places  where  others 
had  previously  gone,  and  of  whom,  or  of  their  success,  they  had 
some  knowledge.  Very  few,  therefore,  except  trading  adventur- 
ers, resorted  for  a  long  time  to  Nova  Scotia.  A  considerable 
fishery  was,  previously  to  1720,  established  at  Canseau  harbor; 
but  during  the  autumn  of  that  year,  a  desperate  attack  was  made 
on  this  place  by  the  Indians,  several  persons  were  killed,  all  the 
property  plundered,  and  the  merchants  ruined.  It  became,  at 
length,  necessary  to  resort  to  resolute  and  effective  measures 
against  the  Indians.  On  the  west  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the 
Abenaqui  tribe  were  entirely  governed  by  a  Jesuit  priest,  named 
Pere  Ralle,  and  by  a  son  of  the  Baron  Castine,  who  was  half 
Indian.  The  latter,  whom  they  considered  their  cacique  or 
leader,  was  arrested,  but  soon  afterwards  released.  He  and  Pere 
Ralle  resided  at  Kennebec  ;  and  an  expedition  against  the  Indians 
and  Acadians  settled  in  this  place,  was  despatched  from  Massa- 
chusetts, which  defeated  both  with  great  slaughter,  and  among 
the  killed  was  Pere  Rall£.  The  chapel,  crucifix,  and  all  that  was 
considered  idolatrous,  were  then  destroyed,  the  goods  plundered, 
and  the  buildings  subjected  to  conflagration.  The  fate  of  Pere 
Ralle  was  much  deplored  by  the  Indians,  and  it  was  maintained 


296  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

that  the  provincials,  after  he  was  killed,  treated  his  body  with  the 
most  brutal  barbarity. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  France,  in  1744,  Can- 
seau  was  destroyed  by  an  expedition  sent  from  Louisburg.  The 
Indians,  also,  recommenced  their  hostilities ;  and,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  French  priest,  and  with  some  troops,  under  the  command 
of  an  officer  from  Cape  Breton,  besieged  Annapolis.  They  were, 
however,  compelled  to  raise  the  siege.  Annapolis  was  again 
attacked  by  about  one  thousand  Indians  and  several  Acadians. 
commanded  by  French  officers.  These  were  also  repulsed,  and 
Louisburg  and  the  island  of  St.  John  were  taken  the  following 
year,  by  the  New  England  troops,  under  General  Pepperel,  as 
already  related  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  . 

The  conquest  of  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John's  was  of  serious 
consequence  to  France,  while  it  secured  Nova  Scotia,  in  a  great 
measure,  against  the  depredations  of  the  savages,  and  gave  the 
British  ships-of-war  the  advantage  of  all  the  harbors  on  the 
coasts  of  America,  with  the  consequent  effectual  means  of  annoy- 
ing the  commerce  of  France.  The  harbor  of  Louisburg  and  the 
possession  of  Cape  Breton  and  Nova  Scotia,  were,  however,  objects 
of  too  much  importance  to  the  French  nation,  to  be  abandoned  to 
England,  without  an  extraordinary  effort  to  recover  these  colo- 
nies. One  of  the  most  powerful  fleets  that  had  ever  left  France 
for  North  America,  was  therefore  equipped  for  sea,  provided  with 
immense  stores  of  artillery,  ammunition  and  provisions,  and 
having  on  board  about  four  thousand  regular  troops.  The  su- 
preme command  was  given  to  the  Duke  D'Anville.  They  sailed, 
early  in  the  summer  of  1 746,  from  Rochelle,  unobserved  by  the 
English,  and  escaped  the  pursuit  made  by  Admiral  Lestock.  The 
disasters  which  this  expedition  experienced,  are  scarcely  par- 
alleled by  the  fate  of  the  invincible  Armada  of  Spain.  After  a 
passage  of  nearly  three  months,  D'Anville,  with  three  ships, 
reached  Chebucto,  where  one  of  his  ships  had  ar-rived  before  him. 
He  died  a  few  days  after.  Several  other  vessels  arrived,  after 
experiencing  great  hardships;  and  the  second  command,  under 
the  vice  admiral,  was  assumed  by  M.  de  la  Jonquire,  governor  of 
Canada. 

But  the  wretched  condition  of  the  troops  that  had  arrived  from 
France,  and  the  great  number  of  ships  with  stores  and  troops, 
which  were  either  lost  or  not  accounted  for,  called  for  a  council 
of  war,  in  which  the  bombardment  of  Louisburg,  according  to 
the  original  plan,  was  relinquished,  and  an  attack  upon  Annap- 
olis determined  on,  much  against  the  advice  of  Vice  Admiral 
Destournelle,  who  now  had  the  chief  command.  Upwards  of 


NOVA    SCOTIA.  297 

twelve  hundred  men  were  lost  during  the  voyage  from  F-ance, 
and  the  majority  of  the  survivors  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of 
helpless  debility  by  scurvy  and  fever.  It  was  found  necessary  to 
allow  them  time  to  recover,  and  encampments  were  accordingly 
formed  for  their  accommodation.  The  infection  was  then  caught 
by  the  Indians,  several  hundreds  of  whom  became  its  victims ; 
great  numbers  of  sailors  and  troops  were  carried  off  by  disease, 
after  landing.  Destournelle,  reduced  to  that  state  of  bodily  weak- 
ness and  depression  of  mind,  which  usually  causes  delirium,  ter- 
minated his  life  by  running  a  sword  through  his  body.  The 
fleet,  reduced  from  seventy  to  forty  ships,  with  the  remaining 
troops,  left  Chebucto  on  the  13th  October.  The  measure  of  ca- 
lamity, however,  was  not  yet  completed.  A  tremendous  storm 
dispersed  the  fleet  off  Cape  Sable,  drove  them  from  the  coast  back 
to  France,  where  most  of  them  arrived  in  a  shattered,  disabled, 
arid  miserable  condition. 

This  formidable  fleet,  which  raised  such  glorious  hopes  in 
France,  and  caused  proportionate  terror  in  the  British  colonies, 
would,  no  doubt,  had  it  been  attended  with  even  common  for- 
tune, have  repossessed  France  of  all  the  colonies  she  claimed  in 
America.  The  power  of  England  was  now.  however,  in  the 
ascendant ;  and,  in  the  beginning  of  May,  another  fleet  of  thirty- 
nine  ships,  most  expensively  equipped,  and  destined  for  America, 
under  the  command  of -the  gallant  Jonquiere,  was  defeated  by 
Admiral  Anson.  M.  Ramsay  still  remained  in  Nova  Scotia, 
holding  the  province  in  a  state  of  alarm;  but  the  intelligence  of 
Jonquiere's  defeat  destroyed  all  the  sanguine  hopes  he  had  enter- 
tained of  success,  and  he  soon  after  retired  to  Canada.  Cape 
Breton  was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle. 

The  British  now  undertook,  in  earnest,  the  settlement  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Chebucto,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  province,  was  fixed 
upon  for  a  capital,  on  account  of  its  safe  and  capacious  harbor. 
The  Hon.  Edward  Cornwallis,  governor  of  the  province,  arrived 
in  1749,  with  about  four  thousand  adventurers,  at  Chebucto  har- 
bor ;  and  having  selected  the  sloping  side  of  a  peninsula  on  the 
west  side  of  the  harbor,  for  the  site  of  a  town,  laid  it  out  accord- 
ing to  a  regular  plan,  and  named  it  Halifax,  in  honor  of  the  Earl 
of  Halifax,  then  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations. 

The  Indians,  meantime,  plundered  Canseau,  attacked  Dart- 
mouth opposite  Halifax,  scalped  some  of  the  inhabitants,  mur- 
dered nearly  half  the  crews  of  two  ships  in  Halifax  harbor,  and 
carried  off  several  prisoners,  whom  they  sold  at  Louisburg.  They 
were  incessantly  committing  murders  along  the  coasts,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  guard  the  colonists  effectually  against  enemies,  who 

L2 


298  BRITISH   AMERICA. 

sprung  with  the  agility  and  fury  of  tigers  from  the  thickets,  or 
who  came  along  silently  in  their  birch  canoes  during  night. 

The  governor  of  Louisburg  pretended,  as  formerly,  that  he  had 
no  control  over  them,  and  that  the  premiums  for  English  prisoners 
were  given  from  motives  of  humanity,  to  prevent  the  horrible 
tortures  which  the  savages  would  inflict  upon  them,  or  their  ex- 
cruciating death  by  the  murderous  scalping-knife. 

Major  Lawrence,  who  was  despatched  with  a  small  detach- 
ment to  Chignecto,  found  that  the  inhabitants,  on  learning  that  he 
was  approaching,  had  burnt  their  houses  and  joined  La  Corne ; 
and,  after  an  unsatisfactory  interview  with  this  officer,  he  re- 
turned, to  Halifax.  A  force  of  one  thousand  men  was  sent,  in 
consequence,  to  Chignecto,  under  Major  Lawrence.  He  effected 
a  landing  with  some  difficulty  and  sharp  skirmishing,  and  the  loss 
of  several  men.  The  French  and  Indians  saved  themselves  by 
escaping  across  the  river  and  joining  La  Corne.  He  then  built  a 
fort,  which  served  to  overawe  the  French,  and  to  check  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Indians. 

Major  Lawrence  succeeded  to  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment in  1754,  and  soon  after  an  expedition  from  New  England, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Monkton,  proceeded  to  Chignecto, 
where  it  was  joined  by  four  ships-of-war  and  a  detachment  of 
regular  troops.  After  bombarding  and  taking  a  block-house  and 
battery,  Fort  Beau  Sejour,  which  mounted  twenty-six  pieces  of 
artillery,  was  stormed,  and  the  garrison  made  prisoners  and  sent 
to  Louisburg.  The  fort  on  Bay  Vert  was  then  invested  and 
taken.  In  both  great  stores  of  ammunition  and  provisions  were 
,  found.  To  secure  the  peace  of  the  province,  and  to  deprive  the 
Acadians  from  assisting  the  French  or  encouraging  the  Indians,  it 
was  determined  by  Governor  Lawrence  to  remove  them  from 
Nova  Scotia,  unless  they  subscribed  to  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  Acadians  were,  therefore,  without  any  intimation  as  to  the 
object  of  calling  them  together,  commanded  to  appear  before 
Colonel  Fessenden,  at  Grand  Pre;  and  in  consequence  of  this 
summons,  about  four  hundred  men  assembled.  They  were  then 
shut  up  in  the  church,  which  was  now  turned  into  a  garrison, 
where  they  were  told  that  they^were  immediately  to  be  removed 
from  the  province,  and  distributed  among  the  other  colonies,  and 
that  their  lands  and  cattle  were  forfeited  to  the  crown.  This 
order  was  rigidly  executed.  Many  of  these  people  fled  to  the 
woods  and  joined  the  Indians ;  others  found  their  way  to  Canada 
and  the  island  of  St.  John.  The  villages  were  laid  waste,  and 
their  houses  burnt  to  ashes.  The  whole  of  the  settlements  at 
Chignecto  and  Minas  were  destroyed. 


HUDSON'S  BAY. 


299 


When  Mr.  Pitt  was  appointed  premier,  that  sagacious  states- 
man soon  discovered  that  if  Great  Britain  did  not  humble  France, 
ty  conquering  Cape  Breton  and  Canada,  the  power  of  England 
would  be  abridged  by  the  loss  of  her  trade  and  the  ruin  of  the 
American  colonies.  He,  therefore,  without  delay,  adopted  mea- 
sures for  effecting  this  object.  A  most  powerful  fleet  was  equip- 
ped, which  sailed  immediately  for  Halifax.  This  fleet,  consisting 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  ships,  commanded  by  Admiral 
.Boscawen,  and  having  on  board  an  army  of  eleven  thousand 
troops,  under  General  Amherst,  arrived  at  Halifax  in  April,  1758, 
and  were  joined  by  the  provincial  troops.  On  the  28th  of  May, 
this  powerful  armament,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven 
ships  and  sixteen  thousand  troops,  sailed  from  Halifax.  The  con- 
quest of  Louisburg,  which  is  related  in  another  part  of  this  his- 
tory, with  the  surrender  of  St.  John's  Island,  established  the 
prosperity  of  Nova  Scotia ;  and  this  was  further  secured  by  the 
capture  of  Quebec  by  Wolfe,  and  the  final  conquest  of  Canada. 
By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  France  relinquished  all  claim  to 
Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton  and  St.  John's  Island, 
and  from  that  time  these  countries  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
British  empire  in  America. 

The  island  of  St.  John's,  now  called  Prince  Edward's,  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  jurisdiction  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  1767.     New  Brans-'' 
wick  and  Cape  Breton  were  formed  into  separate  governments,  in 
1784.     Cape  Breton  was  subsequently  re-annexed  to  Nova  Scotia. 

The  settlements  of  the  British  on  HUDSON'S  BAY,  were  begun 
nearly  two  centuries  ago.  A  French  voyager,  Grosseliez,  on 
landing  at  Nelson's  River,  about  the  year  1660,  found  there  a  ~ 
number  of  New  England  settlers  from  Boston ;  but  of  this  colony 
little  more  is  known.  In  1668,  a  settlement  was  made  at  Fort 
Charles,  under  the  patronage  of  Prince  Rupert,  and  the  next  year 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  incorporated.  This  company 
exists  to  the  present  day,  and  holds  the  same  sort  of  monopoly  in 
that  region  that  was  formerly  exercised  in  Asia  by  the  British 
East  India  Company.  The  rest  of  the  world  are  in  a  great 
measure  excluded  from  the  territories  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany. From  time  to  time,  settlements  have  been  established  at 
various  other  places  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  company ;  but 
the  history  of  their  government  consists  of  nothing  but  the  narra- 
tives of  hunting  excursions  and  bargains  with  the  natives,  and 
the  adventures  of  travellers  who  have  endeavored  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior,  or  coast  along  the  shores  of  these  barren  and  in^ 
hospitable  regions.  Hearne,  an  enterprising  traveller,  discovered 
the  Coppermine  River  in  1770,  and  following  the  stream  down  to 


300  BRITISH    AMERICA. 

its  mouth,  discovered  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Mackenzie  penetrated  to 
Slave  Lake,  in  1789. 

The  progress  of  northern  discovery  languished  during  the  wars 
of  Europe;  but,  in  1818.  the  British  government  despatched  sev- 
eral expeditions  by  sea  and  land,  which  have  determined  nearly 
the  whole  outline  of  the  northern  coast,  from  Hudson's  Bay  to 
Behring's  Straits.  Captain  Ross,  in  1818,  and  Captain  Parry,  in 
1819,  sailed  on  their  first  voyages  to  the  north.  The  North 
Georgian  Islands,  about  the  seventy-fifth  degree  of  latitude,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  limits  of  their  approach  toward  the  pole. 
Both  these  commanders  made  repeated  voyages,  and  wintered  in 
a  high  northern  latitude.  The  scientific  observations  made  by 
them  are  highly  interesting;  but  the  northwest  passage  to  Asia 
has  not  yet  been  effected.  The  travels  of  Lieutenant  Franklin 
and  Captain  Back  have  also  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  geography  of  these  regions,  although  no  discovery  of  any 
commercial  value  appears  to  have  been  the  result.  They  have 
ascertained  that  the  Arctic  Ocean  bounds  the  continent  of  Amer- 
ica on  the  north,  and  that  the  country  along  its  shores,  and 
wherever  they  penetrated  into  the  interior,  is  a  frozen  desert,  or 
scantily  peopled  by  roaming  Indian  tribes,  in  the  lowest  state  of 
savage  life. 

RUSSIAN  AMERICA  owes  its  sovereignty  under  the  Muscovite 
power,  to  the  discoveries  of  Behring  and  Tchirikow,  who,  in 
1728,  first  saw  the  straits  which  separate  America  and  Asia. 
The  Russian  voyagers  subsequently  extended  their  discoveries 
southwardly  along  the  American  coast  towards  Nootka  Sound. 
and  at  a  late  period,  made  a  few  establishments  for  hunting  and 
trade  with  the  Indians  on  the  coast.  The  limits  of  the  Russian 
territory  in  America  are  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  parallel  of 
fifty-four  degrees  forty  minutes  north  latitude;  but  the  sover- 
eignty is  little  more  than  a  name.  A  single  settlement  at  Sitka, 
on  the  continent,  and  two  others  at  Kodiak  and  Illuluk,  on  the 
island  of  Oonalashka,  engaged  in  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians, 
comprise  all  the  actual  Russian  possessions  in  America. 

GREENLAND  is  sometimes  considered  as  belonging  rather  to 
America  than  to  Europe/  More  than  ten  centuries  ago,  it  was 
visited  by  the  Danes  and  Norwegians,  who  established  them- 
selves in  the  country,  the  Danes  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  Nor- 
wegians on  the  east.  About  the  year  1400,  the  Norwegian 
colony,  then  comprising  one  hundred  and  ninety  villages,  was  shut 
up  by  the  ice,  and  nothing  was  heard  of  it  afterwards.  The 
western  colony  still  exists,  and  comprises  about  twenty  settle- 
ments, subject  to  the  crown  of  Denmark. 


UNITED    STATES 
CHAPTER    XXXII 

Discovery  of  Florida  by  Ponce  de  Leon. — The  Fountain  of  Youth. — Expedition 
of  PamphUo  de  Narvaez. — Hurricane. — Narvaez  undertakes  the  conquest  of  the 
country. — Capture  of  Apalachen.— Difficulties  encountered  by  the  Spaniards. — 
They  construct  boats  to  return  to  their  fleet.— Voyage  along  the  shore. —  Their 
adventures  and  sufferings. — Humanity  of  the  natives. — Terrible  fate  of  the  ex- 
ploring party. — Proceedings  of  Aloaro  de  Nunez. — He  sets  out  on  a  journey  to 
Mexico  and  the  South  Sea. — Adventures  on  the  route. — He  crosses  the  Missis- 
sippi.— Sufferings  of  Alvaro  and  his  companions. — They  arrive  at  Mexico. 


The  Fountain  of  Youth. 


PONCE  DE  LEON,  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus  on  his 
second  voyage,  was  the  discoverer  of  Florida.  He  was  appointed 
governor  of  Porto  Rico,  but  after  exercising  this  authority  a  short 
time,  he  was  displaced ;  yet  he  had  a  mind  too  active  and  ardent 
to  remain  at  rest.  A  new  object  attracted  his  attention  and  absorbed 
his  whole  soul.  He  was  assured  by  a  number  of  Indians,  that  in 
some  part  of  the  Bahama  islands  there  was  a  fountain  called' 
Bimini,  of  such  wonderful  virtue,  that  the  man  who  bathed  in  its 
26 


302  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

waters,  whatever  his  age,  was  restored  at  once  to  the  full  bloom 
and  vigor  of  youth.  This  marvellous  tale  inflamed  the  eager 
curiosity  of  the  Spanish  chieftain.  He  spent  many  months  in 
sailing  along  these  coasts,  landing  at  every  point,  and  plunging 
into  every  pool  of  water,  always  hoping  to  rise  in  a  stale  of  bliss- 
ful renovation.  The  consequence  of  such  long  arid  incessant 
agitation,  under  a  burning  sky,  was  that,  instead  of  the  brilliant 
rejuvenescence  which  he  so  vainly  hoped  to  obtain,  he  brought 
upon  himself  all  the  infirmities  of  a  premature  old  age.  Instead 
of  a  second  youth,  he  arrived  at  a  second  childhood,  and  never 
displayed  the  same  vigor,  either  of  body  or  mind,  as.  before  he 
entered  upon  his  delusive  search. 

It  is  seldom,  however,  that  extraordinary  efforts  of  human  ac- 
tivity fail  of  leading  to  some  important  consequences.  While 
Ponce  was  beating  about  restlessly  from  shore  to  shore,  in  search 
of  the  mysterious  fountain,  he  came  in  view  of  a  more  extensive 
range  of  land  than  any  he  had  yet  seen.  It  was  covered  with 
magnificent  forests,  intermingled  with  flowering  shrubs,  which 
presented  an  enchanting  aspect.  This  discovery  was  made  on 
Easter  Sunday,  1512;  from  which  circumstance,  or  the  flowery 
appearance  of  the  country,  the  name  of  Florida  was  bestowed 
upon  it.  In  navigating  along  the  shore,  the  ships  were  violently 
agitated  by  the  currents  from  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  rushes 
with  concentrated  force  through  the  Bahama  channels,  and  from 
which,  the  southern  cape  received  the  name  of  Corrientes.  The 
Spaniards  still  continued  to  give  the  name  of  island  to  all  newly- 
discovered  land.  In  vain  did  the  natives  assure  them  that  Flor- 
ida formed  part  of  a  vast  continent,  of  which  they  even  named 
various  nations  and  provinces.  Some  years  elapsed  before  the 
Spaniards  could  learn  to  view  Florida  as  a  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent.  When  at  last  they  did  so,  they  hesitated  not  to 
claim  as  Florida,  and  as  belonging  to  Spain,  the  whole  of  North 
America. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  having  at  length  renounced  his  unfortunate 
search  after  the  Fountain  of  Youth,  determined  to  make  the  most 
of  his  real  discovery.  He  repaired  to  Spain,  and  obtained  from 
the  king  authority  to  lead  an  expedition  into  Florida,  with  the 
title  of  Adelantado,  which  included  the  powers  of  governor  and 
commander-in-chief.  Finding  Porto  Rico  disturbed  by  an  insur- 
rection of  the  Caribs,  he  was  obliged  to  take  the  field  against 
them ;  but  being  unequal  to  his  former  exertions,  he  made  an  un- 
fortunate campaign,  and  lost  much  of  his  former  reputation.  At 
length,  he  contrived  to  equip  an  expedition  for  Florida :  but  his 
constitution,  exhausted  by  visionary  hopes  and  fruitless  efforts, 


EXPEDITION   OF   NARVAEZ    TO   FLORIDA.  303 

being  now  unfit  for  the  fatigues  of  such  a  voyage,  he  was  obliged 
to  put  into  Cuba,  where  he  died. 

The  Spaniards  from  Cuba  soon  found  their  way  to  Florida; 
and  made  expeditions,  which  at  length  resulted  in  the  iniquitous 
practice  of  carrying  off  the  Indians  as  slaves.  A  considerable 
time  elapsed  before  attempts  were  made  for  the  actual  conquest 
and  occupation  of  Florida.  The  next  memorable  expedition 
was  that  of  Pamphilo  de  Narvaez,  in  1528.  His  fleet  touched 
first  at  the  island  of  Dominica,  where  it  remained  for  some 
days,  to  supply  itself  with  provisions  and  horses.  Here,  no  less 
than  a  hundred  and  forty  members  of  the  expedition  declined 
proceeding  farther, — a  course  which  their  chiefs  seem  to  have  had 
no  power  to  prevent.  The  fleet  proceeded  to  St.  Jago  de  Cuba, 
where  they  continued  for  some  time,  refitting  and  taking  in  sup- 
plies. One  of  the  ships  being  sent  to  a  port  at  some  distance  for 
provisions,  Alvaro,  the  master,  went  on  shore  with  a  few  of  his 
men, — when  they  were  assailed  by  a  hurricane  so  tremendous, 
that  the  like  had  scarcely  ever  been  witnessed  even  in  these 
climates.  The  walls  and  houses  were  continually  falling  round 
them.  They  hurried  out  of  the  town,  seven  or  eight  linked  to- 
gether, by  which  means  alone  they  could  avoid  being  carried 
before  the  wind,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  woods;  but  here 
the  trees  falling,  torn  up  by  the  roots  on  every  side,  caused  -' 
almost  equal  alarm.  At  night  they  seemed  to  hear  loud  cries, 
with  the'  sound  of  flutes,  drums  and  trumpets.  In  the  morning 
the  hurricane  subsided ;  but  there  appeared  such  a  scene  of  deso- 
lation as  they  had  never  before  witnessed.  The  trees  lay  strewed 
on  the  ground,  and  every  leaf  and  plant  appeared  to  be  destroyed. 
On  turning  to  the  sea,  they  beheld  a  spectacle  still  more  doleful ; 
for,  instead  of  their  vessel,  only  a  few  planks  were  floating  on 
the  face  of  the  deep.  They  searched  long  for  the  remnants 
which  might  have  been  cast  ashore ;  but  found  only  a  little  boat, 
carried  to  the  top  of  a  tree,  some  clothes  torn  in  pieces,  and  two 
bodies  of  men  so  mangled  that  they  could  not  be  recognised.  No 
time  was  lost  in  rejoining  the  main  body  of  the  expedition, 
which,  having  found  a  harbor,  had  suffered  less.  The  armament 
was  now  reduced  to  four  hundred  men  and  eighty  horses ;  and 
Narvaez,  in  compliance  with  the  general  opinion,  determined  not 
to  attempt  landing  in  Florida  till  the  depth  of  winter  had  past. 

On  the  20th  of  February,  1528,  the  fleet  again  set  sail,  and  having 
suffered  considerably  from  tempests  in  coasting  along  the  coasts  of 
Cuba,  ran  across  from  Havana  to  the  shore  of  Florida.  On  the 
12th  April,  they  found  themselves  at  the  mouth  of  an  open  bay, 
where  they  saw  a  village.  They  landed,  and  hoisted  the  king's 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 

standard.  When  the  natives  appeared,  they  made  long  discourses, 
with  many  signals  and  gestures,  of  which  the  Spaniards  could 
interpret  nothing,  except  that  they  contained  urgent  entreaties  for 
them  to  depart,  and  vehement  threats  in  case  of  non  compliance ; 
but  finding,  probably,  that  they  were  not  strong  enough  to  execute 
these  menaces,  they  retreated  into  the  interior.  In  this  village 
was  a  house  so  large  that  it  could  contain  three  hundred  persons. 

An  excursion  was  then  made  into  the  interior,  and  another 
village  was  visited,  in  which  the  Spaniards  discovered  a  number 
of  coffins.  These  they  burnt  with  the  bodies  in  them,  a  pro- 
ceeding very  little  calculated  to  conciliate  the  natives.  The 
avidity  of  the  Spaniards  was,  however,  very  strongly  excited  by 
the  view  of  some  very  fine  clothes,  and  especially  of  some  golden 
ornaments  worn  by  the  Indians.  In  reply  to  their  eager  inquiries 
respecting  them,  a  country  situated  at  some  distance  in  the  interior 
was  mentioned,  by  the  name  of  Apalachen. 

It  was  now  time  for  the  governor  to  consider  what  course  he 
was  to  pursue  in  exploring  and  conquering  Florida.  Miruelo,  a 
pilot  whom  they  brought  from  Cuba,  had  undertaken  to  guide 
them  into  a  secure  and  commodious  harbor,  instead  of  which  he 
had  brought  them  into  a  mere  open  road,  and  now  declared  him- 
self quite  out  of  his  reckoning,  and  at  a  loss  whither  to  steer. 
Narvaez,  whose  mind  was  full  of  the  reported  wealth  of  Apala- 
chen. proposed  to  push  at  once  into  the  interior,  leaving  the  ves- 
sels to  find  their  way  along  the  coast  at  leisure. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  1528,  the  Spaniards,  three  hundred  strong, 
of  whom  forty  were  cavalry,  set  out  on  their  march  into  the  inte- 
rior. They  travelled  fifteen  days  without  seeing  any  habitation. 
No  long  time  was  required  to  consume  their  provisions,  after  which 
they  became  dependent  on  some  wild  palm  trees.  Amid  the 
exhaustion  to  which  this  hungry  toil  reduced  them,  they  were 
obliged  to  spend  a  day  in  crossing  a  broad  and  rapid  river,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  which  they  found  a  village.  Here,  in  -answer  to 
their  eager  inquiries  respecting  Apalachen,  the  Indians  informed 
them  that  the  Apalachens  were  their  own  enemies,  and  that  they 
were  ready  to  aid  in  whatever  might  be  undertaken  against  that 
people.  After  having  held  some  friendly  communication  and  ob- 
tained guides,  the  Spaniards  proceeded ;  but  soon  reached  another 
river,  still  more  rapid,  and  which  could  be  crossed  only  by  con- 
structing a  large  canoe.  Juan  Velasco,  a  bold  horseman,  having  at- 
tempted to  swim  the  stream,  was  drowned,  together  with  his  horse. 
This  disaster  cast  a  gloom  over  their  minds ;  however,  the  horse 
being  found  by  the  Indians,  was  made  to  afford  the  only  hearty 
meal  they  had  enjoyed  for  many  days.  They  had  still  a  long 


THE    SPANIARDS    IN    FLORIDA. 


305 


march  to  perform,  over  tracts  sometimes  mountainous,  sometimes 
marshy,  encumbered  with  large  trees  blown  down  by  the  tem- 
pests, and  often  blocking  up  the  road.  At  length,  on  the  twenty- 
sixth  of  June,  they  arrived  in  sight  of  a  village  which  was  an- 
nounced as  Apalachen.  Joy  took  possession  of  their  hearts  and 
they  returned  fervent  thanks  to  heaven  that  they  had  come  to  the 
end  of  this  long  and  dreary  journey. 

Narvaez  desired  Alvaro,  with  fifty  infantry  and  nine  cavalry, 
to  enter  and  take  possession  of  the  town.  This  he  easily  effected, 
as  all  the  men  were  absent,  probably  on  a  hunting  excursion,  and 
only  women  and  children  left  in  the  place.  The  warriors,  how- 
ever, soon  appeared  and  greeted  the  unwelcome  intruders  with  a 
shower  of  arrows,  one  of  which  killed  a  Spanish  horse.  When 
fairly  attacked,  however,  they  were  unable  to  bear  the  shock  of 
the  Spanish  troops,  and  retreated  into  the  woods.  They  appeared 
two  days  after,  in  a  pacific  attitude,  and  besought  the  invaders,  if 
they  could  not  recover  their  houses,  that  they  might,  at  least,  have 
their  wives  and  children.  This  was  granted,  the  Spaniards  only 
retaining  one  of  their  caciques  as  a  hostage.  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  their  enmity  was  in  no  degree  abated.  Next  day 
they  made  an  attack  so  furious  that  they  succeeded  in  setting  fire 
to  some  of  the  houses,  and  though  again  quickly  repulsed,  they 
fled  with  such  celerity  into  the  woods  and  marshes,  that  only  one  ,' 
could  be  killed.  Next  day  an  equally  brisk  attack  was  made 
with  a  similar  result. 

The  Spaniards  had  not  long  remained  at  Apalachen  when  they 
became  satisfied  that  the  brilliant  wealth  which  had  lured  them 
to  this  perilous  expedition  Avas  a  perfect  chimera.  The  country 
was  mountainous  and  rugged,  and  covered  with  extensive  marshes, 
which,  both  from  their  depth  and  the  large  trees  strewed  across 
them,  were  exceedingly  difficult  to  pass.  On  strict  enquiry,  it 
appeared  that  the  farther  they  proceeded  in  this  direction,  the 
more  barren  and  rugged  they  would  find  it.  They  now  began  to 
feel  themselves  in  an  evil  plight.  Though  the  Indians  could  not 
face  them  in  the  field,  they  hemmed  them  closely  in,  and  every 
man  or  horse  that  straggled  from  the  main  body  was  overwhelmed 
with  a  shower  of  arrows.  At  length,  it  was  discovered,  that  to 
the  south  was  the  country  of  Ante,  now  called  the  bay  of  St." 
Mark,  which  abounded  in  maize.  So  valuable  did  this  acquisi- 
tion appear,  that  the  Spaniards,  renouncing  all  their  dreams  of 
gold  and  conquest,  set  out  in  search  of  the  coast  of  Ante. 

They  were  obliged  to  cross  lagoons  and  marshes  deeper  than 
any  they  had  hitherto  encountered.     On  the  second  day,  while" 
they  were  struggling  through  the  water  breast  deep,  the  air  was 
26*  M  2 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

suddenly  darkened  by  clouds  of  arrows,  shot  by  invisible  hands. 
These  Vere  from  the  Indians  who  had  lodged  themselves  along 
the  banks  of  the  lake,  or  behind  the  trees  which  floated  on  its  sur- 
face. With  DOAVS  eleven  or  twelve  spans  long,  and  as  thick  as  a 
man's  arm,  they  discharged  arrows  to  the  distance  of  two  huntlred 
yards,  with  almost  unerring  precision,  and  such  force  that  they 
penetrated  the  thickest  armor,  and  grievously  wounded  both  man 
and  horse.  Sometimes  a  single  wound  caused  immediate  death. 
The  Indians,,  when  seen,  being  tall,  naked,  and  moving  with  pro- 
digious swiftness,  had  almost  the  appearance  of  supernatural 
beings.  No  movement  of  resistance  or  attack  could  be  made  till 
the  Spaniards  were  extricated  from  the  lagoon;  and  even  then 
the  ground  was  so  encumbered,  that  the  cavalry  could  not  act, 
and  it  was  only  by  dismounting  and  pursuing  the  enemy  on  foot, 
that  it  became  possible  to  drive  them  to  a  little  distance.  They 
soon  re-appeared,  and  allowed  the  Spaniards  no  rest  till  after 
their  stock  of  arrows  was  exhausted.  The  expedition  then  pro- 
ceeded without  farther  molestation,  and  in  nine  days  arrived 
at  Aute.  The  natives  had  abandoned  the  place,  but  a  good  store 
of  maize  was  found,  and  after  another  day's  march,  they  came  to 
the  banks  of  a  river  which  appeared  to  open  at  some  distance 
below,  into  a  broad  arm  of  the  sea.  This  was  probably  the  bay 
of  Pensacola. 

The  situation  of  the  Spaniards  was  now  such  as  called  for  the 
most  serious  reflection.  All  their  brilliant  hopes  had  vanished. 
Nearly  a  third  of  their  number  had  perished.  More  than  a  third 
of  those  that  remained  labored  under  disease.  There  was  thus 
every  reason  to  fear  that,  either  in  attempting  to  retrace  their  steps 
or  to  march  along  the  coast  in  search  of  their  fleet,  the  whole 
would  perish.  A  general  meeting  was  called,  and  every  one  was 
asked  what  he  had  to  propose.  After  long  deliberation  there 
appeared  only  one  resource.  This  was  to  construct  small  boats, 
and  sail  along  the  coast,  till  they  should  find  their  fleet.  It  was 
difficult  to  conceive  of  a  scheme  more  desperate.  They  had  nei- 
ther knowledge  of  ship-building,  nor  any  implements  of  the  art, 
nor  any  materials  out  of  which  sails,  ropes  and  rigging  could  be 
constructed.  Impelled  by  necessity,  however,  they  went  to  work. 
One  of  them,  out  of  wooden  pipes  and  the  skins  of  wild  beasts, 
contrived  to  make  a  pair  of  bellows,  by  the  operation  of  which 
their  stirrups,  spurs  and  cross-bows  were  converted  into  nails, 
saws  and  hatchets.  Their  shirts,  cut  open  and  sewed  together, 
made  sails ;  the  juice  of  a  species  of  pine  was  a  substitute  for  tar. 
Cypress  moss  served  as  oakum ;  the  fibres  of  the  pine  with  loose 
hair,  formed  a  species  of  rope.  A  horse  was  killed  every  three 


ADVENTURES    IN   FLORIDA.  307 

days,  and  its  flesh  distributed,  partly  to  the  working  hands,  and 
partly  as  a  dainty  to  the  sick.  In  short,  with  such  ardor  did  the 
work  proceed,  that  having  begun  on  the  4th  of  August,  they  had 
completed,  on  the  22d  of  September,  five  boats.  In  each  of  these 
were  embarked  from  forty  to  fifty  persons;  but  they  were  so 
crowded  that  they  could  not  move  or  turn  in  the  boat,  of  which 
not  more  than  a  fourth  part  was  above  the  water.  In  this  plight, 
however,  it  behoved  them  to  sail. 

After  proceeding  six  days,  they  approached  an  island  and 
descried  five  canoes,  belonging  to  Indians,  who  immediately 
abandoned  them.  The  canoes  being  taken  and  attached  to  their 
boats,  enabled  the  Spaniards  to  place  themselves  in  a  somewhat 
better  condition.  They  sailed  on  thirty  days,  without  finding  any 
secure  haven,  or  opportunity  of  refreshment.  The  scarcity  of 
food  was  now  felt ;  and  that  of  water  was  so  extreme,  that  many 
were  driven  to  drink  sea- water,  which,  when  taken  in  any  quan- 
tity, proved  fatal.  Their  sufferings  were  aggravated  by  a  severe 
storm,  which  continued  for  six  days ;  at  the  end  of  which  they 
seemed  on  the  point  «of  perishing,  when,  on  turning  a  cape,  they 
discovered  a  fine  and  secure  bay,  with  a  large  Indian  town.  Here 
they  were  received  mosl;  cordially  and  hospitably  by  the  natives. 
Before  each  door  stood  vessels  of  water,  from  which  they  quenched 
their  thirst,  and  they  enjoyed  a  hearty  meal  of  roasted  fish.  .  Pres- 
ents were  exchanged,  and  such  a  cordial  intercourse  established, 
that  Narvaez  agreed  to  spend  the  night  under  the  roof  of  the 
cacique.  This  calm  was  of  short  duration.  At  midnight  the 
village  was  attacked  by  a  hostile  tribe  of  Indians ;  the  cacique 
fled  with  all  his  people,  and  the  Spaniards  were  left  to  maintain, 
alone,  a  desperate  conflict.  The  governor  himself  and  all  his 
people  were  wounded,  before  the  enemy  could  be  repulsed ;  and 
they  had  no  choice  left  but  to  re-embark.  They  touched  afterwards 
at  another  populous  bay ;  but  being  involved  in  a  quarrel  with 
the  natives  respecting  two  of  their  people  who  had  been  lured 
away,  they  were  obliged  again  to  put  out  to  sea. 

Their  situation  became  now  every  moment  more  critical.  Their 
remnant  of  provisions  was  drawing  fast  to  a  close,  and  the  shat- 
tered barks  could  scarcely  be  got  forwards.  That  of  the  governor, 
being  the  best  manned,  now  began  to  pull  ahead  at  a  rate  with 
which  the  others  were  unable  to  keep  pace.  Alvaro  called  out  to 
ask  orders  how  he  was  to  proceed  ;  to  which  Narvaez  replied  that 
the  time  was  past  for  giving  or  receiving  orders,  and  that  it  rested 
with  every  man  to  save  his  life  as  he  best  could  ;  he  then  pushed 
on,  and  was  soon  out  of  sight.  Alvaro  with  another  of  the  barks* 
continued  the  voyage  for  four  days ;  but  having  only  half  a  handful 


308  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  maize  daily  for  each  man,  and  encountering  severe  weather, 
they  were  reduced  to  the  most  extreme  distress.  On  the  evening 
of  the  fourth  day,  the  crew  gave  out,  and  fell  down  half  dead 
over  each  other.  Alvaro  heing  alone  capable  of  any  exertion,  the 
master  called  to  him,  that  he  must  take  the  helm,  as  he  himself 
would  certainly  die  that  night.  Alvaro  took  the  post,  but  after  a 
few  hours'  rest,  the  master  resumed  it.  Towards  morning  they 
heard  the  sound  of  breakers,  and  found  the  vessel  in  six  fathoms 
water,  which  led  to  the  hope  of  being  near  land.  Daylight  con- 
firmed this  hope,  and,  after  a  severe  shock  in  crossing  the  breakers, 
the  boat  was  got  near  to  the  land,  and  the  exhausted  crew  crept 
ashore  upon  their  hands  and  feet.  Here  they  kindled  a  lire, 
cooked  the  maize  which  they  had  still  left,  and  began  to  feel  their 
strength  and  spirits  revive.  Alvaro  desired  Lope  de  Oviedo,  the 
most  vigorous  of  the  company,  to  mount  a  tree  and  see  what  land 
it  was.  Oviedo  reported  that  it  was  an  island,  and  so  well  culti- 
vated, that  it  appeared  almost  a  Christian  land.  He  was  then 
desired  to  advance  a  little  into  the  country,  though  with  caution. 
He  soon  found  a  village  with  only  women  and  children  in  it ;  but 
three  archers  speedily  appeared,  with  others  behind,  who,  following 
Oviedo,  quickly  reached  the  shore  and  formed  a  circle  of  about  a 
hundred  around  the  Spaniards.  They  were  well  armed  and  tall, 
and,  to  the  alarmed  eyes  of  the  Spaniards,  appeared  almost 
gigantic.  Alvaro,  who  had  not  six  men  who  could  rise  from  the 
ground,  saw  clearly  that  he  had  nothing  to  hope  from  resistance, 
and  that  his  only  course  was  to  endeavor  to  propitiate  the  stran- 
gers. This  he  sought  to  do  by  courtesy,  and  by  offering  them 
toys.  He  met  a  most  kind  and  gracious  return ;  the  Indians  gave 
him  arrows,  their  surest  pledge  of  confidence ;  they  regretted  much 
having  no  provisions  with  them,  but  promised  by  next  morning  to 
return  with  a  copious  supply. 

The  Indians  fulfilled  their  engagement,  and,  both  this  day  and 
the  following,  brought  fresh  stores  of  fish,  roots  and  other  pro- 
ductions of  the  soil.  Alvaro,  having  formed  a  stock  of  these 
sufficient  to  last  for  some  time,  determined  to  set  sail  and  pursue 
his  voyage.  For  this  purpose  it  was  a  matter  of  great  labor,  in 
their  weak  state,  to  haul  the  boat  out  of  the  sand  in  which  it  was 
fixed,  and  put  it  afloat ;  in  doing  this  it  was  even  necessary  to 
strip  themselves  naked,  throwing  their  clothes  into  the  boat.  A 
fresh  calamity  overtook  them,  more  dreadful  than  any  former  one. 
A  violent  wave  overset  the  boat,  which  sunk  with  all  the  clothes, 
and  carried  down  three  of  the  Spaniards  :  the  rest  with  difficulty 
reached  the  shore.  They  threw  themselves,  in  despair,  naked  on 
the  sand.  Their  former  condition,  deemed  so  wretched,  appeared 


ADVENTURES   OF   ALVARO   IN   FLORIDA.  309 

almost  happiness,  when  compared  with  that  extremity  of  misery  at 
which  they  had  now  arrived.  As  they  looked  at  their  emaciated 
bodies,  in  which,  every  bone  could  be  counted,  each  felt  sympathy 
for  his  companions,  mingled  with  a  more  intense  feeling  of  his 
own  misery.  While  they  lay  in  this  state  the  Indians  came  up 
with  a  fresh  supply  of  provisions ;  but  at  the  view  of  their  changed 
and  dreadful  condition,  set  up  loud  cries  of  lamentation,  which 
were  heard  at  a  great  distance,  and  were  continued  for  half  an 
hour  without  intermission. 

As  soon  as  their  plaint  had  somewhat  abated,  Alvaro  asked  his 
companions,  without  fear  of  being  understood  by  the   Indians, 
what  was  to  be  done  in  this  extremity,  and  whether  they  ought 
not  to  ask  shelter  from  strangers  who  showed  so  tender  a  concern 
for  their  sufferings.     There  happened,  however,  to  be  several  of 
the  party  who  had  accompanied  Cortez  in  his  expedition  to  Mexi- 
co, and  had  seen  from  a  distance  the  dreadful  pomp  with  which 
their  countrymen  had  been  sacrificed  in  the  temple  of  the  Mexican 
god  of  war.     These  adjured  Alvaro,  by  all  that  was  sacred,  to 
abide  every  extremity  rather  than  deliver  them  into  the  hands  of 
men  from  whom  they  might  expect  a  fate  of  similar  horror. 
Alvaro  looked  round-  him.     His  companions  were  lying  stretched 
on  the  sand,  on  the  point  of  perishing.     His  position  was  quite 
desperate,  but  for  the  Indians ;    and  their  tender  lamentations, 
with  the  kindness  and  pity  which  beamed  from  their  eyes,  made 
it  surely  at  least  possible  that  their  intentions  might  not  be  of  the 
horrible  nature  now  suggested.     Disregarding,  therefore,  the  ter- 
rors and  remonstrances  of  his  comrades,  he  related  his  disaster  to 
the  Indians,  and  entreated  the  shelter  of  their  hospitable  roof. 
The  Indians  gave  the  most  cordial  consent,  only  proposing  that 
they  should  remain  a  short  time  round  the  fire  which  had  here 
been  kindled,  till  they  should  hasten  and  prepare  for  their  recep- 
tion.    In  a  few  hours  they  returned,  and  then  led,  or  rather  car- 
ried the  Spaniards  to  their  village,  scarcely  allowing  their  feet  to 
touch  the  ground.     They  had  kindled  large  fires  at  short  distan- 
ces, where  the  naked  and  shivering  bodies  of  the  Spaniards  had 
from  time  to  time  the  heat  restored  to  them.     On  reaching  the 
village,  it  was  found  that  a  house  had  been  specially  constructed 
for  them,  and  had  been  brought  by  large  fires  into  a  comfortable 
temperature.     All  this  care  and  kindness  abated  in  no  degree 
the  fear  of  the  Spaniards.     The  Indians  bade  them  a  cordial  good 
night,  and,  retiring  to  their  own  habitations,  began,  according  to 
the  custom  of  their  country,  to  sing  and  dance  through  the  even-  • 
ing ;  but  these  cheerful  sounds,  instead  of  tranquillizing  the  Span- 
iards, heightened  their  alarm,  being  deemed  only  the  festal  pomp 


310  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

which  was  to  celebrate  their  immolation.  They  lay  sleepless, 
seeming  to  feel  at  every  moment  the  sacrifical  knife  stuck  in 
their  breasts.  It  was  not  till  morning  dawned  that  a  ray  of  hope 
began  to  possess  their  minds.  The  Indians  then  entered  with  a 
plentiful  breakfast ;  and  the  same  kindness  being  continued  from 
day  to  day,  the  alarms  of  the  Spaniards  were  at  length  composed. 
They  learned,  soon  after,  that  there  were  other  Spaniards  at  no 
great  distance,  who  proved  to  be  the  crew  of  another  bark  that  had 
been  shipwrecked,  though  not  in  so  disastrous  a  manner.  These 
had  preserved  their  clothes,  though  only  those  which  they  wore. 

Fate  did  not  cease  to  persecute  this  unfortunate  crew.  There 
followed  such  a  series  of  cold  and  stormy  weather,  that  the  Indi- 
ans could  neither  find  the  roots  on  which  they  commonly  sub- 
sisted, nor  carry  on  their  fishery.  A  severe  scarcity  ensued, 
which  fell  with  peculiar  weight  on  the  strangers,  who  could  expect 
nothing  from  the  Indians,  and  had  neither  the  same  skill  nor 
means  to  provide  for  themselves.  Five  of  the  Spaniards,  who 
were  in  a  detached  station  on  the  coast,  were  reduced  to  such  an 
extremity,  that  they  resorted  to  the  horrible  remedy  of  devouring 
each  other !  This  they  continued  till  there  remained  but  one,  who 
survived  only  because  "  there  was  nobody  to  eat  him."  The  Indi- 
ans were  shocked  beyond  measure  on  learning  this,  and  ever  after 
viewed  the  whole  body  of  Europeans  with  an  altered  eye.  The 
condition  of  the  Spaniards  grew  worse  and  worse,  so  that,  in  the 
course  of  the  season,  famine  and  disease  had  reduced  their  num- 
ber from  eighty  to  fifteen.  The  Indians  were  at  the  same  time 
attacked  with  a  pestilential  malady,  which  carried  off  half  of 
them.  Under  the  deep  distress  which  this  occasioned,  a  supersti- 
tious idea  seized  them,  that  all  the  calamities  of  this  dreadful 
winter  had  originated  in  a  magic  and  malignant  influence,  exer- 
cised by  the  strangers.  They  took  it  therefore  into  deliberation, 
whether  they  should  put  them  to  death ;  but  an  old  Indian  very 
reasonably  argued,  that  if  the  Spaniards  had  possessed  this  super- 
natural power,  they  would  surely  have  used  it  in  protecting  them- 
selves ;  whereas  the  fact  was,  they  had  suffered  still  more  severely 
than  the  Indians.  So  just  a  view  of  the  subject  carried  conviction 
to  the  minds  of  the  savages. 

The  Spaniards  had,  however,  entirely  lost  their  former  favor  ; 
they  were  reduced  to  the  station  of  slaves,  and  were  obliged  to 
perform  the  most  laborious  offices,  particularly  that  of  digging  the 
earth,  and  searching  at  the  bottom  of  the  marshes  for  the  roots  on 
which  they  subsisted.  To  this,  indeed,  was  added  the  office  of 
physicians,  which  they  were  called  upon  to  exercise.  In  vain  did 
they  plead  their  profound  ignorance  of  the  healing  art ;  no  credit 


ADVENTURES    OF    ALVARO.  311 

was  given  to  this  denial ;  and,  after  persuasion  had  been  used  in 
vain,  notice  was  given  to  them,  that  all  allowance  of  food  was  to 
cease  till  they  should  enter  on  their  medical  functions.  Thus 
starved  into  doctors,  they  at  length  began  their  practice,  which 
was  exceedingly  simple,  being  modelled  on  that  of  the  Indians. 
They  merely  blew  upon  the  patients,  and  uttered  Spanish  words, 
which  were  considered  as  magical,  when,  to  their  utter  astonish- 
ment, all  the  patients  declared  that  from  that  moment  they  felt 
the  greatest  relief. 

As  the  success  of  their  practice,  however,  did  not  bring  any 
improvement  in  their  situation,  Alvaro  contrived  to  make  his 
escape  to  the  continent,  where  he  set  on  foot  a  petty  traffic  which 
succeeded  wonderfully.  It  consisted  in  carrying  into  the  interior, 
shells,  marine  plants,  and  other  productions  of  the  sea,  for  which 
he  brought  in  exchange,  hides,  red  ochre  for  the  savage  toilet, 
flints  for  arrow  heads,  and  cane  for  arrows.  The  perpetual  hos- 
tility of  the  natives  among  themselves  caused  them  to  stand  much 
in  need  of  a  foreign  and  neutral  hand  to  carry  on  these  transactions. 
Alvaro,  in  his  capacity  of  merchant,  was  therefore  well  treated  by 
the  savages. 

He  spent  several  years  in  this  manner,  and  at  length  re- 
gained sufficient  confidence  in  his  undertaking  to  plan  a  scheme^ 
for  penetrating  to  Mexico  and  the  South  Sea.  Two  of  his  officers, 
Andre  Dorante  and  Alonzo  de  Castiglio,  accompanied  him  on  this 
desperate  adventure.  They  journeyed  westward  into  the  country, 
and  found  the  inhabitants  barbarous  and  poor,  without  any  of  the 
gold  which  they  so  greedily  coveted.  At  one  place  the  Indians 
made  prisoners  of  the  Spaniards  and  kept  them  for  slaves,  oppress- 
ing them  with  hard  labor  and  nearly  starving  them.  After  some 
time,  they  made  their  escape  and  pursued  their  journey  to  the  west. 
In  their  progress  through  the  country  they  gave  themselves  out  for 
the  "Children  of  the  Sun;"  which  title,  with  their  skill  in  medi- 
cine, gained  them  a  favorable  reception,  and  they  travelled  from 
tribe  to  tribe,  guided,  venerated  and  protected. 

They  passed  first  a  large  river  coming  from  the  north,  which 
was  probably  the  Mississippi ;  then,  travelling  thirty  leagues  over 
a  populous  plain,  they  came  to  a  rugged,  arid  and  dreary  tract, 
fifty  leagues  in  extent,  being  the  desert  which  now  separates  the 
United  States  from  the  Texan  and  Mexican  territory.  In  this 
route  they  suffered  severely  from  thirst  and  hunger;  but  it  was 
still  worse  when,  having  crossed  another  broad  river,  the  Rio  del 
Norte,  they  came  to  a  range  of  desert,  steep  and  barren  moun- 
tains— the  continuation  of  the  Cordilleras,  passing  into  the  chain 
of  the  Rocky  Mo':.itains.  Here  the  Indian  guides,  overcome 


312  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

by  fatigue  and  hunger,  lay  down,  and  declared  it  impossible  to 
proceed.  Alvaro,  impelled  to  resentment,  used  high  words  and 
threats,  to  which  they  at  last  yielded.  Soon  after,  a  severe 
malady  attacked  and  carried  off  eight  of  the  Indians,  when  the 
poor  creatures,  imagining  that  the  anger  of  Alvaro  had  induced 
him  to  employ  magical  powers  to  produce  this  effect,  implored  on 
their  knees  that  he  would  forgive  them,  and  cease  to  slay  them  in 
this  terrible  manner.  At  length  they  met  a  party  of  Indians  who 
had  a  little  maize,  the  sight  of  which  was  like  that  of  land  to  a  storm- 
tossed  mariner.  They  followed  them  to  their  village ;  but  learned 
that  the  maize  was  not  cultivated  in  this  high  and  arid  tract, 
though,  in  proceeding  westward,  they  would  soon  arrive  at  a  fer- 
tile country  on  the  seacoast.  Alvaro  began  now  to  inquire  about 
the  Christians,  when  he  was  informed  that  in  the  southwest  was 
a  wicked  people  of  that  name,  who  plundered  and  murdered  all 
that  fell  in  their  way,  and  never  were  known  to  do  a  good  action. 
He  was  carefully  warned  to  avoid  all  communication  with  them. 
Alvaro  found  ample  proofs  of  the  correctness  of  this  report, 
as  he  proceeded  over  a  large  plain,  which  the  ravages  of  the 
Spaniards  had  reduced  almost  to  a  complete  desert.  Continuing 
to  insist  upon  proceeding  to  meet  the  Christians,  his  guides  re- 
luctantly accompanied  him ;  but  nothing  could  equal  their  aston- 
ishment when  told  that  Alvaro  was  himself  a  Christian.  This 
they  declared  to  be  utterly  impossible,  since  everything  was  con- 
trary in  the  two  parties.  The  one  came  from  the  east,  the  other 
from  the  west ; — the  one  were  naked  and  on  foot,  the  other  were 
clothed  and  on  horseback ; — the  one  healed  those  who  were  sick, 
the  other  killed  those  who  were  well ; — the  one  showed  no  signs 
of  avarice,  while  the  other  seemed  to  have  no  object  in  life,  but 
to  steal  whatever  they  could  reach.  Alvaro  and  his  party  fully 
justified  this  bad  character  given  of  their  countrymen.  On  his 
arrival  at  the  Spanish  settlements,  Alvaro  had  much  difficulty  to 
prevent  the  Spaniards  from  making  prisoners  of  the  poor  Indians 
who  had  served  as  his  guides.  This,  and  the  opinion  which  he 
frankly  expressed  of  their  own  conduct,  inflamed  them  with 
such  resentment,  that  his  countrymen  made  him  a  prisoner,  and 
sent  him  over  a  range  of  mountains  so  desolate  and  rugged  that 
two  of  the  party  perished  on  the  road.  On  his  arrival,  however, 
at  Compostella,  the  capital  of  New  Galicia,  he  was  very  cour- 
teously received,  and  much  displeasure  was  expressed  by  the  gov- 
ernor at  the  conduct  of  the  frontier  Spaniards.  At  Mexico  his 
reception  was  still  more  cordial,  and  he  found  his  long  journey 
and  sufferings  at  an  end. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

Expedition  of  Fernando  de  Soto. — Enmity  of  the  Floridians. — Cruelties  of  the 
Spaniards. — Arrival  at  Vilachuco. — Plot  to  exterminate  the  Spaniards  detec- 
ted.— Battle  of  Vitachuco  and  defeat  of  the  Indians. — The  Spaniards  make  slaves 
of  the  natives. — A  second  plot  of  the  Indians. — Tlie  Spaniards  massacre  thcii 
slaves. — They  reach  Apalachen. — Adventure  of  Capafi. — Prospects  of  gold. — 
The  Spaniards  march  westward. — Courtesy  of  a  Floridian  princess. — Singular 
behavior  of  a  native. 


Indian  princess  in  a  barge. 

FERNANDO  DE  SOTO  was  the  next  adventurer  in  Florida.  He 
had  been  a  companion  of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  and 
was  seized  with  a  desire  to  rival  Cortez  in  glory,  and  Pizarro  in 
wealth.  He  made  a  proposal  to  Charles  V.  to  conquer  Florida  at 
his  own  cost;  the  offer  was  accepted,  and  Soto  was  appointed 
governor  of  Cuba,  with  absolute  power  over  that  unlimited  extent 
of  country  which  then  bore  the  name  of  Florida.  The  expedi- 
tion seemed  a  brilliant  and  promising  one.  The  Spaniards  looked 
for  another  conquest  as  rich  as  that  of  Peru.  Noblemen  and 
wealthy  proprietors  were  eager  to  embark  in  the  enterprise; 
27  N2 


314  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

houses  and  lands  were  sold  to  purchase  military  equipments, 
chains  for  captives,  and  other  instruments  for  the  subjugation  of 
a  people  who  were  believed  to  possess  immense  stores  of  gold. 
Six  hundred  men,  selected  from  a  multitude  of  applicants,  enlisted 
under  the  banner  of  Soto,  and  sailed  in  May,  1539,  from  Cuba. 
They  landed,  a  fortnight  after,  at  the  bay  of  Espiritu  Santo,  in 
Florida. 

The  Spaniards  were  well  equipped  for  the  undertaking.  They 
had  nearly  three  hundred  cavalry,  abundance  of  stores,  blood- 
hounds, and  a  drove  of  swine,  which  would  rapidly  increase  in 
that  favorable  climate,  and  afford  them  an  unfailing  supply  of 
provision.  They  first  marched  against  the  town  of  Hirriga,  gov- 
erned, like  all  the  Floridian  states,  by  a  cacique  named  after  the 
capital.  Soto  had  humane  intentions,  but  the  Indians  held  the 
Spanish  character  in  detestation,  and  could  not  understand  the 
justice  of  the  papal  grant,  by  virtue  of  which  the  invaders  de- 
manded the  surrender  of  their  country  to  the  king  of  Spain.  The 
former  sovereign  of  Hirriga  had  his  nose  cut  off,  and  his  mother 
murdered  by  the  Spaniards.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
Soto  found  himself  an  unwelcome  visitor.  His  offers  of  alliance 
were  received  by  Hirriga,  with  the  reply  that  the  heads  of  the 
Spaniards  would  be  welcome,  but  not  their  bodies.  Foiled  in  this 
attempt,  Soto  advanced  upon  the  city  of  Urribaracaxi,  which  he 
found  abandoned  by  the  inhabitants.  They  next  marched  to 
another  city,  called  Acuera,  from  which  they  were  repelled ;  they 
now  turned  their  course  into  the  country  of  Acali,  which  they  found 
free  from  the  dangerous  marshes  that  had  so  much  incommoded 
them  heretofore.  Here  they  were  received  with  an  appearance  of 
friendship ;  but  as  they  were  constructing  a  bridge  to  cross  a  wide 
river,  hundreds  of  Indians  started  up  from  the  bushes,  discharging 
clouds  of  arrows,  and  calling  them  base  robbers  and  other  insult- 
ing names.  They  escaped,  however,  without  any  other  loss  than 
that  of  a  favorite  dog. 

The  Spaniards  next  marched  into  the  province  of  Vitachuco, 
which,  contrary  to  the  usual  custom  in  Florida,  was  divided 
among  three  brothers.  Ochile,  the  youngest,  was  surprised  in 
his  capital  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken  prisoner ;  upon  which  he 
either  was  or  appeared  to  be  gained  over,  and  undertook  to  plead 
the  cause  of  the  Spaniards  with  his  eldest  brother,  who  was  much 
the  most  powerful,  and  bore  the  name  of  Vitachuco.  He  sent  to 
acquaint  him  that  these  strangers  were  ascertained  to  be  children 
of  the  sun  and  of  the  moon,  and  rode  on  animals  so  swift,  that 
nothing  could  escape  them ;  that  they  behaved  in  the  most  friendly 
manner  towards  those  who  received  them  well,  but  committed  the 


ADVENTURES  OF  DE  SOTO  IN  FLORIDA. 


315 


most  dreadful  havoc  where  they  experienced  contrary  treatment. 
He  earnestly  exhorted  him,  therefore,  to  take  the  more  prudent 
part.  Vitachuco  answered,  in  the  most  disdainful  terms,  that  the 
solar  and  lunar  descent  of  the  Spaniards  was  a  ridiculous  fable ; 
that  whatever  outward  appearance  they  might  assume,  doubtless 
they  were,  like  all  the  rest  of  their  countrymen,  traitors,  murder- 
ers, robbers,  and  children  of  the  devil ;  that,  if  they  were  the 
honest  men  they  pretended  to  be,  they  would  stay  at  home  and 
cultivate  their  own  soil,  instead  of  coming  into  distant  climates  to 
expose  themselves,  by  their  robberies,  to  the  execration  of  mankind. 
He  afterwards  sent  messages  to  the  Spaniards,  filled  with  the 
most  violent  and  indeed  chimerical  menaces.  He  told  them  that 
if  they  entered  his  country,  he  would  command  the  earth  to 
open  and  swallow  them  up ;  the  mountains  between  which  they 
marched,  to  unite  and  crush  them;  he  would  poison  the  water,  the 
plants,  and  the  very  air.  When,  however,  he  saw  the  Spaniards 
continuing  to  advance,  and  learned  from  various  quarters  how 
very  formidable  they  were,  he  assumed  a  different  tone.  He 
went  to  meet  Soto,  and  made  many  apologies.  His  only  anxiety 
now  was,  how  he  could  do  him  the  greatest  honor.  He  tendered 
his  own  submission  and  that  of  his  subjects,  and  wished  to  learn 
what  quantity  he  would  require  of  provisions,  and  of  everything 
useful  to  him  that  his  territory  afforded.  Soto  received  his  sub- 
mission in  the  most  gracious  manner,  and  professed  his  entire 
oblivion  of  the  past.  But  the  hatred  of  Vitachuco  was  still  as 
deep  and  deadly  as  ever,  and  all  this  courteous  seeming  was  only 
to  cover  a  plot. 

The  prince  led  the  Spaniards  to  his  town,  and  provided  the  best 
accommodation  it  could  afford.  At  the  same  time,  as  if  to  do 
them  honor,  he  summoned  his  warriors  from  every  part  of  his 
territory,  and  appointed  a  day  in  which  they  were  to  be  drawn 
up  and  exhibited  in  full  array.  He  then  disclosed  to  a  number 
of  his  chiefs,  that,  on  a  signal  given,  they  should  fall  suddenly  on 
the  Spaniards,  and  exterminate  them  at  one  blow.  They  ap- 
plauded the  scheme,  and  declared  their  eagerness  to  sacrifice 
themselves,  if  necessary,  in  so  glorious  an  undertaking.  One  of 
them,  however,  communicated  the  fatal  design  to  the  Spaniards. 
Soto  resolved  to  dissemble,  and  to  turn  the  plot  of  the  Indians 
against  themselves.  He  expressed  the  pleasure  it  would  give  him 
to  see  the  Indian  pageant,  and  added  that  in  order  to  heighten 
the  pomp  of  so  great  a  day,  he  would  also  bring  out  his  own 
Spaniards  in  full  armor  and  in  order  of  battle.  Vitachuco  would 
gladly  have  dispensed  with  this  honor ;  but  he  had  no  pretence 


316  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

for  refusing;  and,  not  aware  that  all  was  discovered,  hoped  still  to 
effect  his  object  by  surprise. 

On  the  appointed  day,  the  Indians  appeared,  drawn  up  on  a 
plain  in  front  of  the  town,  having  a  wood  on  one  side,  and  a 
range  of  marshes  on  the  other.  The  Spanish  troops  marched  out 
of  the  town,  Soto  and  Vitachuco  marching  together  at  their  head. 
As  they  approached  the  spot  where  Soto  was  to  have  been  seized, 
a  musket  was  fired,  at  which  signal,  twelve  Spanish  soldiers  sur- 
rounded the  cacique,  and  made  him  prisoner.  The  Indian  army 
seeing  this,  raised  a  loud  shout  and  rushed  on  to  battle.  Soto 
mounted  his  favorite  horse,  Azeituno,  and  with  a  too  daring  valor, 
which  was  usual  with  him,  rushed  foremost  upon  the  enemy. 
The  Indians  met  him  with  a  shower  of  arrows,  aimed  particu- 
larly at  Azeituno ;  and  that  gallant  steed,  which  had  so  often 
borne  its  rider  to  victory,  was  pierced  with  eight  arrows,  and  fell 
down  dead.  Soto  fell  with  him,  and  was  in  imminent  danger ; 
but  the  Spanish  cavalry  instantly  rushed  on  and  charged  the 
enemy.  The  loose  infantry  of  the  Indians  were  broken,  dis- 
persed and  scattered  in  every  direction.  Some  hundreds,  the 
flower  of  the  army,  who  had  been  placed  in  the  rear,  could  escape 
only  by  throwing  themselves  into  a  lake.  The  Spaniards  occu- 
pied all  the  shores,  but  the  Indians  continued  floating  in  the 
water,  and  obstinately  refused  to  surrender.  They  even  locked 
themselves  three  or  four  together,  on  the  backs  of  whom  one  stood 
and  discharged  arrows  as  long  as  they  had  any  remaining.  They 
waited  anxiously  for  night,  hoping  in  the  dark  to  effect  a  landing 
and  escape  into  the  woods.  The  Spaniards,  however,  invested 
the  lake  six  deep,  and  effectually  opposed  every  attempt  to  land. 

In  the  morning  the  Indians  were  in  a  miserable  state,  half  dead 
with  cold  and  fatigue ;  yet  they  still  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  urgent 
invitations  of  the  Spaniards,  who  assured  them  of  safety  and  good 
treatment  if  they  would  surrender.  At  length,  a  few,  quite  over- 
come, approached  the  shore ;  but  the  greater  part,  after  touching 
it,  again  plunged  into  the  water.  When  it  was  seen,  however, 
that  the  few  who  landed  were  kindly  received,  others  followed. 
By  mid-day  two  hundred  had  surrendered,  and  in  the  evening  there 
remained  floating  only  seven,  who  seemed  determined  to  perish  in 
the  water  rather  than  yield.  Soto  hereupon  sent  out  half  a  dozen 
of  his  best  swimmers,  who  seized  them  by  the  hair  and  pulled 
them  on  shore.  After  they  had  recovered  from  their  almost  life- 
less state,  they  were  asked  what  could  lead  them  to  persevere  in 
so  obstinate  a  resistance.  They  replied  that  having  been  invested 
by  their  master  with  the  highest  commands,  they  considered 
themselves  bound  to  answer  such  confidence  by  sacrificing  them- 


ADVENTURES  OF  DE  SOTO  IN  FLORIDA.  317 

selves  in  his  cause.  They  felt  themselves  dishonored  in  having 
been  spared  by  the  clemency  of  Soto,  and  it  would  be  an  additional 
kindness  if  he  would  put  them  to  death.  The  high  loyalty  and 
courage  breathed  in  these  sentiments  were  congenial  to  the  ideas 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  even  shed  tears  of  admiration;  and  the 
seven,  with  general  consent,  were  left  at  liberty  to  go  to  their 
homes.  Soto  at  the  same  time  used  every  effort  to  gain  over 
Vitachuco.  He  admitted  him  again  to  his  table,  and  assured  him 
that  however  dreadful  his  conduct  had  been,  the  memory  of  it 
would  be  entirely  effaced,  provided  he  now  acted  up  to  his  former 
professions  of  fidelity. 

Soto  had  thus  far  followed  the  course  most  likely  to  conciliate 
the  Indians.  This  plan,  however,  having  been  adopted,  it  ought 
to  have  been  followed  consistently.  But  the  Spanish  commander, 
unfortunately,  began  to  think  that  some  penalty  was  necessary  to 
deter  other  Indians  from  imitating  the  example  of  Vitachuco ;  and 
the  plan  he  devised  was  the  most  injudicious  that  can  be  con- 
ceived. He  caused  his  prisoners  to  be  distributed  among  the 
Spaniards,  whom  they  were  to  serve  as  slaves  during  their  stay  in 
the  city.  These  proud  chiefs  and  warriors  were  thus  compelled 
to  act  as  cooks  and  scullions,  and  to  perform  all  the  most  menial 
offices.  Soto,  it  is  said,  meant  to  set  them  at  liberty  at  his  depart- 
ure, which  was  to  take  place  soon ;  but  he  did  not  communicate- 
this  intention  to  Vitachuco,  to  whom  it  appeared  that  his  bravest 
subjects  were  thus  doomed  to  hopeless  and  humiliating  bondage. 
That  fierce  thirst  for  revenge  which  had  been  lulled  in  the  breast 
of  this  savage  chieftain  was  awakened  anew  in  all  its  force.  The 
Indians  were  disarmed,  but  they  were  at  large,  and  in  their 
domesticated  state  had  the  Spaniards  within  their  power.  It 
appeared  to  Vitachuco  that  if  each  Indian  killed  his  master,  the 
detested  race  would  be  at  once  extinct.  The  plan  was  embraced 
with  ardor,  and  the  secret  faithfully  kept.  Three  o'clock,  while 
he  was  at  dinner,  was  the  time  fixed  by  Vitachuco  for  executing 
his  purpose.  At  this  moment  he  threw  back  his  shoulders,  cracking 
his  bones  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  the  Indians,  and  uttering  a  shout 
so  loud,  that  it  could  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a 
mile;  he  then  sprang  up,  and  seizing  the  general  by  the  arm, 
dealt  such  a  blow,  that  Soto  fell  senseless  to  the  ground,  and  the 
blood  gushed  from  his  mouth.  The  hand  of  the  Indian  was  lifted 
to  strike  another  stroke,  which  would  have  closed  forever  the 
career  of  Soto ;  but  the  Spanish  chiefs,  starting  from  the  table, 
darted  at  once  upon  the  cacique,  who  fell,  pierced  by  twelve 
wounds.  Meantime  all  the  Indians  had  heard  the  loud  cry,  and, 
starting  up,  seized  such  weapons  as  their  servile  employment 
27* 


318  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

afforded, — spits,  pots,  platters  and  chairs, — and  struck  them  with 
fury  against  the  Spaniards.  Two  or  three  men  were  killed  on  the 
spot;  almost  all  the  rest  received  wounds.  They  soon  rallied, 
however,  and  took  to  their  arms ;  but  much  embarrassment  was 
felt  by  many,  who  held  it  beneath  their  dignity  to  kill  their  own 
slaves.  All  they  would  deign  to  do  was  to  drag  them  to  the  great 
square,  to  be  despatched  by  the  arrows  of  auxiliary  Indians ;  but 
many  of  the  prisoners  shook  themselves  free,  throwing  down  and 
trampling  upon  their  masters.  However,  at  last  nearly  all  per- 
ished, with  little  loss  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards. 

After  this  dismal  and  bloody  catastrophe,  the  Spaniards  could 
have  little  satisfaction  in  remaining  at  this  place.  They  merely 
spent  four  days  in  dressing  their  wounds,  and  then  set  forward  for 
Apalachen,  which  still  bore,  in  their  estimation,  somewhat  of  that 
brilliant  character  which  had  lured  Narvaez  onward.  Their 
march  lay  through  the  province  of  Ossachile,  where  they  found, 
as  usual,  the  capital  deserted  and  the  Indians  watching  every 
opportunity  to  harass  and  cut  them  off.  Nothing  serious  occurred, 
till  they  arrived  at  the  marsh  or  lagoon  in  which  the  army  of 
Narvaez  had  suffered  so  dreadfully.  The  Indians  were  pre- 
pared for  them,  and  had  occupied  every  post  from  which  they 
could  be  conveniently  annoyed.  The  Spaniards,  like  their  pre- 
decessors, found  the  marsh  deep,  and  difficult  to  pass.  It  cost 
them  two  days  to  effect  the  passage;  but  being  continually  on  the 
watch,  and  passing  the  most  difficult  parts  in  the  night,  unper- 
ceived  by  the  enemy,  they  worked  their  way  across  without  any 
very  serious  loss.  They  had  still  to  fight  every  step  of  their  way 
to  Apalachen,  the  Indians  constantly  hovering  round  them,  and 
keeping  up  such  a  perpetual  howling,  that  the  Spaniards  could 
scarcely  obtain  a  moment's  sleep.  It  was  announced  to  them  that 
at  Apalachen  they  would  find  a  formidable  force  prepared  to  resist 
them;  but  on  their  arrival  the  city  was  abandoned,  the  cacique, 
Capafi,  having  retreated  into  the  mountains. 

Soto  sent  parties  in  many  directions  to  explore  the  country 
beyond  Apalachen,  when  it  was  found  only  in  one  quarter  to  be  of 
that  rugged  and  mountainous  character  which  had  been  reported 
to  Narvaez.  The  other  districts  were  tolerably  productive  in  millet, 
roots  and  nuts ;  so  that,  finding  no  lack  of  provisions,  he  deter- 
mined to  take  up  here  his  winter  quarters.  The  Indians,  however, 
continued  their  harassing  warfare.  Soto  resolved  upon  a  despe- 
rate effort  to  terminate  it,  by  seizing  their  prince.  Capafi  had 
sought  refuge  in  the  heart  of  a  thick  forest,  on  a  spot  accessible 
only  by  a  narrow  defile  which  the  Indians  had  fortified  by  pali- 
sades, and  considered  almost  impregnable.  The  Spaniards,  how- 


DE    SOTO    IN   FLORIDA.  '319 

ever,  pulled  up  the  stakes,  cut  the  cords,  and  soon  forced  their 
way  through  the  successive  barriers  to  the  retreat  of  Capafi.  The 
chosen  troops,  and  all  the  principal  chiefs  of  the  Indians  rallied 
round  their  cacique  in  this  utmost  peril,  but  could  not  withstand  the 
superior  arms  and  discipline  of  the  assailants.  It  was  in  vain  to 
attempt  removing  the  prince,  who  was  so  excessively  corpulent 
that  his  only  mode  of  locomotion  was  by  creeping  on  all  fours, — 
a  process  much  too  slow  for  this  exigency.  His  chiefs  were  there- 
fore obliged  to  produce  him  to  Soto,  at  the  same  time  falling  on 
their  knees,  and  entreating  him  rather  to  take  their  lives  than  do 
the  smallest  injury  to  their  beloved  monarch.  The  Spaniards 
were  so  moved  by  this  loyalty,  that  Soto  received  the  captive 
prince  with  courtesy,  and  his  weighty  person  was  respectfully 
conveyed  to  the  capital. 

Soto,  however,  was  much  disappointed  to  find  that  the  hostil- 
ities of  the  Indians,  instead  of  ceasing,  became  only  more  active 
and  formidable.  They  were  impelled  to  redoubled  efforts,  in  hopes 
of  effecting  the  deliverance  of  their  chief.  Capafi,  at  the  urgent 
request  of  Soto,  sent  repeated  orders  to  them  to  desist,  but  without 
effect.  As  the  general  complained  heavily  upon  this  subject,  and 
hinted  his  doubts  of  the  cacique's  sincerity,  the  latter  observed 
that  his  chiefs,  considering  him  in  a  state  of  captivity,  regarded 
the  orders  sent  by  him  as  not  emanating  from  his  own  free  will  s 
but  dictated  by  the  Spaniards.  If,  however,  an  arrangement  were 
made  by  which  he  might  have  an  interview  with  his  principal 
officers,  he  was  confident  of  being  able  to  persuade  them  of  his 
sincere  wish  for  peace,  and  to  make  them  to  desist  from  their  pres- 
ent courses.  This  was  rather  a  delicate  transaction;  however, 
Soto  seeing  no  hope  from  any  other  course,  at  length  agreed  upon 
the  trial.  An  appointment  was  made  with  the  principal  chiefs  to 
assemble  in  a  forest  six  miles  from  Apalachen ;  and  the  prince 
was  sent  thither  under  a  strong  guard.  They  arrived  in  the 
evening  on  the  borders  of  the  forest,  and  messengers  were  sent  to 
the  chiefs,  by  whom  a  meeting  was  arranged  for  the  following 
day.  During  the  night,  the  Spaniards  formed  a  close  circle  round 
the  cacique  and  stationed  sentinels  at  every  point  to  prevent  al/ 
possibility  of  escape.  They  hailed,  therefore,  the  dawn  of  morn 
ing,  under  the  full  confidence  of  a  happy  issue  to  their  mission. 
To  their  utter  dismay  the  cacique  was  not  to  be  found,  and  tidings 
soon  arrived  that  the  Indians  were  carrying  him  off  in  triumph. 
The  Spaniards  returned  very  disconsolate  to  Apalachen,  and 
reported  to  Soto  that  the  watch  had  been  so  strictly  kept  as  to 
leave  no  possibility  whatever  of  Capafi  having  escaped  by  human 
means.  It  was,  therefore,  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  devil,  or  one 


320  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

of  those  mighty  magicians  with  whom  the  Indians  have  such 
extensive  dealings,  must  have  wafted  his  ponderous  body  through 
the  air.  Soto,  on  strict  inquiry,  saw  much  reason  to  conclude, 
that  Morpheus,  shedding  his  heavy  dews  on  the  wearied  eyelids 
of  the  Spaniards,  had  been  the  power,  under  favor  of  whom 
Capafi  had  crept  out  of  the  circle.  However,  the  misfortune  could 
not  now  be  remedied ;  and  these  being  his  chosen  and  trusty  chiefs, 
he  did  not  choose  to  quarrel  with  them,  but  was  fain  to  acquiesce 
in  the  supernatural  solution  of  the  affair. 

Some  time  was  now  spent  in  making  inquiries,  and  at  length 
the  ears  of  the  Spaniards  were  greeted  with  the  most  alluring 
tales  of  a  yellow  metal  and  a  white  metal  which  abounded  in  the 
west.  No  doubt  was  now  entertained  that  another  Peru  was 
within  their  reach.  They  continued  their  march.  A  cacique, 
named  Patofa,  gave  them  a  most  unnecessary  and  indeed  cum- 
brous, escort  of  three  or  four  thousand  men ;  to  which,  it  appears, 
he  was  prompted  by  hostile  views  against  a  neighboring  power, 
in  which  he  erroneously  hoped  that  the  Spaniards  would  assist 
him.  Such  zeal  did  he  display  in  their  service,  that,  on  their  com- 
plaining of  an  Indian  who  had  neglected  his  duty,  he  condemned 
him  to  drink  up  the  nearest  river.  To  execute  this  task,  four  of 
the  stoutest  Indians  were  provided  with  rods,  to  beat  him  lustily 
whenever  he  made  a  moment's  pause  in  drinking.  The  luckless 
fellow  drank  and  drank,  till  his  stomach  could  receive  no  more ; 
then  being  compelled  to  pause,  the  blows  began  to  descend  with- 
out intermission,  and  he  was  forced  to  fly  back  to  the  pool,  till 
some  of  the  bystanders,  moved  with  pity,  ran  to  Soto,  and  per- 
suaded him  to  save  the  man's  life. 

The  Spaniards  then  set  forth  with  their  cumbrous  escort,  and 
proceeded  for  six  days  through  a  desert;  during  which,  however, 
they  were  copiously  supplied  with  provisions.  At  the  end  of  that 
period,  the  Indians  declared  themselves  unable  to  tell  where  they 
were,  or  whither  the  road  led.  Soto  appealed  to  Patofa,  whether 
this  was  not  a  suspicious  circumstance,  and  whether  he  could  expect 
him  to  believe  that,  of  so  great  a  crowd,  not  one  had  ever  been 
led,  by  war  or  hunting,  into  this  quarter.  The  prince,  however, 
solemnly  asserted  that  this  was  the  territory  of  their  enemies,  the 
Cofaciquis.  by  whom  they  were  generally  beaten.  The  two 
parties,  therefore,  continued  to  proceed  till  they  came  to  a  broad 
river,  which  they  had  no  possible  means  of  crossing.  The  diffi- 
culty was  much  aggravated  by  the  failure  of  their  provisions. 
Parties  were  despatched  both  up  and  down  the  river,  in  search  of 
a  passage,  but  for  five  days  without  success.  During  that  time, 
they  suffered  the  greatest  extremities  of  hunger,  which  they  were 


DE    SOTO   IN   FLORIDA.  321 

obliged  to  palliate  by  killing  a  number  of  their  favorite  d^,gs ,  and 
even  these  scarcely  afforded  a  mouthful  to  each.  At  length  they 
found  some  villages,  where  they  obtained  a  supply  of  food ;  but 
the  Indians,  indulging  their  old  enmity,  and  encouraged  by  the 
presence  of  their  Spanish  allies,  began  plundering  and  murdering 
on  all  sides.  This  was  quite  contrary  to  all  the  views  of  Soto; 
and  the  presence  of  these  Indians  being  thus  every  way  useless 
and  burdensome,  he  was  happy  in  being  able  to  prevail  on  them, 
in  a. friendly  manner,  to  go  home. 

After  some  further  travelling,  the  Spanish  general  was  fortunate 
enough  to  discover,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  the  city  of 
which  he  was  in  quest.  Ortiz  and  an  Indian  cried  out  across  the 
stream,  that  some  peaceably  disposed  strangers  wished  to  treat  of 
an  alliance  with  their  cacique.  Hereupon,  six  of  the  most  re- 
spectable inhabitants,  with  their  attendants,  entered  into  a  boat 
and  passed  the  river.  On  being  introduced  to  the  general,  they 
bowed  first  to  the  sun  in  the  east,  then  to  the  moon  in  the  west, 
and,  lastly,  to  the  general,  to  whom  they  put  the  usual  question, 
whether  he  wished  peace  or  war  ?  Soto  replied,  peace,  with  the 
addition  of  a  passage  over  the  river,  and  through  the  country, 
and  a  needful  supply  of  food.  It  was  with  regret  that  he  sought 
to  give  them  this  trouble,  but  he  hoped  to  be  able  to  make  some 
suitable  return.  The  Indians  replied,  that  there  would  be  every  - 
disposition  to  grant  his  request ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  country 
labored  under  a  severe  scarcity,  and  was  also  suffering  from  a 
pestilential  disease;  but  they  served  an  amiable  and  gentle  prin 
cess,  to  whom  the  whole  matter  should  be  reported.  The  Indians 
returned  to  the  city,  and,  soon  after,  an  ornamented  barge  was  seen 
putting  off  from  the  shore,  with  another  attending  it ;  and,  in  the 
first,  an  elegant  female,  who,  it  was  soon  perceived,  must  be  the 
princess  herself.  She  arrived,  and  quite  enchanted  the  Spaniards 
by  her  beauty,  her  grace,  and  the  courtesy  of  her  demeanor.  She 
assured  Soto,  that,  notwithstanding  the  reigning  scarcity,  she  had 
provided  two  large  houses  for  the  accommodation  of  his  people, 
and  had  lodged  in  them  six  hundred  measures  of  millet ;  besides, 
she  possessed  granaries,  out  of  which,  if  necessary,  a  larger  supply 
could  be  drawn.  She  then  untied  a  string  of  large  pearls,  which 
formed  three  circles  round  her  neck,  reaching  even  to  her  girdle, 
and  gave  them  to  Ortiz  to  deliver  to  the  general.  Soto  observed, 
how  much  freater  pleasure  it  would  give  him,  if  she  would  present 
it  with  her  own  hand,  which,  as  a  sign  of  peace,  could  not  be  con- 
sidered an  offence  against  the  nicest  decorum.  After  some  modest 
reluctance,  the  princess  advanced  and  complied  with  this  request  * 
The  Spaniards  found  themselves  more  at  home  here  than  in  any 

o2 


322 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


of  the  friendly  countries  through  which  they  had  lately  passed. 
Though  in  former  cases  the  natives  had  shown  amity,  it  had 
been  in  a  rough,  constrained,  half-reluctant  manner;  but  there 
was  something  free  and  cordial  among  the  Indians  of  Cofaciqui. 
which  made  them  feel  at  once  like  old  acquaintances.  No  time 
was  lost  in  preparing  boats  and  rafts,  and  the  army  passed  over 
in  safety. 

On  inquiring  into  the  state  of  the  country,  Soto  learned  that  the 
princess  had  a  mother,  who  held  a  sort  of  independent  establish- 
ment at  twenty  leagues  distance.  He  expressed  a  wish  to  see  the 
old  lady,  who  was  accordingly  invited ;  but,  instead  of  comply- 
ing, she  transmitted  a  sharp  reprimand  to  her  daughter,  for 
having  admitted  into  her  capital,  strangers  of  whom  she  knew 
nothing.  The  young  princess  was  so  little  affected  by  this  re- 
monstrance, that  she  concurred  in  a  plan  devised  by  Soto,  to  send 
a  detachment  and  bring  the  mother  by  force.  A  young  chief, 
with  some  servants,  was  sent  with  the  Spaniards  as  their  guide. 
This  chief,  who  had  hitherto  been  one  of  their  most  agreeable 
friends,  was  no  sooner  on  the  road,  than,  to  their  surprise,  he  sunk 
into  a  gloomy  reverie,  and  heavy  sighs  every  moment  burst  from 
him.  At  length,  taking  his  quiver,  he  began  drawing  out  all 
the  arrows,  which  were  so  beautiful  that  the  attention  of  the 
Spaniards  was  engrossed  in  admiring  them,  when  he  took  one  of 
the  sharpest,  pierced  his  own  heart,  and  instantly  expired.  His 
attendants  burst  into  tears,  and  said  that  this  chief,  being  equally 
attached  to  both  princesses,  the  present  necessity  of  failing  in  duty 
to  one  or  the  other  of  them,  had  agitated  his  mind,  and  impelled 
him  to  this  fatal  deed.  They  proceeded,  however,  to  search  for 
the  old  lady,  but  found  that  she  had  deserted  her  home ;  and  the 
Indians  represented  that,  in  attempting  to  follow  her,  they  might 
be  surrounded  and  cut  to  pieces.  The  Spaniards  therefore  re- 
turned. 


CHAPTER     XXXIV. 

Disappointment  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  search  for  gold. — Temples  of  pearls  — 
Discovery  of  Mobile. — Reception  of  the  Spaniards  by  the  natives. — Battle  of 
Mobile  anddestruction  of  the  town. —  Courage  of  the  Indian  women. — The  Span- 
iards cross  the  Mississippi. — Adventure  ofReinoso. — Death  of  Soto. — Despon- 
dency of  his  men. —  They  march  for  Mexico. — Conspiracy  of  the  Indians  against 
them. — Their  fleets  of  war-canoes. — The  Spaniards  escape  down  the  Mississippi. — 
Great  extent  of  their  researches. — Fruitless  result  of  all  the  Spanish  expeditions 
in  Florida. 


Temple  of  Tolomeco. 

MEANTIME,  anxious  inquiries  were  made  about  the  productions 
of  this  country,  and  particularly  the  white  and  yellow  metals 
before  mentioned.  The  princess  answered  that  they  were  abun- 
dant, and  specimens  were  quickly  produced.  That  instant  dis- 
pelled alLthe  brilliant  dreams,  under  the  influence  of  which  the 
Spaniards  had  undertaken  this  long  and  hazardous  expedition. 
The  yellow  metal  proved  to  be  brass  or  copper ;  the  white  metal 
was  nothing  but  a  stone,  like  quartz,  which  crumbled  in  the  hand. 
Under  this  mortifying  disappointment  their  only  consolation  was 
found  in  pearls,  which  were  found  here  in  abundance,  though 


324  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

they  could  not  form  any  judgment  as  to  their  value.  The  princess 
told  them  they  might  take  as  many  as  they  pleased  out  of  a  large 
temple,  which  seemed  also  to  be  the  cemetery  of  her  ancestors, 
and  which  was  lavishly  adorned  with  them.  This  fact,  which  is 
positively  asserted  in  the  Spanish  narratives,  cannot  but  appear 
very  singular,  when  contrasted  with  that  reverence  for  ancestry 
which  usually  distinguishes  nations  in  this  stage  of  society.  This 
and  another  temple  were  found  in  reality  to^contain  pearls  suf- 
ficient to  have  loaded  the  whole  army, — an  abundance  which  of 
itself  afforded  a  pretty  strong  presumption  that  they  were  of  small 
value.  The  other  temple  was  that  of  Tolomeco,  the  most  spa- 
cious edifice  in  Florida.  It  was  a  hundred  paces  long,  by  forty 
broad,  the  roof  formed  by  six  mats  placed  over  each  other,  and 
brilliantly  adorned  with  shells  and  pearls.  The  gate  was  orna- 
mented with  twelve  statues  of  giants  in  full  armor,  and  all  round 
the  interior  of  the  walls  were  ranged  statues  of  men  and  women 
of  the  ordinary  size,  the  men  completely  armed.  The  intendants 
of  the  Spanish  monarch  were  proceeding  to  levy  his  fifth  upon  the 
pearls  and  other  precious  articles  found  in  the  temple,— a  measure 
which  was  stopped  by  Soto,  on  the  pretence  that  they  could  not 
encumber  themselves  with  such  a  burden,  but  doubtless  from  a 
well-grounded  fear  of  provoking  the  hostility  of  the  natives. 

The  Spaniards  proceeded  on  to  Mauvila  (Mobile,)  a  frontier 
town  strongly  palisaded,  and  consisting  indeed  of  only  eighty 
houses,  but  each  of  these  divided  into  various  apartments,  and 
containing  numerous  families.  Soto,  it  is^said,  was  advised  by 
one  of  his  officers  not  to  enter  the  place ;  but  he  thought  his  men 
stood  in  need  of  the  shelter  of  a  roof.  On  their  arrival  they  were 
entertained  with  every  show  of  rejoicing;  their  horses  were  sent 
to  a  commodious  place  without  the  city,  and  they  were  regaled 
with  the  dances  of  some  beautiful  Indian  females,  who,  in  Florida, 
peculiarly  excelled  in  this  exercise.  Quedrado,  however,  who 
had  been  directed  to  reconnoitre  the  place,  brought  a  very  alarm- 
ing report, — that  the  houses  were  filled  with  armed  warriors, 
collected  from  different  parts  of  the  country, — that  all  the  children 
and  women  had  been  removed,  except  those  who  were  -young 
and  "  fit  for  the  battle."  Soto,  however,  determined  to  avoid  any 
overt  act  which  might  excite  or  indicate  hostility,  and  merely  sent 
round  a  warning  to  all  his  men  to  be  on  their  guard  Dinner 
being  ready,  notice  was  sent  to  Tascaluca,  who  usually  sat  down 
with  the  Spaniards ;  but  he  was  deeply  engaged  in  council  with 
his  chiefs,  and  sent  for  answer,  that  he  would  come  presently. 
An  interval  having  passed,  a  second  notice  was  sent,  which 
brought  a  similar  answer;  but  as  he  did  not  come,  Ortiz  was 


DE   SOTO   IN   FLORIDA.  325 

despatched  to  say  that  the  dinner  was  on  the  table,  and  that  he 
might  come  or  not,  as  he  chose.  This  message  was  received  by  a 
chief  who  came  out  of  the  council,  and  who  replied, — "  Base 
robbers,  is  it  thus  you  speak  of  the  great  Tascaluca7"  He  fol- 
lowed up  this  speech  by  giving  the  signal  for  a  general  attack. 
All  the  Indians  rushed  forth,  and  fell  in  one  mass  upon  the  Span- 
iards, who  retreated  with  their  faces  turned  towards  the  enemy, 
yet  hardly  maintaining  their  ranks  amid  clouds  of  arrows, 
which  killed  several  arid  wounded  many.  The  Indians  pursued 
them  beyond  the  walls,  and  succeeded  in  killing  several  horses, 
and  taking  a  considerable  booty.  When  the  Spaniards,  however, 
reached  their  horses  they  mounted  and  formed  in  order  of  battle. 
The  undisciplined  natives  could  not  withstand  their  shock,  but 
were  driven  back,  and  sought  refuge  within  the  walls.  There, 
being  placed  under  cover,  they  sent  forth  such  clouds  of  arrows 
and  missiles,  that  the  Spaniards  were  driven  back  in  their  turn. 
By  a  repetition  of  feigned  flights,  they  drew  the  enemy  out  of  their 
shelter,  and  gave  them  a  succession  of  defeats. 

When  the  Indians  were  thus  considerably  weakened,  and  a 
Spanish  division,  which  was  in  the  rear,  had  come  up,  Soto  mus- 
tered his  strength,  and  determined  to  storm  the  place.  He  caused 
the  cavalry,  as  the  best  armed,  to  dismount,  buckle  their  armor 
close  round  them,  and  stooping  their  heads,  to  rush  forwards  and 
force  open  the  gate.  They  succeeded,  and  entered ;  at  the  same 
time  the  foot  soldiers  broke  down  a  part  of  the  parapet,  and 
rushed  in  along  with  them.  The  Spaniards  were  soon  masters  of 
all  the  streets  and  open  places ;  but  the  enemy,  from  the  houses, 
annoyed  them  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  at  length  resolved  on 
the  dreadful  expedient  of  setting  fire  to  the  place.  The  effect 
was  immediate  in  a  town  built  only  of  reeds  and  timber ; — in  a 
few  minutes  both  armies  were  involved  in  vast  volumes  of  flame 
and  smoke.  Many  Indians,  especially  females,  perished  amid  the 
flames,  presenting  a  spectacle  which,  it  is  said,  deeply  affected 
the  conquerors.  A  number  of  the  Indians  rushed  out  and  endeav- 
ored to  renew  the  combat  in  the  fields,  but  without  success.  In 
the  last  extremity,  they  now  called  on  their  females  to  come  for- 
ward. A  number  of  these  heroines  had  not  waited  the  call,  but 
fought  side  by  side  with  their  husbands ;  and  now  at  the  general 
summons  they  rushed  forth  in  one  body  against  the  Spanish 
troops.  The  latter  felt  their  Castilian  gallantry  revolt  against 
this  species  of  combat ;  they  merely,  it  is  said,  warded  off  the  blows 
of  their  fair  assailants,  whose  fury  soon  evaporated,  and  by  sunset 
the  whole  force  of  the  Indians  was  put  to  rout.  Thus  closed 
the  dreadful  battle  of  Mauvila.  The  Indians  who  fell  are  stated 
28 


326  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

by  Vega  at  eleven  thousand,  but  by  the  more  probable  estimate 
of  a  Portuguese  narrator,  at  twenty-five  thousand.  The  number 
of  the  Spaniards  killed  on  the  spot  was  only  eighteen ;  but  of  the 
wounds,  upwards  of  seven  hundred  were  dangerous,  besides  num- 
berless slight  injuries,  which  scarcely  any  one  had  escaped. 

Soto,  proceeding  still  northwest  and  into  the  interior,  passed 
without  much  molestation  through  the  territory  of  the  Chickasaws, 
crossed  the  Mississippi  and  traversed  the  provinces  of  Colima  and 
Quigante.  But  when  he  came  to  Tulla,  a  more  fierce  resistance 
was  experienced  than  from  any  former  nation.  This  arose  chiefly 
from  the  female  warriors,  who  fought  side  by  side  with  their  hus- 
bands, and  rivalled  them  in  valor.  After  a  hard  contest  they  were 
driven  into  the  town,  where  they  still  continued  the  battle. 
Reinoso,  one  of  the  Spanish  officers,  having  mounted  into  an 
upper  chamber,  five  Indian  ladies  rushed,  upon  him,  seized  him 
by  the  legs  and  arms,  and  began  beating  him  with  all  their  might. 
Reinoso,  though  his  men  were  below,  deemed  it  unbecoming  a 
soldier  to  call  out  for  aid  against  such  assailants:  yet  he  was 
wholly  unable  to  resist,  and  the  blows  descended  with  such  force 
and  rapidity,  that  he  could  not  long  have  survived.  Luckily,  in 
the  struggle,  his  leg  forced  its  way  through  the  thin  wicker  parti- 
tion which  formed  the  floor,  and  appeared  to  a  Spaniard  who  was 
in  the  room  below,  and  who,  thinking  this  an  odd  adventure,  and 
that  it  had  much  the  appearance  of  a  Spanish  leg,  called  two  or 
three  of  his  companions,  and  running  up,  delivered  Reinoso  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  Amazons.  Juan  Serrano,  having  obtained 
possession  of  one  of  these  heroines,  endeavored  to  employ  her  as 
a  domestic  servant ;  but  she  was  continually  calling  upon  him. 
either  to  kill  her,  or  to  set  her  at  liberty,  and  throwing  at  him  pots 
and  pans,  so  that  he  was  not  sorry  at  last  when  she  made  her 
escape. 

Soto  began  now  seriously  to  consider  the  situation  into  which 
he  had  brought  himself.  He  had  plunged  again  deep  into  Florida, 
without  any  favorable  result.  He  was  continuing  to  go  onward, 
he  knew  not  where  or  why,  with  an  army  gradually  mouldering 
away.  He  became  sensible  that  the  plan  which  he  had  rashly 
abandoned,  of  building  and  fortifying  a  town  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
opening  a  communication  with  Havana  and  Mexico,  was  the  only 
one  which  afforded  a  promise  of  any  solid  establishment.  He 
was  now,  however,  so  distant  from  the  coast,  that  he  doubted 
being  able,  with  his  reduced  force,  to  make  his  way  thither  through 
so  many  nations.  He  determined  to  march  direct  to  Chucagua, 
build  there  his  town,  and  construct  two  brigantines,  which  might 
sail  down  the  stream  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Spaniards, 


DE    SOTO    IN   FLORIDA.  327 

then  retracing  their  steps,  marched  rapidly,  viewing  the  interme- 
diate countries  only  as  a  passage,  and  avoiding  all  intercourse 
with  the  natives ;  so  that  they  effected  a  march  of  nearly  three 
hundred  miles  in  a  short  time.  They  were  involved  in  some  dis- 
putes between  the  states  of  Avilca  and  Guachoia ;  but  Soto  was 
hoping  to  eifect  his  objects  in  the  course  of  the  winter,  when  a 
disease,  of  which  the  foundation  had  probably  been  laid  by  his 
labors  and  anxieties,  carried  him  off  after  an  illness  of  seven  days. 

Soto  seems  to  have  merited  a  more  fortunate  close  to  his  adven- 
turous career.  The  Portuguese  narrator  calls  him  virtuous  and 
valiant.  He  was  imbued,  indeed,  with  the  same  unjust  and  tyran- 
nical principles  which  actuated  the  other  conquerors  of  America, 
and  which  were  sanctioned  in  their  eyes  by  false  principles,  both 
of  loyalty  and  religion ;  but  he  tempered  these  principles  with 
singular  humanity,  and  combined  daring  valor  with  much  pru- 
dence and  discretion.  Had  the  plan  of  settling  Florida  not  been 
frustrated  by  the  fierce  valor  of  the  natives,  it  might  have  been 
effected  under  better  auspices  than  the  other  and  more  splendid 
conquests  and  establishments  of  the  Spanish  nation. 

On  the  death  of  Soto  a  deep  and  general  despondency  seized 
the  expedition.  After  a  short  deliberation,  it  was  resolved  to 
follow  out  the  design,  oil  which  their  hearts  had  long  been  fixed^, 
of  renouncing  Florida  forever,  and  making  their  way  by  the  most 
direct  course  to  Mexico.  Their  first  project  was  to  proceed  directly 
across  the  continent.  This  they.hoped  to  effect  by  marching  due 
west,  turning  neither  to  the  right  nor  the  left ;  and  in  this  way 
they  made  a  hundred  leagues  at  full  speed,  never  inquiring  what 
countries  they  were  going  through,  or  holding  any  communication 
with  the  inhabitants.  By  this  blind  advance,  however,  they  found 
themselves  entangled  in  wild  and  dreary  forests,  and  saw  before 
them  a  chain  of  rugged  and  trackless  mountains.  These  were 
probably  a  branch  of  the  Cordilleras,  which  they  might  have 
avoided  by  a  slight  detour ;  but  they  were  discouraged,  and  deter- 
mined to  hasten  back  to  the  Chucagua,  and  there  construct  a 
flotilla  which  might  convey  them  to  Mexico.  They  suffered  much 
on  the  road,  by  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  the  severe  cold,  and 
the  incessant  hostility  of  the  natives.  On  reaching  the  Missis- 
sippi, they  seized  on  Aminoia,  a  considerable  place,  composed  of 
two  contiguous  towns.  The  natives  did  not  willingly  admit  them, 
but  were  driven  out  after  a  short  resistance. 

As  soon  as  the  troops  were  refreshed  from  their  fatigues,  and 
the  rigor  of  the  winter  was  over,  Moscosco,  who  had  succeeded 
to  the  command,  applied  with  the  utmost  vigor  to  the  building  of 
seven  brigantines,  which  were  judged  sufficient  to  embark  the 


328  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

remaining  troops.  They  now  learned  that  a  general  confederacy 
had  been  formed  among  the  neighboring  tribes  for  their  destruc- 
tion. An  envoy  from  one  of  the  caciques  privately  assured  the 
Indian  female  captives  that  they  would  soon  be  delivered  from  the 
odious  yoke  of  the  strangers,  whose  heads,  stuck  on  lances,  would 
adorn  the  porches  of  the  temples,  while  their  bodies,  suspended 
from  the  tops  of  the  trees,  would  become  the  prey  of  the  birds. 
These  fair  prisoners,  moved  either  by  pity  or  a  tenderer  sentiment, 
gave  notice  of  the  danger.  Fortunately  for  the  Spaniards,  this 
design  was  checked  by  an  inundation  of  the  river,  which  converted 
all  the  surrounding  plain  into  a  sea,  and  made  the  streets  of  Ami- 
noia,  passable  only  in  canoes.  They  were  thus  enabled,  by  the 
end  of  July,  1543,  to  complete  their  brigantines ;  but  the  enemy 
now  determined  to  attack  them  in  their  passage  down  the  river. 
For  this  purpose  they  had  provided  nearly  a  thousand  war  canoes, 
larger  than  those  in  the  rest  of  Florida.  They  were  variously 
adorned  with  brilliant  colors, — blue,  yellow,  red  and  green ;  but 
each  canoe  with  the  oars,  and  even  the  arrows  and  plumes  of  the 
boatmen,  were  all  of  one  color.  It  was  discovered  from  the  inter- 
preter that  the  Indians  spoke  with  contempt  of  the  cowards  who 
were  flying  before  them  in  vain,  but  who  had  escaped  being  the 
prey  of  the  dogs  on  land,  only  to  be  devoured  by  the  river  mon- 
sters. Accordingly  the  voyage  down  for  ten  days  was  one  con- 
tinued battle,  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  obliged  to  remain 
strictly  on  the  defensive,  being  now  less  than  five  hundred  in 
number  and  with  their  ammunition  nearly  exhausted.  Every  one 
of  them,  notwithstanding  his  armor,  was  more  or  less  wounded, 
and  all  their  horses  were  killed  except  eight.  Having  got  the 
start  of  the  enemy  by  about  a  league,  they  landed  at  a  village  for 
provisions ;  but  were  so  closely  followed  that  they  were  obliged  to 
abandon  their  horses,  and  saw  miserably  perish  this  remnant  of  the 
three  hundred  and  fifty  noble  steeds  with  which  they  had  landed 
in  Florida,  and  whicji  had  been  the  main  instrument  of  their 
victories.  Soon  after,  the  Indians,  by  a  feigned  relaxation  in  the 
pursuit,  induced  three  barks  with  fifty-two  men,  rashly  to  separate 
from  the  rest,  when  they  were  suddenly  surprised  and  overwhelm- 
ed, the  whole  being  killed  or  drowned,  with  the  exception  of  four. 
They  continued  to  follow  the  Spaniards  during  that  day  and  the  fol- 
io wing  night;  but  next  morning,  when  they  saw  the  sunrise,  they 
raised  loud  shouts,  and  sounded  all  their  instruments  in  thanks- 
giving to  that  great  luminary,  for  the  victory  he  had  granted. 
They  then  desisted  from  the  pursuit,  which  had  been  continued 
without  intermission  for  four  hundred  leagues.  Moscosco,  with 


THE    SPANIARDS    IN   FLORIDA. 


329 


all  that  remained  of  his  troops  reached  the  ocean  without  farther 
difficulty. 

The  Portuguese  narrator  has  given  an  estimate  of  the  Spanish 
marches,  which  makes  them  amount,  in  all,  to  above  five  thousand 
miles.  This  is  certainly  extravagant ;  yet  they  were  very  exteri- 
sive,  including,  in  various  directions,  the  whole  of  Florida  and 
Georgia,  and  even  touching  Carolina.  Nothing,  however,  can  be 
more  misplaced  than  the  title  of  "  Conquest  of  Florida,"  which 
Spanish  pride  has  not  scrupled  to  affix  to  the  narrative.  With 
the  exception  of  the  deep  track  of  blood  with  which  their  steps 
were  almost  everywhere  marked,  the  Spaniards  left  Florida,  as 
they  had  found  it,  in  full  possession  of  the  native  tribes. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  1565,  that  any  permanent  settlement 
was  made  by  the  Spaniards  in  Florida.  In  that  year  Pedro 
Melendez  was  sent  on  an  expedition  for  the  colonization  of  the 
country,  and  founded  the  city  of  St.  Augustine.  The JFrench,  in 
the  meantime,  had  formed  settlements  in  Carolina,  and  bloody 
contests  ensued  between  the  two  nations,  which  ended  in  the 
total  extirpation  of  the  French.  The  subjugation  of  the  native 
Floridians,  however,  has  hardly  been  accomplished  even  at  the 
present  day. 


28* 


C  HAPTER    XXXV. 

VIROINIA.  Discovery  of  the  United  States  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot. —  Voyage 
of  Verazzani. — First  attempts  of  the  English  to  settle  North  America. —  Unsuc- 
cessful expedition  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert. —  Voyage  of  Amidas  and  Barlow. — 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh' 's  first  endeavors  at  the  settlement  of  Virginia. — Disastrous 
fate  of  the  early  adventurers. 


First  attempt  of  the  English  to  settle  North  America. 

HENRY  VII.,  of  England,  narrowly  missed  the  glory  of  attach- 
ing to  his  name  and  that  of  his  country  the  discovery  of  the 
Western  World.  But  though  he  had  lost  the  chief  prize,  he 
showed  a  disposition  to  encourage  those  who  embarked  in  these 
novel  and  brilliant  adventures.  A  serious  ofier  was  soon  made 
to  him  from  a  respectable  quarter.  Such  are  the  strange  vicissi- 
tudes of  human  destiny,  that  the  English,  who,  with  their  descend- 
ants, were  to  become  the  greatest  maritime  people  in  the  world, 
ventured  not  then  to  undertake  distant  voyages,  except  under  the 
guidance  of  Italians, — a  people  whose  vessels  are  now  hardly  ever 
seen  out  of  the  Mediterranean.  Finding  encouragement,  how- 
ever, from  the  rising  spirit  of  the  English  nation,  a  Venetian 
mariner,  named  Giovanni  Gabotto,  whose  descendants,  under  the 


DISCOVERIES   OF   THE    CABOTS.  331 

name  of  Cabot,  now  live  in  New  England,  came  over  with  his 
three  sons  to  settle  in  England.  He  presented  a  plan  to  Henry, 
for  a  western  voyage  of  discovery.  It  met  with  the  approbation 
of  the  king,  and  Cabot  set  sail  for  the  west. 

On  the  24th  of  June,  1497,  he  saw  land,  which  he  named 
Prima  Vista.  This  was  Newfoundland.  He  then  sailed  along 
a  considerable  extent  of  coast  north  and  south,  when,  finding  the 
whole  to  be  a  continent  with  no  opening  to  the  westward,  he  re- 
turned to  England.  This  was  the  first  discovery  of  the  continent 
of  America ;  for  it  was  not  till  the  following  year  that  Columbus 
saw  the  main  land  of  South  America,  where  the  Orinoco  pours  its 
vast  flood  into  the  ocean.  It  is  remarkable,  and  se«ms  to  indicate 
a  very  supine  state  of  feeling  upon  these  subjects,  that  while  the 
Spanish  discoverers  found  such  numerous  historians,  not  a  single 
narrative  should  exist  of  the  memorable  voyage  of  Cabot.  The 
most  authentic  account  is  contained  in  a  writing  made  on  a  map 
drawn  by  Cabot's  son,  Sebastian.  It  is  very  brief,  and  merely 
states  the  discovery  of  Newfoundland  and  the  appearance  of  the 
country.  The  natives  were  clothed  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts. 
In  war  they  used  bows,  arrows,  darts,  wooden  clubs  and  slings. 
The  land  was  barren  and  bore  no  fruit;  while  bears  arid  stags  of 
an  enormous  size  roamed  in  great  numbers  over  it.  Fish  were 
plenty ;  among  them  were  sea-wolves,  salmon,  and  soles  a  yard 
long.  But  above  all,  there  was  a  great  abundance  of  the  fish 
called  bacalaos,  or  cod. 

One  more  meagre  testimony  is  contained  in  the  chronicle  of 
Fabyan,  who  saw  three  natives  brought  over  by  the  Cabots  from 
Newfoundland.  "  These  were  clothed  in  beasts'  skins,  and  did  eat 
raw  flesh,  and  spake  such  speech  that  no  man  could  understand 
tfiem."  Two  years  after,  he  saw  them  dressed  like  Englishmen 
in  Westminster  palace, — "  which  that  time  I  could  not  discern 
from  Englishmen,  till  I  was  learned  what  they  were;  but  as  for 
speech,  I  heard  none  of  them  utter  one  word."  Such  are  all  the 
records  which  England  has  seen  fit  to  preserve  of  this  her  earliest 
and  one  of  her  most  illustrious  naval  exploits.  John  Cabot  soon 
died,  and  Sebastian,  the  most  intelligent  of  his  sons,  not  finding 
sufficient  encouragement  in  England,  repaired  to  Spain,  where  the 
ardor  for  discovery  still  continued.  He  was  readily  received  into 
service,  and  despatched  by  the  king  to  the  coast  of  Brazil,  where 
he  discovered  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  He  became  the  most  eminent 
person  of  his  age  for  nautical  'science,  and  obtained  the  distin- 
guished title  of  Piloto  Mayor  of  Spain. 

On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  when  the  English  nation 
caught  at  last  the  full  enthusiasm  of  maritime  adventure,  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  was  invited  back  to  England,  and  made  Grand  Pilot 


332  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  the  kingdom.  Whether  he  made  a  second  voyage  to  America 
is  uncertain ;  but  he  formed  the  plan  and  drew  up  instructions  for 
the  expedition  sent  under  Sir  Hugh  Willoiighhy  and  Chancellor, 
to  attempt  the  discovery  of  India  by  the  northeast.  In  1500,  the 
Portuguese,  under  Cortereal,  visited  Newfoundland  and  Labrador, 
but  made  no  settlement. 

The  earliest  voyage  along  the  coast  of  North  America,  of  which 
we  have  any  detailed  account,  is  that  of  John  Verazzani,  a  Flor- 
entine, who,  under  the  patronage  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  sailed  in 
1524,  to  discover  lands  in  the  west.  He  appears  to  have  touched  first 
at  Carolina  or  Florida.  Large  fires  were  seen  burning  on  shore ; 
but  he  sought  in  vain  for  a  good  harbor.  After  sailing  south  and 
north  in  this  fruitless  search,  he  landed  in  a  boat.  The  natives 
came  down  to  the  shore  in  considerable  numbers,  but  on  the 
approach  of  the  Europeans,  ran  away,  At  length,  being  sat- 
isfied that  they  had  nothing  to  fear,  they  brought  provisions  to 
their  visitors,  assisted  them  in  drawing  their  boat  on  shore,  and 
viewed  with  surprise  and  admiration  the  dress  and  white  skin  of 
the  strangers.  They  were  tall,  handsome,  swift  of  foot  and  naked, 
except  the  furs  which  were  tied  round  their  waist  by  a  girdle  of 
plaited  grass  and  hung  down  to  the  knees.  The  coast  was 
sand}7",  rising  into  low  hills ;  but  as  they  proceeded,  it  became 
loftier,  and  was  covered  with  magnificent  woods,  not  of  the 
common  forest  trees,  but  palm,  cypress,  and  others  unknown  to 
Europe,  and  which  diffused  the  most  delicious  perfume.  This 
spot  appears  to  have  been  Cape  Fear,  in  North  Carolina. 

They  now  proceeded  along  the  coast,  which  turned  to  the  east- 
ward, and  appeared  very  populous,  but  so  low  and  open  that  even 
a  boat  could  not  approach  it.  In  this  emergency,  a  young  sailor 
offered  to  swim  ashore,  and  open  an  intercourse  with  the  natives. 
They  crowded  to  receive  him ;  but  just  as  he  had  arrived  within 
a  few  yards  of  the  land,  his  courage  failed,  and  he  attempted  to 
turn  back.  A  high  wave  struck  him,  and  he  was  thrown  on  the 
beach  half  dead.  The  natives  immediately  stripped  him  naked, 
and  carried  him  to  a  large  fire  which  they  had  kindled.  His 
friends  in  the  ships  never  doubted  that  he  was  about  to  be  roasted 
alive  and  eaten ;  and  the  youth  himself  was  at  first  of  the  same 
opinion.  But  he  was  soon  assured  of  his  safety  when  they 
merely  brought  him  so  near  as  to  place  him  in  a  comfortable 
degree  of  warmth.  They  viewed  with  an  eager  but  a  kindly 
curiosity,  the  whiteness  of  his  skin  and  the  other  novelties  of  his 
appearance.  On  his  making  signs  that  he  wished  to  return,  they 
took  leave  of  him  with  marks  of  warm  affection,  accompanied 
him  to  the  shore,  and  watched  him  with  their  eyes  till  he  reached 
the  vessel. 


VOYAGE    OF   VERAZZANI.  333 

Verazzani  now  sailed  onward,  and  saw  the  coast  of  Virginia. 
Like  the  former  land,  it  was  beautiful,  and  covered  with  noble 
trees.  The  canoes  of  -the  natives  were  hollowed  out  of  a  single 
tree  by  the  use  of  fire.  The  men  had  all  fled,  and  they  overtook 
only  two  females,  one  of  whom  was  old,  and  the  other  young,  tafl 
and  handsome.  The  old  woman  was  soon  prevailed  upon  to  eat 
of  the  victuals  which  they  offered  her,  and  even  allowed  them  to 
take  a  little  boy  from  her  arms,  which  the  crew  wished  to  carry 
away.  The  young  woman,  on  the  contrary,  threw  all  their  pres- 
ents indignantly  on  the  ground,  and  when  they  attempted  to  carry 
her  off,  she  uttered  such  frightful  screams  that  they  desisted. 
Sailing  a  hundred  leagues  farther,  the  voyagers  came  to  a  fine 
sheltered  bay,  surrounaed  by  gentle  hills,  and  receiving  a  great 
river,  so  deep  that  loaded  ships  might  ascend  it.  This  was  proba- 
bly the  Hudson ;  but  dreading  accidents,  they  only  went  up  the 
stream  in  their  boats,  and  found  a  country  equally  rich  and  beau- 
tiful, which  the,y  left  with  regret.  The  hills,  to  their  anxious 
view,  appeared  to  afford  some  promise  of  mineral  riches. 

From  this  place  they  sailed  fifty  leagues  eastward  along  the 
coast,  and  came  to  an  island  ten  leagues  from  land,  apparently 
Martha's  Vineyard.  It  was  covered  with  gentle  and  finely- 
wooded  hills.  Twenty  canoes,  filled  with  natives,  appeared,  and 
approaching  within  fifty  paces,  set  up  shouts  of  wonder  and  as-' 
tonishment.  The  voyagers  threw  them  bells,  mirrors,  and  other 
little  toys,  which  soon  enticed  them  on  board  the  ships.  Veraz- 
zani thought  them  the  handsomest  men,  and  the  most  civilized  in 
their  manners,  that  he  had  yet  seen  in  the  newly-discovered  coun- 
try. Their  color  was  lighter  than  that  of  the  more  southern 
people,  and  their  forms  even  approached  to  the  beauty  of  the 
antique.  They  became  intimate  with  the  voyagers,  who  made 
several  excursions  with  them  into  the  country,  and  found  it  cov- 
ered with  noble  forests.  They  showed,  however,  an  extreme 
jealousy  of  their  women,  whom  they  would  on  no  account  allow 
to  approach  the  vessels.  Even  the  queen,  while  her  royal  hus- 
band spent  a  long  time  on  board,  examining  the  ship  and  commu- 
nicating by  signs  and  gestures  with  the  crew,  was  left  with  her 
female  attendants  in  a  boat  at  a  little  distance. 

Again  setting  sail,  they  proceeded  a  hundred  and  fifty  leagues 
along  a  coast  running  first  to  the  east  and  then  to  the  north, 
which  shows  that  they  were  now  upon  the  shores  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  country  was  in  general  similar  to  that  which  they  had 
left,  though  it  gradually  became  higher,  and  sometimes  rose  into 
mountains.  Fifty  leagues  further,  in  the  direction  of  east  and* 
north,  brought  them  to  a  region  of  thick  and  dark  woods,  doubt- 


334  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

less  the  State  of  Maine.  Here  they  stopped  and  endeavored  to 
open  an  intercourse  with  the  natives,  but  found  them  shy  and 
unfriendly.  They  were  tempted,  indeed,  by  the  display  of  trin- 
kets which  the  crew  exhibited,  but  this  led  to  no  satisfactory 
results.  They  came  down  to  the  shore,  where  a  violent  surf  was 
breaking,  and  accepted  a  few  knives  and  fish-hooks,  which  the 
sailors  passed  to  them  by  a  rope ;  but  declined  all  further  inter- 
course. There  was  no  temptation  to  linger  here,  and  the  voyagers 
pursued  their  course  fifty  leagues  further,  during  which  they 
counted  thirty  islands,  separated  by  narrow  channels.  This  was, 
probably,  Penobscot  Bay ;  leaving  which  place,  they  came  next 
to  Newfoundland,  and  then  returned  to  France,  having  completed 
a  survey  of  more  than  two  thousand  mile*  of  coast. 

The  high  hopes  excited  by  the  successful  result  of  this  voyage 
were  not  realized  by  the  French.  Verazzani,  on  his  second  expe- 
dition, was  killed  and  devoured  by  the  natives,  if  we  may  believe 
the  accounts  given  at  the  time ;  though  neither  the  date,  place 
nor  circumstances  of  this  catastrophe,  are  stated  by  any  contem- 
porary writer.  We  must  return  to  England  to  pursue  the  history 
of  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  the  territory  now  under  con- 
sideration. 

The  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  produced  a  great  and  per- 
manent change  in  the  spirit  of  the  English  nation  with  regard  to 
maritime  affairs.  That  prudent  princess,  though  never  liberal  of 
treasure,  inspired  and  seconded  the  enterprising  spirit  of  her  peo- 
ple, which  combining  with  their  antipathy  to  the  Spanish,  impelled 
them  especially  to  adventure  in  the  regions  of  the  west.  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert,  of  Compton,  in  Devonshire,  formed  the  first 
design  of  leading  a  colony  to  America.  Aided  by  Sir  "Walter 
Raleigh  and  Sir  George  Peckham,  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  five  ves- 
sels, and  sailed  for  the  west,  May  tlth,  1583.  One  of  the  ships 
put  back  on  the  second  day,  but  the  rest  held  on  their  course,  and 
after  being  retarded  by  westerly  winds  and  heavy  fogs,  reached 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland  about  the  end  of  July.  This  spot 
they  knew,  without  heaving  the  lead,  by  the  incredible  number 
of  seafowl,  which  darkened  the  air.  Thirty-six  vessels,  from 
Europe,  were  found  fishing  upon  the  banks.  Gilbert  appears 
to  have  conducted  in  a  very  arbitrary  and  unjustifiable  manner 
toward  the  foreigners,  robbing  them  of  their  stores  without 
scruple ;  but  the  queen's  commission  was  judged  a  sufficient 
warrant  for  almost  any  act  of  power  in  this  quarter.  He  took 
possession  of  the  country  around  the  harbor  of  St.  John's,  but 
his  crew  became  discontented,  and  plotted  against  him.  The 
country  was  dreary  and  barren ;  the  weather  was  stormy ;  ship 


VOYAGE  OF  AMIDAS  AND  BARLOW.  335 

after  ship  was  lost,  and  finally  Sir  Humphrey  himself.     A  single 
vessel  of  all  the  squadron  returned  to  England. 

The  disastrous  issue  of  this  enterprise  did  not,  however,  check 
the  spirit  of  adventure.  In  the  year  1584,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
one  of  the  most  remark ahle  men  that  adorned  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, undertook,  at  his  sole  charge,  a  grand  scheme  of  colonization, 
for  which  he  obtained  an  ample  patent  from  the  queen.  He  did 
not  proceed  in  person  upon  the  expedition,  but  despatched  two 
vessels  under  the  command  of  captains  Amidas  and  Barlow. 
These  adventurers,  in  order  to  avoid  the  disasters  which  Gilbert 
had  suffered  from  the  northern  mists  and  tempests,  took  a  circui- 
tous route  by  the  Canaries  and  the  Bahama  channel,  after  which 
they  steered  to  the  north.  On  approaching  the  land,  they  were 
greeted  with  a  gale  of  the  most  delicious  odors,  such  as  might 
have  been  exhaled  from  a  garden  of  flowers.  They  approached 
cautiously,  and  found  themselves  on  a  long  line  of  coast,  but 
without  any  appearance  of  a  harbor.  The  shore  was  low  and 
sandy,  but  green  hills  rose  in  the  interior,  and  the  woods  exhibited 
such  a  profusion  of  grapes  as  had  never  been  seen  by  those  who 
had  travelled  in  the  finest  wine  countries  of  Europe.  They  sailed 
a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  before  they  found  a  landing-place. 
On  landing  and  mounting  the  nearest  hill,  they  were  surprised  to 
discover  that  the  whole  of  this  range  of  coast  was  an  island.  It 
was  that  long  strip  of  land  which  incloses  Pamlico  Sound,  in  North 
'  Carolina. 

The  English  spent  two  days  here  without  seeing  any  people ; 
but  on  the  third,  a  boat  with  three  men  approached,  one  of  whom 
landed  on  the  beach.  The  English  sent  a  boat  on  shore,  which 
he  fearlessly  awaited,  and  began  to  speak  fluently  in  an  unknown 
tongue.  He  cheerfully  accepted  their  invitation  to  go  on  board  ; 
ate  their  food,  drank  their  wine,  and,  receiving  some  presents  of 
dress,  departed  highly  pleased.  Other  natives  soon  appeared,  and 
at  length  came  the  king's  brother,  Granganimeo,  with  a  train  of 
forty  or  fifty  attendants.  They  were  handsome  men,  very  cour- 
teous in  their  demeanor,  and  treated  their  chief  with  the  most 
abject  submission.  They  spread  a  mat  for  him  to  sit  upon,  and 
stood  round  him  in  a  circle,  none  speaking,  except  four,  marked 
as  chiefs  by  red  pieces  of  copper  on  their  heads, — and  these  whis- 
pered in  a  low  tone  to  each  other.  The  English  began  to  make 
presents,  first  to  Granganimeo,  and  then  to  his  officers ;  but  he 
took  all  these  and  put  them  into  his  own  basket,  making  signs 
that  all  things  should  be  presented  to  him  alone.  Commerce  was 
the  next  business,  for  which  a  quantity  of  valuable  skins,  brought 
by  the  natives,  formed  a  desirable  object.  The  English  now  dis- 


336  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

played  their  goods  and  trinkets,  and  the  chief  instantly  fixed  upon 
a  tin  plate,  which  he  applied  to  his  breast,  and  having  made  a 
hole  in  the  rim,  hung  it  round  his  neck,  declaring  that  he  was 
now  invincible,  and  fearless  of  an  enemy.  For  this  plate  he  gave 
twenty  valuable  skins.  After  more  traffic,  equally  profitable,  and 
excursions  to  various  parts  of  the  coast,  particularly  to  Roanoke, 
where  they  found  a  queen,  who  treated  them  with  great  kindness, 
they  returned  to  England. 

The  two  captains  gave  the  most  flattering  account  of  the  coun- 
try on  their  .return.  "  The  soil,"  said  they,  "  is  the  most  fruitful, 
sweet,  and  plentiful  and  wholesome  of  all  in  the  world.  We 
found  the  people  most  gentle,  loving  and  faithful,  void  of  all  guile 
and  treason,  and  such  as  lived  after  the  manner  of  the  golden 
age."  These  reports  enchanted  Raleigh,  and  filled  the  kingdom 
with  high  expectations.  The  queen  honored  this  land  of  promise 
by  naming  it  Virginia,  in  allusion  to  her  unmarried  state,  of 
which  she  was  fond  of  making  an  ostentatious  mention.  Raleigh 
expended  almost  his  whole  fortune  in  equipping  a  second  expedi- 
tion. This  consisted  of  seven  ships,  the  largest  of  which  was 
one  hundred  and  twenty  tons  burthen.  Ralph  Lane  was  ap- 
pointed governor.  The  fleet  was  commanded  by  Sir  Richard 
Grenville, — a  man  accounted  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  Eng- 
lish chivalry.  He  steered  first  towards  the  West  Indies,  and 
reached  Virginia  on  the  29th  of  June,  1585.  He  landed  his  colony, 
and  discovered  Chesapeake  Bay.  At  the  head  of  Roanoke  Sound, 
they  found  a  chief  named  Menaton,  who  commanded  seven  hun- 
dred fighting  men.  The  chief,  with  his  favorite  son,  they  took 
prisoners.  The  former  was  set  at  liberty,  but  the  latter  was  retained 
as  a  hostage.  Menaton  gave  the  English  an  enticing  description 
of  the  country.  Pearls  were  represented  as  so  abundant  in  the 
upper  country  of  the  Moratiks  and  the  Mangoaks,  that  not  only 
their  fur  garments,  but  the  beds  and  the  walls  of  the  houses  were 
bedecked  with  them.  Much  was  said,  also,  of  a  wonderful  species 
of  copper,  which  was  found  high  up  in  the  sands  of  the  river. 

These  accounts  highly  inflamed  the  imagination  and  cupidity 
of  the  English,  and  the  utmost  eagerness  was  felt  to  push  forward 
to  this  rich  country.  Menaton  assured  them  that  in  ascending  the 
river,  they  would  find  relays  of  men  with  provisions,  at  every 
point,  and  that  the  people  would  be  prepared  to  give  them  the 
kindest  reception.  Forty  of  the  adventurers,  therefore,  embarked 
in  two  boats,  and  proceeded  up  the  stream.  Great  was  their  dis- 
appointment when  they  passed  three  days  without  seeing  one  of 
the  natives,  or  an  article  of  food.  All  the  towns  were  deserted, 
and  every  useful  thing  carried  away.  The  English  now  began 


DISASTERS    OF    THE    SETTLERS    OF    VIRGINIA.  337 

to  suspect  they  were  betrayed;  but  unwilling  to  abandon  at  once 
their  golden  hopes,  sailed  on  two  days  longer,  subsisting  on  the 
flesh  of  two  dogs  made  into  a  soup,  with  sassafras  leaves.  Still 
they  found  neither  men  nor  food  on  shore,  and  saw  only  lights  at 
night  moving  to  and  fro  in  the  interior.  At  length,  in  the  after- 
noon, a  voice  from  the  woods  called  out,  "  Manteo!"  This  was 
the  name  of  one  of  their  Indian  guides,  and  a  joyful  hope  arose 
that  a  friendly  intercourse  was  about  to  be  opened.  Manteo, 
however,  on  hearing  the  voice,  and  a  song  which  followed  it,  bade 
them  be  on  their  guard.  Presently  a  cloud  of  arrows  fell  among 
them.  They  immediately  landed  and  attacked  the  savages ;  but 
they  escaped  into  the  forest.  The  English  kept  watch  all  night, 
and  in  the  morning  set  out  on  their  return  to  the  coast. 

They  reached  their  companions  just  in  time  to  prevent  a  gen- 
eral rising  of  the  natives.  Hostilities,  however,  soon  broke  out, 
and  the  enmity  of  all  the  tribes  became  firmly  rooted.  -  In  the 
hopes  of  starving  the  English,  they  had  abstained  from  sow- 
ing any  of  the  lands  around  the  settlement.  No  fresh  supplies 
arrived  from  England  at  the  time  expected.  While  they  were  in 
this  forlorn  condition,  a  fleet  of  twenty-three  vessels  came  in 
sight ;  this  was  the  squadron  of  •  Sir  Francis  Drake,  returning 
from  his  victorious  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  colonists  gladly  seized  this  opportunity  to  return  to* 
England,  and  every  man  embarked  without  scruple.  A  few  days 
after  this  hasty  abandonment  of  the  colony,  arrived  a  vessel  from 
England,  with  ample  stores ;  and  the  crew,  to  their  amazement, 
found  no  colony  to  relieve.  They  sailed  along  the  coast,  and 
made  excursions  into  the  country,  but  all  search  being  vain, 
they  returned  to  England.  A  fortnight  after,  arrived  Sir  Richard 
Grenville,  with  three  well-appointed  vessels,  bringing  everything 
requistie  to  place  the  settlement  in  the  most  flourishing  state. 
Great  was  his  dismay  when  neither  the  colony  nor  the  ship  sent 
for  its  relief,  nor  any  trace  of  the  English  was  to  be  discovered. 
He  also  returned  to  England,  leaving  fifty  men  on  the  island  of 
Roanoke,  to  hold  the  place  till  he  should  Arrive  with  more  ample 
supplies. 

All  these  disasters  did  not  discourage  Raleigh.  He  sent  out 
three  more  ships,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  unde*r  John 
White,  as  governor.  They  arrived  on  the  22d  of  July.  On 
landing  and  searching  for  the  fifty  men  of  the  colony,  they  found 
only  the  bones  of  one, — a  dreadful  spectacle,  which  told  too  dis- 
tinctly the  fate  of  the  rest.  The  fort  was  razed  to  the  ground ;  the. 
houses  were  in  ruins  and  overgrown  with  grass,  on  which  deer 
were  browsing,  and  all  was  melancholy  and  desolate.  White, 
29  Q2 


338 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


however,  sent  invitations  to  the  neighboring  chiefs,  to  open  a 
friendly  intercourse,  assuring  them  that  all  should  be  forgiven 
and  forgotten.  They  returned  a  courteous  answer,  saying  that 
they  would  reply  within  eight  days.  Meantime,  the  English 
learned  the  history  of  the  unfortunate  settlers.  They  had  been 
surprised  and  attacked  by  three  hundred  Indians.  They  re- 
treated into  their  storehouse,  which  the  assailants  set  on  fire. 
Part  of  them  perished  in  the  flame,  part  were  massacred,  and  the 
remainder  fled  into  the  woods,  where  they  were  heard  of  no  more. 
Irritated  by  this  relation,  and  hearing  nothing  from  the  chiefs 
to  whom  he  had  made  his  overtures,  White  determined  on  instant 
revenge.  He  attacked  a  party  of  the  natives,  as  they  were  sitting 
round  a  fire,  and  pursued  them  into  a  thicket,  when  it  was  discov- 
ered that  they  belonged  to  one  of  the  tribes  friendly  to  the  Eng- 
lish. This  ill-judged  burst  of  resentment  was  the  only  exploit 
performed  by  Governor  White;  and  the  colonists,  who  suffered 
unexpected  privations  and  hardships,  forced  him  to  return  imme- 
diately to  England  for  further  supplies.  Much,  delay  followed, 
and  it  was  not  till  1590,  that  another  expedition  reached  Virginia, 
when  a  scene  of  desolation  similar  to  the  former,  again  presented 
itself  in  the  place  'occupied  by  the  unfortunate  colony.  The 
houses  were  demolished,  and  a  great  part  of  the  stores  were  found 
buried  in  the  earth.  This  led  at  first  to  the  hope  that  the  settlers 
had  removed  to  some  other  spot  in  the  neighborhood ;  but  as  no 
trace  was  ever  found  of  them,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the 
whole  miserably  perished. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

VIRGINIA  CONTINUED. —  Voyage  of  Newport. — Discovery  of  Chesapeake  Bay. — 
Adventure  of  Captain  Smith  and  Pocahontas. — Smith  explores  the  Chesapeake. — 
Cultivation  of  Tobacco. —  Vicissitudes  of  the  colonists. — Massacre  by  the  In- 
dians.— Dissolution  of  the  London  Company  who  held  the  charter  of  the  colony . — 
El  success  of  their  administration. 


Settlement  of  Jamestown. 


THESE  repeated  disasters  at  length  discouraged  Raleigh,  who 
had  expended  nearly  his  whole  fortune  without  any  prospect  of  a 
return.  Grenville,  meantime,  had  died.  Raleigh  made  no  farther 
attempts  to  colonize  Virginia.  The  design  was  therefore  sus- 
pended for  some  years ;  but.  in  1 602,  it  received  a  new  impulse 
from  a  voyage  made  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  to  the  coast  of 
New  England,  or  North  Virginia,  as  it  was  then  called.  Sir 
Thomas  Gates,  Sir  George  Summers,  Richard  Hakluyt  and 
others,  obtained  a  patent  for  South  Virginia,  as  a  company  of 
merchants  and  adventurers :  and  on  the  19th  of  December,  1606, 
three  vessels  sailed  from  London,  under  the  command  of  Captain 
Newport.  Many  persons  of  distinction  were  in  this  expedition^ ; 
among  others  Captain  John  Smith,  who  was  destined  to  become 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

celebrated  in  the  history  of  Virginia.  He  possessed  all  those 
qualities  of  firmness,  courage  and  perseverance,  which  could  fit 
him  for  the  arduous  task  of  founding  a  colonial  establishment. 
He  had  been  appointed  one  of  the  council  for  the  government  of 
the  colony.  The  president  of  the  council  was  Edward  Maria 
Wingfield ;  but  Smith,  from  the  force  of  his  character,  was  allowed 
to  take  a  leading  part  in  the  very  outset  of  the  undertaking.  He 
soon  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  colleagues,  who  charged  him  with 
a  design  of  making  himself  king  of  Virginia.  Upon  this  vague 
accusation,  he  was  arrested  and  kept  in  close  confinement  above 
a  year. 

Towards  the  end  of  April,  1607.  they  came  nearly  in  sight  of 
the  coast  of  Virginia,  when  they  met  a  violent  storm,  which  drove 
them  out  of  their  reckoning,  and  they  sailed  three  days  without 
any  view  of  the  expected  land.  So  disheartened  were  they  by 
their  long  passage,  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  steering  back  to 
England,  when  they  came  in  sight  of  an  unknown  cape  at  the 
entrance  of  a  spacious  gulf.  This  was  Cape  Henry,  at  the  mouth 
of  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  shores 
surpassed  all  they  had  yet  seen  of  the  American  continent.  Their 
first  intercourse  with  the  natives,  however,  showed  that  a  deep 
feeling  of  hostility  against  the  English  had  become  rooted  in 
their  minds.  A  party  from  the  ship  having  gone  on  shore  for 
recreation,  the  savages  came  creeping  down  the  hills  on  all  fours, 
with  their  bows  in  their  mouths,  and  when  sufficiently  near,  dis- 
charged a  cloud  of  arrows,  wounding  two  of  the  English.  A 
volley  of  musketry  sent  them  back  to  the  woods  with  loud  cries. 
When  the  ships  reached  Cape  Comfort,  they  saw  five  more  natives, 
who  at  first  were  shy,  but  at  length  invited  the  English  by  signs  to 
come  ashore  to  their  town.  They  proceeded  to  it  by  rowing  across 
a  river,  while  the  savages  swam,  holding  their  bows  and  arrows  in 
their  mouths.  The  reception  of  the  strangers  was  singular.  The 
Indians  made  a  doleful  noise,  laying  their  faces  to  the  ground  and 
scratching  the  earth  with  their  nails.  "  We  did  think  they  had  been 
at  their  idolatry,"  says  the  narrator.  After  this  greeting,  they 
spread  mats  on  the  ground  and  covered,  them  with  such  dainties  as 
the  country  afforded,  including  tobacco,  which  they  smoked  out  of 
long,  ornamented  pipes.  They  then  entertained  their  visitors  with 
a  dance,  "beating  their  hands,  shouting,  howling,  and  stamping 
like  so  many  wolves  or  devils."  .  After  this  entertainment,  the 
English  departed  in  peace. 

Proceeding  higher  up  the  bay,  they  came  among  people  who 
had  probably  never  before  seen  Europeans.  Here  they  were 
received  still  more  cordially.  The  king,  or  Werrowannee,  of 


SETTLEMENT    OF   JAMESTOWN.  341 

Rappahannoc,  met  them  with  all  his  train, — "as  goodly  men,"  says 
one  of  the  adventurers,  "  as  I  have  seen  of  savages  or  Christians. 
His  body  was  painted  all  of  crimson,  with  a  chain  of  beads  about 
his  neck ;  his  face  painted  blue,  besprinkled  with  silver  ore,  as  we 
thought;  his  ears  all  hung  with  bracelets  of  pearl,  and  in  either 
ear  a  bird's  claw  beset  with  fine  copper  or  gold.  He  entertained 
us  in  so  modest  a  proud  fashion  as  though  he  had  been  a  prince 
of  civil  government."  He  invited  the  English  to  his  house  on  a 
hill  covered  with  the  finest  corn-fields ;  the  vales  were  watered 
by  beautiful  rivulets.  One  of  the  English  having  a  very  strong 
target,  which  could  resist  shot,  set  it  up  for  an  Indian  to  shoot  at. 
The  Indian  took  his  arrow  of  cane,  an  ell  in  length,  headed  with 
a  sharp  stone,  and  shot  the  target  through.  A  steel  target  was 
then  set  up,  against  .which  the  arrow  was  broken  in  pieces ;  on 
which  the  Indian  took  out  another,  bit  it  in  a  rage,  and  went 
away. 

A  fine  river  was  next  discovered,  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  James's  river,  in  honor  of  king  James  I.,  from  whom  they  held 
their  patent.  Ascending  this  river  forty  miles,  they  selected  a 
spot  on  its  banks  for  a  settlement.  A  town  was  begun,  named 
Jamestown.  But  their  provisions  soon  began  to  fall  short;  sick- 
ness spread  among  them,  and  at  the  end  of  summer,  fifty  of  the 
settlers  had  died.  In  their  distress,  all  eyes  were  turned  towards 
Smith,  whose  courage  and  enterprise  were  well  known.  Believ- 
ing him  to  be  the  only  man  who  could  provide  a  remedy  for  their 
evils,  they  released  him  from  confinement,  and  gave  him  the 
supreme  command.  Smith  set  forth  to  collect  provisions  in  the 
surrounding  country.  The  Indians,  knowing  the  famishing  con- 
dition of  the  English,  received  them  with  derision,  and  demanded 
their  muskets,  swords,  and  other  valuables.  Finding  it  impossi- 
ble to  trade,  the  English  fired  a  volley  and  frightened  the  savages 
into  the  woods.  Smith's  party  then  entered  a  village,  which  was 
found  well  stocked  with  provisions.  They  proposed  to  carry  these 
off  without  delay,  but  Smith  insisted  upon  remaining  till  the 
Indians  returned,  as  he  had  no  doubt  they  would  do  ere  long. 
Soon  they  heard  a  hideous  noise,  and  a  body  of  sixty  or  seventy 
Indians  issued  from  the  woods.  They  were  painted  black,  white 
and  red,  and  advanced  singing,  dancing,  and  bearing  in  front 
their  okee,  or  idol, — an  image  of  skins  stuffed  with  moss,  painted, 
and  hung  with  chains  of  copper.  In  this  style  they  made  a 
furious  attack  upon  the  English,  but  were  driven  back  to  the 
woods,  with  the  loss  of  their  idol  and  several  of  their  men.  This 
defeat  jappeared  to  dishearten  them,  and  presently  a  venerable 
personage  came,  out  with  overtures  of  peace.  A  treaty  was 
29* 


342  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

concluded,  terms  of  barter  were  agreed  upon,  and  the  English 
obtained  a  boat-load  of  provisions. 

After  some  further  excursions,  Smith  returned  to  Jamestown, 
and  found  a  scheme  on  foot  to  break  up  the  settlement  and  return 
to  England.  He  put  down  this  attempt,  and  set  out  to  explore  the 
Chickahominy,  a  branch  of  James's  river.  He  sailed  so  far  up 
that  his  boat  could  be  forced  onward  only  by  cutting  down  the 
trees  which  overhung  the  stream.  At  length,  he  was  obliged  to 
abandon  the  boat,  and  proceed  in  a  canoe  with  four  of  his  party. 
two  of  whom  were  Indians.  Twenty  miles  further  up,  he  left  his 
men  at  the  canoe,  and  went  into  the  woods  to  shoot  game.  In 
this  he  did  not  observe  his  usual  caution.  The  Indians,  who  had 
been  all  this  time  watching  his  movements,  attacked  the  canoe 
and  killed  the  two  Englishmen.  Smith  s'uddenly  found  himself 
surrounded  by  two  or  three  hundred  infuriated  savages.  Never- 
theless, he  defended  himself  with  amazing  intrepidity.  He  seized 
his  Indian  guide,  tied  him  to  his  body,  and  presented  him  to  the 
enemy  as  a  shield.  In  this  position  he  retreated  towards  the 
canoe,  but  before  he  could  reach  it,  he  sunk  to  the  middle  in  a 
swamp,  where  he  was  surrounded  and  taken  prisoner. 

He  now  gave  himself  up  for  lost.  The  Indians  tied  him  to  a 
tree,  and  formed  a  circle  around  to  shoot  him.  The  presence  of 
mind  of  this  remarkable  man  did  not,  however,  desert  him  even 
when  he  saw  death  before  his  eyes.  Before  a  bow  could  be 
drawn,  Smith  excited  the  attention  of  their  chief,  Opecancanongh. 
by  exhibiting  an  ivory  compass-dial;  this  caused  a  moment's 
delay,  which  the  ingenious  adventurer  improved  to  explain  its 
use  and  application  to  the  heavenly  bodies.  Curiosity  and  the 
love  of  mystery,  were  strong  with  the  savages ;  the  chief  and  his 
officers  were  struck  with  wonder  and  admiration.  On  a  signal 
given,  all  the  bows  and  arrows'  were  dropped,  and  Smith  was 
unbound,  and  conducted  under  a  guard  to  the  chief  town  of  the 
Indians.  He  was  then  led  from  town  to  town,  and  exhibited  to 
the  women  and  children,  who  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  sight,  and 
received  him  with  strange  yells  and  dances.  Every  day  they  set 
before  him  as  much  bread  and  venison  as  would  have  fed  twenty- 
men;  but  no  one  sat  down  to  eat  with  him.  This  and  the  lack 
of  all  other  marks  of  kindness  in  the  behavior  of  the  natives, 
induced  him  to  think  they  were  fattening  him  for  slaughter. 

After  he  had  been  led  about  the  country  sufficiently,  the  sava- 
ges performed  a  grotesque  conjuration  over  him,  which  lasted  for 
three  days.  The  chief  performer  was  a  grim  figure,  having  his 
face  painted  black  with  coal  and  oil,  and  numerous  stuffed  skins 
of  snakes  and  weasels  fastened  by  the  tails  to  the  crown  of  his 


SMITH   SAVED   BY   POCAHONTAS. 


343 


head,  and  hanging  down  in  a  frightful  manner  over  the  face  and 
shoulders.  He  was  assisted  by  others  still  more  hideous,  with 
white  eyes  and  striped  skins  of  red  and  black.  These  demo- 
niacal figures  intermingled  circles  of  meal  and  corn  with  bundles 
of  sticks,  explaining  to  their  victim  that  the  meal  was  the  Indian 
country,  the  corn  the  sea,  and  the  sticks  England,  and  that  this 
was  done  to  discover  whether  he  meant  them  well  or  ill.  When 
this  incantation  was  over,  he  was  led  before  Powhatan,  the  chief 
of  all  that  part  of  Virginia,  and  whom  the  English  dignified  with 
the  title  of  emperor.  Powhatan  arrayed  himself  in  the  utmost 
pomp  on  this  solemn  occasion.  He  wore  an  ample  robe  of  raccoon 
skins,  from  which  all  the  tails  were  hanging.  Behind  him  stood 
two  long  rows  of  men,  and  behind  them  two  more  of  women,  all 
with  their  faces  and  shoulders  painted  red.  their  heads  bedecked 
with  white  down,  and  chains  of  white  beads  round  their  necks. 
One  of  the  queens  gave  Smith  a  towel  to  wash  his  hands,  and 
another,  a  bundle  of  feathers  to  dry  them.  The  fatal  moment 
was  now  approaching.  Two  large  stones  were  placed  before  the 
savage  chief,  and  the  attendants,  rushing  in  a  body  upon  Smith, 
dragged  him  forward  and  laid  his  head  upon  one  of  the  stones. 
The  executioner  raised  his  ponderous  club,  and  another  instant 
would  have  ended  the  life  of  the  hero  of  Virginia.  But  at  this 


Pocahontas  saving  Smith. 

critical  moment,  Pocahontas,  the  favorite  daughter  of  Powhatan, 
was  struck  with  those  emotions  of  humanity  and  tenderness, 
which  are  the  ornament  of  the  sex.  Regardless  of  the  savage 
hearts  and  barbarous  manners  of  her  countrymen,  and  discarding 
all  thoughts  of  the  dignity  of  her  birth,  she  rushed  to  her  father, 


344  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  pleaded  for  the  life  of  the  stranger.  Her  interposition  was 
repelled  with  coolness  and  obstinacy  "by  the  haughty  chieftain. 
The  princess,  finding  her  entreaties  insufficient  to  shake  his  bloody 
resolution,  then  flung  herself  upon  the  bosom  of  the  captive,  laid 
her  head  upon  his,  and  declared  that  the  blow  aimed  at  his  life 
must  first  fall  upon  her.  The  romantic  intrepidity  of  this  savage 
maiden  at  length  touched  the  heart  of  the  barbarous  king.  The 
life  of  the  captive  was  spared,  and  he  was  retained  at  the  court 
of  the  Virginian  chief,  where  he  amused  him  and  his  daughter 
by  making  bells,  beads,  and  other  trinkets  of  European  fashion. 
Another  adventure  soon  followed.  Smith  was  conveyed  to  a 
house  and  placed  alone  by  a  large  fire.  Presently  he  heard  a 
frightful  noise,  and  Powhatan  rushed  in,  with  two  hundred  of  his 
men,  having  their  faces  blackened,  and  disguised  in  every  terrify- 
ing manner  that  a  savage  fancy  could  invent.  Again  the  prisoner 
looked  for  instant  death,  but  was  relieved  by  the  information  that 
these  were  signs  of  peace  and  friendship.  He  was  then  granted 
his  liberty,  on  condition  of  sending  the  king  two  culverins  and  a 
mill-stone. 

Smith  returned  to  Jamestown,  which  he  reached  at  a  critical 
moment.  The  colonists  were  again  in  despair,  and  had  been 
fitting  up  a  pinnace  to  convey  them  back  to  England.  He  took 
decisive  measures  at  once,  and  declared  that  the  voyage  must  be 
abandoned,  or  he  would  cause  the  pinnace  to  be  sunk.  Finding 
him  resolute,  they  gave  up  the  project.  Pocahontas,  continuing 
her  generous  kindness,  sent  them  provisions  every  three  or  four 
days,  till  a  fresh  ship  arrived  from  England.  After  this,  Smith 
set  out  to  complete  his  survey  of  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake. 
He  crossed  first  to  the  eastern  shore,  arid  coasted  upwards.  He 
was  variously  received,  the  natives  in  general  coming  "  in  much 
surprise,  asking  what  they  were,  and  what  they  would."  He 
always  used  the  means  of  conciliation ;  and  generally  succeeded, 
by  friendly  explanations  and  presents  of  beads,  in  opening  an 
amicable  intercourse.  But  in  some  cases,  the  savages  were  obsti- 
nate in  their  hostility,  and  Smith  was  forced  to  intimidate  them 
by  the  terrors  of  his  musketry.  In  one  place,  he  was  nearly 
killed  by  the  sting  of  a  poisonous  fish,  and,  by  his  own  desire,  his 
friends  dug  a  grave  for  him.  His  rapid  and  unexpected  recovery, 
however,  saved  the  adventurers  from  so  irretrievable  a  loss.  After 
a  fortnight  spent  in  this  pursuit,  the  men  became  tired  of  laboring 
at  the  oar,  and  being  seconded  in  their  murmurs  by  some  days  of 
bad  weather,  obliged  their  commander  to  return  home,  though 
much  against  his  will.  He  set  his  face  toward  Jamestown,  full 
of  regret  at  not  having  seen  the  Massowomeks, — understood  to  be 


SMITH   ASCENDS    THE    POTOMAC. 


345 


the  most  numerous  and  powerful  of  all  the  nations  in  those  parts, — 
and  the  great  river  Potomac,  the  fame  of  which  had  come  to  ins 
ears.  Suddenly,  to  his  great  surprise  and  delight,  he  came  to  the 
broad  mouth  of  this  famous  river,  which  presented  so  grand  a 
spectacle  that  the  men  recovered  their  spirits,  and  agreed  to  ascend 
it.  They  found  the  country  populous,  hut  hostile;  and  at  one 
place  an  ambuscade  of  three  or  four  thousand  men,  grimed, 
painted  and  disguised,  started  up  from  the  thickets  with  yells  and 
screams,  like  demons  from  the  infernal  regions.  However,  upon 
the  mere  grazing  of  the  English  musket-balls  upon  the  water, 
"  down  fell  their  bows  and  arrows,"  and  a  friendly  intercourse 
followed.  The  enmity  of  these  tribes,  it  appeared,  had  been 
fomented  by  Powhatan,  who  had  now  resumed  his  hostile  feel- 
ings toward  the  colonists.  Some  distance  up  the  river,  they  found 
a  mine  of  antimony,  which  the  natives  extracted  with  shells  and 
hatchets.  They  prized  this  mineral  highly,  as  the  means  of  paint- 
ing their  bodies  black,  yet  giving  them  a  gloss  like  silver. 


The  next  expedition,  Smith  went  in  search  of  the  river  Siis- 
quehannah,  at  the  head  of  the  bay.  His  vessel,  however,  was 
stopped  before  reaching  it,  by  the  shoals.  .  He  sent  up  a  message 
requesting  a  visit  from  the  Susquehannah  tribe,  who  were  repre- 
sented as  a  mighty  people.  After  an  interval  of  three  or  four 
days,  there  appeared  sixty  men,  of  gigantic  stature,  with  presents 
of  arms,  venison,  and  tobacco-pipes  three  feet  long.  Five  of  thei) 
chiefs  came  on  board  the  vessel  and  sailed  across  the  bay  without 
the  least  apprehension.  The  English  then  explored  all  the  waters 
of  the  bay,  particularly  the  river  Rappahannoc,  where  a  thousand 
arrows  were  let  fly  in  a  single  volley  at  them.  From  this  attack, 

R2 


346 


THE    UNITED   STATES. 


however,  they  suffered  no  injury.  In  this  exploratory  trip  they 
voyaged  a  distance  of  three  thousand  miles,  and  returned  in  safety 
to  Jamestown. 

Pocahontas  for  several  years  kept  up  her  acquaintance  with  the 
English,  visiting  Jamestown,  with  her  wild  train  of  attendants, 
with  as  much  familiarity  as  if  it  had  been  her  father's  hpuse. 
Powhatan,  however,  dissatisfied  with  the  English  mode  of  tra- 
ding, which  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  liberal,  laid  a  plan  to 
murder  Smith  in  the  woods.  His  life  was  again  saved  by  the 
fair  Indian  princess,  who  ran  through  the  forest  in  a  dark  night 
to  warn  her  friend  of  his  danger.  In  this  disinterested  act  of 
kindness  she  encountered  great  hazard,  yet  refused  all  the  pres- 
ents which  the  English  offered  in  token  of  their  gratitude.  Open 
war  now  broke  out,  and  all  intercourse  between  the  colonists  and 
the  natives  was  cut  off.  Smith,  having  been  severely  burned  by 
an  accidental  explosion  of  gunpowder,  found  it  necessary  to  return 
to  England. 

Before  we  resume  the  thread  of  our  political  history,  we  will 
complete  the  story  of  the  heroic  Pocahontas.  Some  time  after 
the  departure  of  Smith,  one  Captain  Argall,  who  had  been  sent 
up  the  Potomac  to  trade  for  corn,  heard  that  this  celebrated  per- 
sonage was  at  a  village  on  the  river.  He,  therefore,  bribed  one  of 
the  Indians  to  inveigle  her  on  board  his  vessel,  and  then  carried 
her  captive  to  Jamestown.  It  was  expected  that  Powhatan  would 
consent  to  terms  of  peace  to  regain  possession  of  his  daughter ; 
but  the  base  treachery  of  her  captors  did  not  produce  the  desired 
effect.  The  savage  king  remained  three  months  without  making 
any  reply  to  these  overtures,  and  at  last  sent  seven  English  cap- 
tives with  seven  bad  muskets  and  an  offer  of  five  hundred  bushels 
of  corn,  as  a  ransom.  These  were  rejected,  as  inadequate,  and  the 
unfortunate  prisoner  remained  two  years  in  captivity.  She 
appears,  however,  to  have  been  perfectly  well  treated,  insomuch 
that  she  became  more  and  more  attached  to  the  English  manners 
and  character.  She  was  instructed  in  the  principles  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  which  she  embraced,  and  was  baptized  with  the 
name  of  Rebecca.  A  young  man,  named  Thomas  Rolfe,  admiring 
her  noble  character  and  amiable  manners,  paid  her  his  addresses, 
and  met  with  a  tender  return.  A  proposal  of  marriage  was  made 
to  her  father,  who,  with  unhoped-for  willingness,  readily  agreed  to 
the  proposal,  and  made  it  the  basis  of  a  treaty  of  peace,  which 
he  never  violated.  Rolfe  and  Pocahontas  were  married,  and  the 
brother  and  son  of  the  king  visited  Jamestown,  to  represent  the 
barbarian  monarch  at  the  wedding.  Soon  after,  the  new-married 
pair  sailed  for  England. 


rOCAHONTAS    IN    LONDON.  347 

When  Smith  heard  of  her  arrival,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the. 
queen,  soliciting  her  kindness  and  courtesy  towards  his  nobie 
friend.  She  was,  in  consequence,  introduced  at  court,  and  became 
the  favorite  object  in  the  social  circles  of  fashion  and  rank.  She 
was  accompanied  by  an  Indian  chief,  who  had  married  one 
of  her  sisters.  This  savage  resisted  all  the  endeavors  made  to 
convert  him  to  Christianity :  and  the  historian,  Purchas,  saw 
him  repeatedly  "  sing  and  dance  his  diabolical  measures."  Pow- 
hatan  had  instructed  him  to  bring  back  full  information  respecting 
England,  and  particularly  to  count  the  people,  furnishing  him 
for  that  purpose  with  a  bundle  of  sticks,  that  he  might  make  a 
notch  for  every  man.  On  landing  at  Plymouth,  he  was  appalled 
at  the  magnitude  of  the  task  before  him,  but  continued  notching 
indefatigably  all  the  way  to  London.  As  soon,  however,  as  he 
reached  the  great  thoroughfare  of  Piccadilly,  he  threw  away  his 
sticks,  and  on  returning,  desired  Powhatan  to  count  the  leaves  on 
the  trees,  or  the  sands  on  the  sea-shore,  if  he  would  number  the 
English. 

The  only  mortification  which  Pocahontas  met  with  in  England, 
was  from  king  James,  who,  in  his  pedantic  bigotry,  imagined,  or 
affected  to  imagine,  that  Rolfe,  in  marrying  the  daughter  of  Pow- 
hatan, might  be  advancing  a  claim  to  the  crown  of  Virginia.  His 
courtiers  nevertheless,  by  much  industry,  drove  this  fancy  from 
his  head,  and  Pocahontas  departed  from  London  with  the  most 
favorable  impressions  of  the  English,  and  every  appropriate  honor 
conferred  upon  her ;  Rolfe  being  appointed  Secretary  and  Recor- 
der General  of  Virginia.  She  was  destined,  however,  no  more  to 
see  her  native  land.  As  she  went  down  the  Thames,  she  was 
seized  with  an  illness,  which  in  a  few  days  put  an  end  to  her  life. 
Her  last  moments  are  described  as  having  been  extremely  edifying 
to  the  spectator,  and  full  of  Christian  hope  and  resignation. 

Among  the  commodities  sought  in  Virginia,  gold,  as  usual,  was 
the  primary  object ;  and  whenever  the  eyes  of  the  settlers  lighted 
on  any  mineral  substance  of  a  yellow  color,  then,  as  Smith  says, 
"  dig  gold  !  wash  gold !  refine  gold  !  became  all  the  cry."  Several 
ships  were  loaded  with  yellow  earth,  believed  to  be  gold  dust, 
which  when  it  arrived  in  England  was  found  to  be  utterly  worth- 
less. To  gold  succeeded  tobacco,  which  was  soon  established  so 
firmly  among  the  English  and  other  European  nations  as  to  become 
a  speedy  and  permanent  source  of  wealth  to  Virginia.  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  while  his  mind  was  occupied  with  the  settlement  of  the 
country,  introduced  it  at  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  where  it 
seems  to  have  been  at  first  the  subject  of  much  ridicule.  Raleigh 
offered  to  bet  with  the  queen  that  he  would  weigh  the  smoke 


348  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

from  it;  a  challenge  which  the  queen  readily  accepted.  Raleigh 
then  weighed  the  tobacco,  and  after  smoking  it,  weighed  the 
ashes,  arguing  that  the  difference  between  the  two  quantities  must 
be  tjie  amount  of  the  smoke.  The  queen  admitted  his  reasoning, 
and  remarked  that  she  had  often  seen  gold  turned  into  smoke,  but 
never,  till  then,  smoke  turned  into  gold. 

Among  the  vicissitudes  and  disasters  which  befel  the  colony, 
there  is  one  deserving  of  especial  notice  for  its  tragical  character. 
Opecancanough,  the  successor  of  Powhatan,  had  adopted  with 
ardor  all  the  early  enmity  of  that  prince  against  the  English. 
This  hostile  feeling  was  more  and  more  embittered,  as  he  observed 
the  manner  in  which  the  hated  strangers  multiplied  and  spread 
over  the  country.  Instigated  by  these  feelings,  he  formed  one  of 
those  dreadful  schemes,  so  characteristic  of  the  Indians,  of  exter- 
minating the  whole  race  of  his  enemies  at  a  single  blow.  Such 
was  the  fidelity  of  his  people,  and  so  deep  the  power  of  savage 
dissimulation,  that  this  bloody  scheme  was  arranged  and  matured 
during  four  years,  without  the  slightest  hint  being  conveyed  to  the 
English. '  Down  to  the  fatal  moment  of  its  execution  the  most 
studied  semblance  of  friendship  and  cordiality  was  maintained. 
The  king  sent  a  message  that  "  the  sky  would  sooner  fall  than  the 
peace  between  them  should  be  dissolved."  Several  of  the  English, 
who  had  strayed  into  the  woods  and  fallen  into  the  power  of  the 
savages,  were  carefully  and  kindly  guided  back. 

On  the  fatal  morning  of  the  22d  of  March,  1622,  the  Indians 
flocked  to  the  English  settlements  in  great  numbers,  with  numerous 
presents,  and  many  of  them  breakfasted  in  the  English  houses. 
On  a  signal  given,  they  began  a  general  massacre,  without  distinc- 
tion of  age  or  sex.  The  weapons  of  the  English  themselves,  or 
any  instruments  of  destruction  which  lay  nearest  at  hand,  were 
used  against  them.  Many  of  the  savage  murderers  had  received 
from  their  victims  particular  kindness  and  marks  of  favor.  In  a 
space  of  time  which  may  be  called  momentary,  three  hundred 
and  forty-seven  of  the  English  fell,  without  knowing  how  or 
by  what  weapon.  Only  one  disclosure  was  made,  and  that  by 
Chumo.  an  Indian  convert  living  with  a  Mr.  Pace,  who  treated  him 
as  his  own  son.  One  of  his  companions,  the  night  before,  acquaint- 
ed him  with  the  design,  and  urged  him  to  kill  his  master,  as  he 
intended  to  kill  his  own.  Instead  of  following  this  diabolical  advice, 
Chumo  discovered  the  plot  to  Pace,  by  whom  the  intelligence  was 
despatched  to  Jamestown,  and  that  settlement  was  saved. 

Meantime,  the  colony  proceeded  with  much  vicissitude  of  for- 
tune. The  materials  composing  it  were  by  no  means  of  a  prom- 
ising description.  Smith  describes  them  as  "poor  gentlemen, 


DISSOLUTION   OF    THE    LONDON   COMPANY.  349 

tradesmen,  servingmen,  libertines,  and  such  like ;  ten  times  more 
tit  to  spoil  a  commonwealth  than  either  to  begin  or  maintain  one.' 
As  they  went  out  from  England  usually  with  extravagant  hopes 
of  sudden  and  brilliant  wealth,  they  paid  little  regard  to  any  reg- 
ular or  substantial  pursuit,  and  scorned  even  the  slight  labor  which 
was  necessary  to  draw  subsistence  from  this  fertile  soil.  Hostili- 
ties with  the  Indians  cut  off  their  supplies  of  provisions,  and  a 
period  of  scarcity  and  suffering  ensued  which  is  known  in  the 
history  of  Virginia  as  the  "  starving  time."  Once  more  the  inhab- 
itants resolved  to  abandon  the  country.  "  No  one  dropped  a  tear," 
says  the  contemporary  narrator,  "  for  none  had  enjoyed  one  day  of 
happiness."  They  embarked  and  sailed  down  James  river,  but 
the  next  morning  they  met  the  long-boat  of  Lord  -  Delaware,  who 
had  just  arrived  on  the  coast  with  emigrants  and  supplies.  The 
vessel  was  put  about,  and  the  colonists  returned  to  Jamestown. 

Much  as  the  colony  had  been  reduced  in  its  inhabitants  and  pos- 
sessions by  their  calamities,  its  losses  were  soon  counterbalanced 
by  supplies  from  the  parent  country.  From  May,  1621,  to  May, 
1622,  twenty  ships  conveyed  thirteen  hundred  persons  and  eighty 
head  of  cattle  from  England  to  Virginia.  King  James. made  the 
colonists  a  present  of  arms  out  of  the  tower,  and  sent  them  twenty 
barrels  of  powder.  Lord  St.  John,  of  Basing,  gave  them  sixty 
coats  of  mail.  The  city  of  London,  and  many  private  persons," 
made  them  generous  presents.  Specimens  of  wine,  made  in  Vir- 
ginia about  this  time,  were  sent  to  England.  French  laborers, 
who  had  been  imported  to  cultivate  vineyards,  wrote  to  the  Eng- 
lish Company,  that  the  climate  and  soil  of  Virginia  surpassed 
that  of  the  province  of  Languedoc,  for  the  culture  of  grapes. 

In  1 624,  the  London  Company,  which  had  hitherto  held  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  colony,  was  dissolved  by  a  legal  process,  and  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  conferred  upon  it  returned  to  the  king,  from 
whom  they  flowed.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  dissolution  of  the  company  was  effected,  the  change  was 
for  the  better.  There  is  not,  perhaps,  any  mode  of  governing  an 
infant  colony,  less  friendly  to  its  liberty,  than  the  dominion  of  an 
exclusive  corporation,  possessed  of  all  the -powers  which  James 
had  conferred  upon  the  company  of  adventurers  in  Virginia. 
During  several  years  the  colonists  can  hardly  be  considered  in 
any  other  light  than  as  servants  to  the  company;  nourished  out 
of  its  stores,  bound  implicitly  to  obey  its  orders,  and  subjected  to 
the  most  rigorous  of  all  forms  of  government,  that  of  martial  law. 
Nor  was  the  power  of  the  company  more  favorable  to  the  pros- , 
perity  of  the  colony  than  to  its  freedom.  A  numerous  body  of 
merchants,  as  long  as  its  operations  are  purely  commercial,  may 
30 


350  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

carry  them  on  with  discernment  and  success ;  but  the  mercantile 
spirit,  is  badly  adapted  to  conduct  an  enlarged  and  liberal  plan  of 
civil  policy.  Colonies  have  seldom  grown  up  to  maturity  and 
vigor,  under  its  narrow  and  interested  regulations.  Unacquainted 
with  the  climate  and  soil  of  America,  and  ignorant  of  the  produc- 
tions best  suited  to  them,  they  seem  to  have  had  no  settled  plan 
of  improvement,  and  their  schemes  were  continually  varying. 
Their  system  of  government  was  equally  fluctuating.  In  the 
course  of  eighteen  years,  ten  different  persons  presided  over  the 
province,  as  chief  governors.  No  wonder  that,  under  such  admin- 
istration, all  the  efforts  to  give  stability  should  prove  abortive,  or 
produce  but  slender  effects  ! 

Above  an  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds  were  expended 
in  this  first  attempt  to  plant  an  English  colony  in  America;  and 
more  than  nine  thousand  persons  were  sent  out  from  the  mother 
country  to  people  this  new  settlement.  The  nation,  in  return  for 
this  waste  of  treasure  and  of  people,  did  not  receive  from  Vir- 
ginia an  annual  importation  of  commodities  exceeding  twenty 
thousand  pounds  in  value ;  and  the  colony  was  so  far  from  having 
added  strength  to  the  state,  by  an  increase  of  population,  that  in 
the  year  1624,  scarcely  two  thousand  persons  survived. 

The  company,  like  all  unprosperous  societies,  fell  unpitied. 
The  violent  hand  with  which  royal  prerogative  had  invaded  its 
rights  was  forgotten,  and  new  prospects  of  success  opened  under  a 
projected  constitution,  supposed  to  be  exempt  from  all  the  defects 
to  which  past  disasters  were  imputed.  But  the  death  of  king 
James  prevented  him  from  completing  his  intended  plan  of  colo- 
nial government.  It  was  under  the  administration  of  the  London 
Company  that  slavery  was  first  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
In  1620,  a  Dutch  ship  of  war  entered  James's  river,  and  landed 
twenty  negroes  for  sale.  This  is  the  first  mention  of  negro 
slavery  in  the  history  of  Virginia. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII. 

VIRGINIA  CONTINUED. — Arbitrary  government  of  Charles  I.  in  Virginia. — Admin- 
istration of"  Sir  William  Berkeley. — Opposition  of  the  Virginians  to  the  English 
Parliament  .—Policy  of  Cromwell  toward  the  Virginians.-*  They  rebel  in  favor 
of  the  king. — Ingratitude  of  Charles  II. — -Effects  of  the  navigation  act  in  the 
colonies. — Bacon's  rebellion. —  Civil  war  in  Virginia. — The  royal  government 
overthrown. — Death  of  Bacon  and  suppression  of  the  rebellion. — Prosperity  of 
the  colony. 


Bacon's  Rebellion. 


CHARLES  L,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1625,  adopted  all 
his  father's  maxims  with  respect  to  the  colony  in  Virginia.  He 
declared  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  empire  annexed  to  the  crown, 
and  immediately  subordinate  to  its  jurisdiction.  He  conferred 
the  title  of  governor  on  Sir  George  Yeardly ;  empowered  him,  in 
conjunction  with  a  council  of  twelve  and  a  secretary,  to  exercise 
supreme  authority ;  and  enjoined  them  to  conform  in  every  point 
to  such  instructions  as,  from  time  to  time,  he  might  send  them. 
From  the  tenor  of  the  king's  commission,  as  well  as  from  the 
known  spirit  of  his  policy,  it  is  apparent  that  he  intended  to  vest 
every  power  of  government,  both  legislative  and  executive,  in  the 
governor  and  council,  without  recourse  to  the  representatives  of 
the  people.  Virginia  knew  no  other  law  than  the  will  of  the- 
sovereign.  Statutes  were  published  and  taxes  imposed,  without 


352  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

once  calling  upon  the  representatives  of  the  people  to  sanction  them. 
At  the  same  time  that  the  colonists  were  bereaved  of  political 
rights,  which  they  deemed  essential  to  'freedom,  their  private 
property  was  violently  invaded.  A  proclamation  was  issued,  by 
which,  under  pretexts  equally  absurd  and  frivolous,  they  were 
^prevented  from  selling  tobacco  to  any  person  but  to  certain  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  king  to  purchase  it  on  his  account. 
Thus  they  had  the  cruel  mortification  to  behold  their  sovereign 
engross  all  the  profits  of  their  industry,  by  seizing  the  only  valua- 
ble commodity  which  they  had  to  vend,  and  retaining  the  mo- 
nopoly of  it  in  his  own  hands.  While  the  staple  of  the  colony  of 
Virginia  sunk  in  value,  under  the  oppression  and  restraints  of  a 
monopoly,  property  in  land  was  rendered  insecure,  by  various  and 
conflicting  grants  which  Charles  inconsiderately  bestowed  upon 
his  favorites.  These  were  not  only  of  such  exorbitant  extent  as 
to  be  unfavorable  to  the  progress  of  cultivation,  but,  from  inat- 
tention or  imperfect  acquaintance  with  the  geography  of  the 
country,  their  boundaries  were  so  inaccurately  defined,  tbat  large 
tracts  already  occupied  and  planted,  were  often  included  in  new 
grants. 

The  murmurs  and  complaints  which  such  a  system  of  admin- 
istration excited,  were  augmented  by  the  rigor  with  which  Sir 
John  Harvey,  who  succeeded  Yeardley  in  the  government  of 
the  colony,  enforced  every  act  of  power.  Rapacious,  unfeel- 
ing and  haughty,  he  added  insolence  to  oppression ;  and  neither 
regarded  the  sentiments  nor  listened  to  the  remonstrances  of  the 
people  under  his  administration.  The  colonists,  far  from  the  seat 
of  government,  and  overawed  by  authority,  submitted  long  to  his 
tyranny  and  exactions.  Their  patience  was  at  last  exhausted; 
and  in  a  transport  of  popular  rage  and  indignation,  they  seized 
their  governor  and  sent  him  a  prisoner  to  England,  accompanied 
by  two  of  their  number,  whom  they  deputed  to  prefer  their  accu- 
sations against  him  to  the  king.  But  this  attempt  to  redress  their 
wrongs  was  altogether  repugnant  to  every  idea  which  Charles 
entertained,  with  respect  to  the  obedience  due  by  subjects  to  their 
sovereign.  To  him,  the  conduct  of  the  colonists  appeared  to  be, 
not  only  an  usurpation  of  his  right,  but  an  open  and  audacious 
act  of  rebellion.  Without  deigning  to  admit  their  deputies  into 
his  presence,  or  to  hear  one  article  of  their  charges  against  Har- 
vey, the  king  instantly  sent  him  back  to  his  former  station,  with 
an  ample  renewal  of  all  the  powers  belonging  to  it.  Though 
Charles  deemed  this  vigorous  step  necessary  to  assert  his  own 
authority,  and  to  testify  his  displeasure  against  those  who  had  pre- 
sumed to  offer  such  an  insult  to  it,  he  seems  to  have  been  so  sen- 


VIRGINIA.  353 

sible  of  the  grievances  under  which  the  colonists  groaned,  and  of 
the  chief  source  from  which  they  flowed,  that,  soon  after,  he  not 
only  removed  a  governor  so  justly  odious  to  them,  but  named  as  a 
successor,  Sir  William  Berkeley, — a  person  far  superior  to  Harvey 
in  rank,  abilities  and  popular  virtues. 

Under  his  government,  the  colony  in  Virginia  remained,  with 
some  short  interruption,  almost  forty  years ;  and  to  his  mild  and 
prudent  administration,  its  increase  and  prosperity  are  in  a  great 
measure  to  be  ascribed.  It  was  indebted,  however,  to  the  king 
himself,  for  such  a  reform  of  its  constitution  and  policy,  as  gave  a 
different  aspect  to  the  colony,  and  animated  all  its  operations  with 
a  new  spirit.  Though  the  tenor  of  Sir  William  Berkeley's  com- 
mission was  the  same  with  that  of  his  predecessor,  he  received 
instructions  under  the  great  seal,  by  which  he  was  empowered  to 
declare,  that  in  all  its  concerns,  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical,  the 
colony  was  to  be  governed  according  to  the  laws  of  England. 
He  was  directed  to  issue  writs  for  electing  representatives  of  the 
people,  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  governor  and  council,  were 
to  form  a  general  assembly,  and  to  possess  supreme  legislative 
authority.  And  he  was  ordered  to  establish  courts  of  justice,  in 
which  all  questions,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  were  to  be  decided 
agreeably  to  the  forms  of  judicial  procedure  in  the  mother  country. 
It  is  probable  that  the  dread  of  the  spirit  then  rising  in  England,* 
extorted  from  Charles  concessions  so  favorable  to  Virginia.  He 
was  aware  that  many  measures  of  great  moment,  in  his  own 
government,  would  be  brought  under  a  strict  review  in  parlia- 
ment, and,  unwilling  to  give  malecontents  the  advantage  of  adding 
a  charge  of  oppression,  in  the  remote  parts  of  his  dominions,  to  a 
catalogue  of  domestic  grievances,  he  artfully  endeavored  to  take 
the  merit  of  having  granted  voluntarily  to  his  people  in  Virginia, 
such  privileges  as  he  foresaw  would  be  extorted  from  him. 

But  though  Charles  established  the  internal  government  of  Vir- 
ginia on  a  model  similar  to  that  of  the  English  constitution,  and 
conferred  on  his  subjects  there  all  the  rights  of  freemen  and  citi- 
zens, he  was  extremely  solicitous  to  maintain  its  connexion  with 
the  parent  state.  With  this  view  he  instructed  Sir  William 
Berkeley  strictly  to  prohibit  any  commerce  of  the  colony  with  for- 
eign nations.  Even  under  this  restraint,  such  is  the  kindly  influ- 
ence of  free  government  on  society  that  the  colony  advanced  rap- 
idly in  industry  and  population.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war,  the  English  settled  in  it  exceeded  twenty  thousand. 

Gratitude  towards  a  monarch  from  whose  hands  they  had  re-, 
ceived  immunities,  together  with  the  influence  and  example  of  a 
popular   governor,   concurred  in  preserving  loyalty  among  the 
30*  s2 


354  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

colonists.  Even  when  monarchy  was  abolished,  after  one  king 
had  been  beheaded,  and  another  driven  into  exile,  the  authority 
of  the  crown  continued  to  be  acknowledged  and  revered  in 
Virginia.  Irritated  at  this  open  defiance  of  its  power,  parlia- 
ment issued  an  ordinance  declaring,  that,  as  the  settlement  in 
Virginia  had  been  made  at  the  cost,  and  by  the  people  of  England, 
it  ought  to  be  subordinate  to  the  English  commonwealth,  and 
subject  to  such  laws  as  are,  or  shall  be  made  in  parliament ;  that, 
instead  of  dutiful  submission,  the  colonists  had  disclaimed  the 
authority  of  the  state,  and  audaciously  rebelled  against  it ;  on  tbis 
account  they  were  denounced  as  traitors ;  and,  not  only  all  vessels 
belonging  to  natives  of  Europe,  but  those  of  foreign  nations  were 
prohibited  to  enter  their  ports,  or  to  carry  on  any  commerce  with 
them. 

The  efforts  of  a  high-spirited  government,  in  asserting  its  own 
dignity,  were  prompt  and  vigorous.  A  powerful  squadron,  with 
a  considerable  body  of  land  forces,  was  despatched  to  reduce  the 
Virginians  to  obedience.  After  compelling  the  colonists  in  Bar- 
badoes  and  the  other  islands  to  submit  to  the  commonwealth,  the 
squadron  entered  the  bay  of  Chesapeake.  Berkeley,  with  more 
courage  than  prudence,  took  arms  to  oppose  this  formidable  arma- 
ment ;  but  he  could  not  long  maintain  such  an  unequal  contest. 
His  gallant  resistance,  however,  procured  favorable  terms  for 
the  people  under  his  government.  A  general  indemnity  for  all 
past  offences  was  granted.  They  acknowledged  the  authority 
of  the  commonwealth,  and  were  admitted  to  a  participation  of  all 
the  rights  of  citizens.  By  a  convention  entered  into  by  commis- 
sioners, on  both  sides,  the  Virginians  had  secured  to  them  the 
ancient  limits  of  their  country ;  its  free  trade ;  its  exemption  from 
taxation  but  by  their  own  assembly ;  and  the  exclusion  of  military 
force  from  among  them.  Berkeley,  firm  to  his  principles  of  loyalty, 
disdained  to  make  any  stipulation  for  himself;  but  continued  to 
reside  in  Virginia,  as  a  private  man,  beloved  and  respected  by  all 
over  whom  he  had  formerly  presided. 

Not  satisfied  with  taking  measures  to  subjugate  the  colonists, 
the  commonwealth  turned  its  attention  towards  the  most  effectual 
mode  of  retaining  them  in  dependence  on  the  parent  state,  and 
of  securing  to  it  the  benefit  of  their  increasing  commerce.  With 
this  view,  the  parliament  framed  two  laws ;  one  of  which  expressly 
prohibited  all  mercantile  intercourse  between  the  colonies  and  for- 
eign states ;  and  the  other  ordained  that  no  production  of  Asia, 
Africa  or  America,  should  be  imported  into  the  dominions  of  the 
commonwealth,  but  in  vessels  belonging  to  English  owners,  or  to 
the  people  of  the  colonies  settled  there,  and  navigated  by  an 


LOYAL   PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE   VIRGINIANS.  355 

English  commander,  and  by  crews  of  whom  the  greater  portion 
were  Englishmen.  This  act  was  rigidly  enforced  in  Virginia  and 
Maryland ;  and  from  its  operation  the  inhabitants  suffered  no  little 
distress.  Cromwell  frequently  changed  his  colonial  governors, 
lest  they  should  enter  into  the  feelings  of  the  people.  In  Virginia, 
he  had  no  less  than  three,  Digges,  Bennet  and  Matthews,  during 
the  protectorship. 

His  conduct  was  very  different  in  the  New  England  colonies. 
Notwithstanding  the  navigation  laws,  .they  were  allowed  a  free 
trade  to  all  parts ;  and  were  indulged  with  the  liberty  of  importing 
their  commodities  into  England,  free  from  all  the  duties  which 
the  southern  colonies  were  obliged  to  pay.  This  excited  the  envy 
of  the  other  colonies,  and  created  dissatisfaction  among  the  mer- 
chants in  England ;  but  was,  notwithstanding,  continued  till  the 
restoration. 

Virginia  remained  almost  nine  years  in  perfect  tranquillity. 
During  that  period,  many  adherents  to  the  royal  party,  and  among 
these  some  gentlemen  of  good  families,  in  order  to  avoid  danger 
and  oppression,  to  which  they  were  exposed  in  England,  or  in 
hopes  of  improving  their  fortunes,  migrated  to  Virginia.  On  the 
death  of  Matthews,  the  last  governor  named  by  Cromwell,  the 
sentiments  and  inclinations  of  the  people,  no  longer  under  the  con- 
trol of  authority,  burst  out  with  violence.  They  forced  Sir  Wil- 
liam Berkeley  to  quit  his-  retirement ;  they  unanimously  elected 
him  governor  of  the  colony ;  and  as  he  refused  to  act  under  an 
usurped  authority,  they  boldly  erected  the  royal  standard,  and, 
acknowledging  Charles  the  Second  their  lawful  sovereign,  pro^- 
claimed  him  with  all  his  titles.  The  Virginians  long  boasted, 
that,  as  they  were  the  last  of  the  king's  subjects  who  renounced 
their  allegiance,  they  were  the  first  who  returned  to  their  duty. 

Happily  for  the  people  in  Virginia,  a  revolution  in  England, 
sudden  and  unexpected,  seated  Charles  on  the  throne  of  his  ances- 
tors. On  receiving  the  first  accounts  of  this  event,  the  exultation 
of  the  colony  was  universal  and  unbounded,  but  not  of  long  con- 
tinuance. Gracious  but  unproductive  professions  of  esteem  and 
good-will  were  the  only  return  made  by  Charles  to  loyalty  and 
services,  which,  in  the  estimation  of  the  Virginians,  were  so  dis- 
tinguished, that  no  recompense  was  beyond  what  they  claimed. 
The  king's  neglect  and  ingratitude  disappointed  all  the  sanguine 
hopes  they  had  founded  on  the  merits  of  their  past  conduct ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  spirit  which  influenced  parliament,  in  com- 
mercial deliberations,  opened  a  prospect  that  alarmed  them  with 
respect  to  their  future  situation.  In  framing  regulations  for  th 


356  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

encouragement  of  trade,  the  house  of  commons,  instead  of  grant- 
ing the  colonies  that  relief  which  they  expected,  from  the  restraints 
on  their  commerce  imposed  by  the  commonwealth  and  Cromwell, 
not  only  adopted  all  their  ideas  concerning  this  branch  of  legis- 
lation, but  extended  them  further.  This  produced  the  act  of 
navigation,  the  most  important  and  memorable  of  any  in  the 
statute  book,  with  respect  to  the  history  of  English  commerce. 
By  this,  it  was  enacted,  that  no  commodities  should  be  imported 
into  any  settlement  in  Asia,  Africa  or  America,  or  exported  from 
them,  but  in  English  or  plantation  built  vessels ;  that  no  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton,  wool,  indigo,  ginger,  or  woods  used  in  dyeing,  of 
the  growth  or  manufacture  of  the  colonies,  should  be  shipped  from 
them  to  any  other  country  but  England.  Soon  after,  the  act  of 
navigation  was  extended,  and  additional  restraints  were  imposed 
by  a  new  law,  which  prohibited  the  importation  of  any  European 
commodity  into  the  colonies,  but  what  was  laden  in  England,  in 
vessels  navigated  and  manned  as  the  act  of  navigation  required. 
The  principles  of  policy  on  which  the  various  regulations  con- 
tained in  both  statutes  are  founded,  were  openly  avowed  in  a 
declaration,  that,  "  as  the  plantations  beyond  seas  are  inhabited 
and  peopled  by  subjects  of  England,  they  may  be  kept  in  a  firmer 
dependence  upon  it,  and  rendered  yet  more  beneficial  and  advan- 
tageous to  it,  in  the  further  employment  and  increase  of  English 
shipping  and  seamen,  as  well  as  in  the  vent  of  English  woollen 
and  other  manufactures  and  commodities ;  and  in  making  Eng- 
land an  emporium,  not  only  of  the  commodities  of  those  planta- 
tions but  also  of  the  commodities  of  other  countries  and  places,  for 
the  supplying  of  them." 

By  these  successive  regulations,  the  plan  of  securing  to  Eng- 
land a  monopoly  of  the  commerce  with  its  colonies,  and  of  shutting 
up  every  other  channel  into  which  it  might  be  diverted,  was  per- 
fected and  reduced  into  a  complete  system.  On  one  side  of  the 
Atlantic  these  regulations  have  been  extolled,  as  an  extraordinary 
effort  of  political  sagacity,  and  have  been  considered  as  the  great 
charter  of  national  commerce,  to  which  England  is  indebted  for  all 
its  opulence  and  power.  On  the  other,  they  have  been  execrated 
as  a  code  of  oppression,  more  suited  to  the  illiberality  of  mercantile 
ideas  than  to  the  extensive  views  of  legislative  wisdom. 

Hardly  was  the  act  of  navigation  known  in  Virginia,  and  its 
effect  begun  to  be  felt,  when  the  colony  remonstrated  against  it, 
as  a  grievance,  and  petitioned  earnestly  for  relief.  But  the  com- 
mercial ideas  of  Charles  and  his  ministers  coincided  so  perfectly 
with  those  of  parliament,  that,  instead  of  listening  with  a  favora- 


NAVIGATION   ACT.  357 

ble  ear  to  their  application,  they  labored  assiduously  to  carry  the 
act  into  execution.  For  this  purpose,  instructions  were  issued  to 
the  governor,  forts  were  built  on  the  banks  of  the  principal  rivers, 
and  small  vessels  appointed  to  cruise  on  the  coasts.  The  Vir- 
ginians, seeing  no  prospect  of  obtaining  exemptions  from  the  act, 
set  themselves  to  evade  it.  As  it  is  with  extreme  difficulty  that 
commerce  can  be  turned  into  a  new  channel,  tobacco,  the  staple 
of  the  colony,  sunk  prodigiously  in' value,  when  they  were  com- 
pelled to  send  it  all  to  one  market.  It  was  some  time  before  Eng- 
land could  furnish  full  assortments  of  those  necessary  articles, 
without  which  the  industry  of  the  colony  could  not  be  carried  on, 
or  its  prosperity  secured.  Encouraged  by  the  symptoms  of  general 
languor  and  despondency,  which  this  declining  state  of  the  colony 
occasioned,  the  Indians,  seated  towards  the  heads  of  the  rivers, 
ventured  first  to  attack  the  remote  settlements.  Unexpected  as 
these  hostilities  were  from  a  people,  who  during  a  long  period  had 
lived  in  friendship  with  the  English,  a  measure  taken  by  the  king 
seems  to  have,  excited  still  greater  uneasiness  among  the  most  opu- 
lent people  in  the  colony.  Charles  had  imprudently  imitated  the 
example  of  his  father,  by  granting  such  large  tracts  of  land  in 
Virginia  to  several  of  his  courtiers,  as  tended  to  unsettle  the  dis- 
tribution of  property  in  the  country,  and  to  render  the  title  of  the 
most  ancient  planters  to  their  estates,  precarious  and  questionable. 
From  these  various  causes,  which  affected  every  individual  in  the 
colony,  the  indignation  of  the  people  became  general;  and  was 
worked  up  to  such  a  pitch  that  nothing  was  wanting  to  precipitate 
them  into  the  most  desperate  acts,' but  some  leader  qualified  to 
unite  and  to  direct  their  operations. 

Such  a  leader  they  found  in  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  colonel  of 
militia ;  who,  though  he  had  been  settled  in  Virginia  only  three 
years,  had  acquired,  by  popular  manners,  an  insinuating  address, 
and  the  consideration  derived  from  having  been  regularly  trained 
in  England  to  the  profession  of  the  law,  such  general  esteem, 
that  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  respectable  persons  in 
the  colony.  Bacon  was  ambitious,  eloquent  and  daring.  Prompted 
either  by  honest  zeal  to  redress  the  public  wrongs,  or  allured  by 
hopes  of  raising  himself  to  distinction  and  power,  he  mingled 
with  the  malecontents,  and  by  his  bold  harangues,  and  confident 
promises  of  removing  all  their  grievances,  inflamed  them  almost 
to  madness.  As  the  devastation  committed  by  the  Indians  was 
the  calamity  most  sensibly  felt  by  the  people,  he  accused  the  gov- 
ernor of  having  neglected  the  proper  measures  for  repelling  the 
invasions  of  the  savages,  and  exhorted  them  to  take  arms  in  their 


358  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

own  defence,  and  to  exterminate  that  odious  race.  Great  numbers 
assembled*  and  chose  Bacon  to  be  their  general.  He  applied  to 
the  governor  for  a  commission  confirming  this  election  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  offered  to  march  instantly  against  the  common  enemy. 
Berkeley,  accustomed,  by  long  possession  of  supreme  command,  to 
high  ideas  of  the  respect  due  to  his  station,  considered  this  tumult- 
uary armament  as  an  open  insult  to  his  authority.  Unwilling, 
however,  to  give  farther  provocation  to  an  incensed  multitude,  by 
a  direct  refusal  of  what  they  demanded,  he  thought  it  prudent  to 
negotiate  in  order  to  gain  time ;  and  it  was  not  till  he  found  all 
endeavors  to  soothe  them  ineffectual,  that  he  issued  a  proclama- 
tion, requiring  them  in  the  king's  name,  under  the  pain  of  being 
denounced  as  rebels,  to  disperse. 

But  Bacon,  sensible  that  he  had  advanced  so  far  as  rendered  it 
impossible  to  recede  with  honor  or  safety,  instantly  took  the  only 
resolution  that  remained  for  him  in  his  situation.  At  the  head  of 
a  chosen  body  of  his  followers,  he  marched  rapidly  to  Jamestown  ; 
and,  surrounding  the  house  where  the  governor  and  council  were 
assembled,  demanded  the  commission  for  which  he  had  formerly 
applied.  Berkeley,  with  the  proud,  indignant  spirit  of  a  cavalier, 
disdaining  the  requisitions  of  a  rebel,  peremptorily  refused  to 
comply ;  and  calmly  presented  his  naked  breast  to  the  weapons 
that 'were  pointed  against  it.  The  council,  however,  foreseeing 
the  fatal  consequences  of  driving  an  enraged  multitude,  in  whose 
power  they  were,  to  the  last-  extremities  of  violence,  proposed  a 
commission  constituting  Bacon  general  of  all  the  forces  in  Vir- 
ginia, and,  by  their  entreaties,  prevailed  on  the  governor  to  sign 
it.  Bacon,  with  his  troops,  retired  in  triumph.  Hardly  was  the 
council  delivered,  by  his  departure,  from  the  dread  of  present 
danger,  when,  by  a  transition  not  unusual  in  feeble  minds,  pre- 
sumptuous boldness  succeeded  to  excessive  fear.  The  commis- 
sion granted  to  Bacon  was  declared  to  be  null,  having  been 
extorted  by  force ;  he  was  proclaimed  a  rebel ;  his  followers  were 
required  to  abandon  his  standard,  and  the  militia  ordered  to  arm 
and  join  the  governor. 

Enraged  at  this  conduct,  Bacon,  instead  of  continuing  his  march 
towards  the  Indian  country,  instantly  wheeled  round,  and  ad- 
vanced with  all  his  forces  to  Jamestown.  The  governor,  unable 
to  resist  so  numerous  a  body,  made  his  escape  and  fled  across  the 
bay,  to  Accomack,  on  the  eastern  shore.  Some  of  the  counsellors 
accompanied  him  thither ;  others  retired  to  their  own  plantations. 
Upon  the  flight  of  Sir  William  Berkeley,  and  dispersion  of  the 
council,  the  frame  of  civil  government  in  the  colony  seemed  to  be 


BACON'S  REBELLION.  359 

dissolved ;  and  Bacon  became  possessed  of  supreme  and  uncon- 
trolled power.  But,  as  he  was  sensible  that  his  countrymen 
would  not  long  submit  with  patience  to  authority  acquired  and 
held  merely  by  force  of  arms,  he  endeavored  to  found  it  on  a  more 
constitutional  basis,  by  obtaining  the  sanction  of  the  people's 
approbation.  With  this  view  he  called  together  the  most  consid- 
erable gentlemen  in  the  colony,  and  having  prevailed  on  them  to 
bind  themselves  by  oath  to  maintain  his  authority,  and  to  resist 
every  enemy  that  should  oppose  it,  he  from  that  time  considered 
his  jurisdiction  as  legally  established. 

Berkeley,  meanwhile,  made  inroads  into  different  parts  of  the 
colony,  where  Bacon's  authority  was  recognised.  Several  sharp 
conflicts  took  place  with  various  success.  Jamestown  was  reduced 
to  ashes ;  and  the  best  cultivated  districts  in  the  province  were  laid 
waste,  sometimes  by  one  party,  and  sometimes  by  the  other.  But 
it  was  not  by  his  own  exertions  that  the  governor  hoped  to  termi- 
nate the  contest.  He  had  early  transmitted  an  account  of  the 
transactions  in  Virginia  to  the  king,  and  demanded  such  a  body 
of  soldiers  as  would  enable  him  to  quell  the  insurgents.  To 
induce  the  king  to  grant  this  request,  he  represented  Bacon's  party 
as  impatient  of  all  dependence  'on  the  parent  state.  Charles, 
alarmed  at  a  commotion  no  less  dangerous  than  unexpected,  and 
solicitous  to  maintain  his  authority  over  a  colony,  the  value*  of 
which  was  daily  increasing,  speedily  despatched  a  small  squadron, 
with  such  a  number  of  regular  troops  as  Berkeley  had  required. 
Bacon  and  his  followers  received  intimation  of  this  armament, 
but  were  not  intimidated  at  its  approach.  They  boldly  deter- 
mined to  oppose  it  with  open  force ;  and  declared  it  to  be  consist- 
ent with  their  duty  and  allegiance  to  treat  all  who  should  aid  Sir 
William  Berkeley,  as  enemies,  until  they  should  have  an  opportu- 
nity of  laying  their  grievances  before  their  sovereign. 

But  while  both  parties  prepared,  with  equal  animosity,  to  involve 
their  country  in  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war,  an  event  happened 
which  quieted  the  commotion  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  had  been 
excited.  Bacon,  when  ready  to  take  the  field,  sickened  and  died. 
None  of  his  followers  possessed  such  talents  as  entitled  them  to 
aspire  to  the  supreme  command.  Destitute  of  a  leader  to  conduct 
and  animate  them,  their  sanguine  hopes  of  success  subsided. 
Mutual  distrust  accompanied  this  universal  despondency.  All 
began  to  wish  for  an  accommodation ;  and,  after  a  short  negotia- 
tion with  Sir  William  Berkeley,  Lieutenant  General  Ingram  and 
Major  General  Walklate,  they  laid  down  their  arms  and  submitted 
to  his  government,  on  obtaining  a  promise  of  general  pardon ;  but 


360  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

were  obliged  to  submit  to  the  incapacity  of  ever  bearing  any 
office  in  the  colony. 

Thus  terminated  an  insurrection,  which,  in  the  annals  of  Vir- 
ginia, is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  "Bacon's  rebellion."  During 
seven  months  this  daring  leader  was  master  of  the  colony,  while 
the  royal  governor,  shut  up  in  a  remote  corner  of  it,  was  able  to 
make  only  a  feeble  resistance.  Skirmishes  took  place,  in  which 
several  on  both  sides  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  cattle  of  the 
country  were  destroyed,  and  during  the  insurrection  there  was  an 
almost  total  neglect  of  husbandry ;  so  that  the  people  had  the 
dreadful  prospect  of  famine.  What  .were  the  real  motives  that 
prompted  Bacon  to  take  arms,  and  to  what  length  he  intended  to 
carry  his  plans  of  reform,  it  is  not  easy  to  discover.  It  is  probable 
that  his  conduct,  like  that  of  other  adventurers  in  faction,  would 
have  been  regulated  chiefly  by  events ;  and  accordingly  as  these 
proved  favorable  or  adverse,  his  views  and  requisitions  would 
have  been  extended  or  circumscribed. 

Sir  William  Berkeley,  as  soon  as  he  was  reinstated  in  his  office, 
called  together  the  representatives  of  the  people,  that  by  their 
advice  and  authority,  public  tranquillity  and  order  might  be  per- 
fectly re-established.  Though  this  assembly  met  a  few  weeks  after 
the  death  of  Bacon,  while  the  memory  of  reciprocal  injuries  was 
still  recent,  and  when  the  passions  excited  by  such  a  fierce  contest, 
had  yet  had  but  little  time  to  subside,  its  proceedings  were  con- 
ducted with  a  moderation  seldom  exercised  by  the  successful  party 
in  a  civil  war.  No  man  suffered  capitally.  A  small  number  were 
subjected  to  fines ;  others  were  declared  incapable  of  holding  any 
office  of  trust;  and,  with  these  exceptions,  the  promise  of  general 
indemnity  was  confirmed  by  law.  Soon  after  these  events,  Berke- 
ley went  to  England,  and  died  there.  Lord  Culpepper  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor. 

From  the  English  revolution,  in  1688,  to  the  American  revolu- 
tion, in  1776,  the  government  of  Virginia  was  conducted  on  lib- 
eral principles,  and  generally  for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  The 
colony  was  too  far  north  to  be  involved  in  the  disputes  with  the 
Spaniards,  about  boundary,  which  affected  the  more  southern 
colonies ;  and  too  far  south  to  be  claimed  by  the  French,  as  an 
appendage  to  Canada ;  or  to  have  a  distressing  participation  in 
the  several  wars  between  France  and  England — which,  from  1690, 
to  1748,  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  more  northern  colonies.  From 
1754,  to  1758,  when  the  French  scheme  of  uniting  Canada  and 
Louisiana,  was  urged,  the  frontiers  of  Virginia  were  involved  in 
serious  distresses,  from  the  incursions  of  French  and  Indian  par- 


VIRGINIA. 


361 


ties,  detached  from  fort  Duquesne,  on  the  Ohio;  but,  with  this 
exception,  Virginia  enjoyed  a  steady  course  of  prosperity,  for  the 
last  eighty-five  years  of  her  colonial  existence.  In  this  period, 
her  strength  and  her  resources  increased  to  so  great  an  extent,  as 
enabled  her  successfully  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  mother 
country. 


Rock  bridge,  Virginia. 

31  x2 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  Voyage  of  Gosnold  to  New  England. —  Voyage  of  Weymouth. 
— Settlement  of  Popham  and  Gilbert  at  Sagadahock. — Smith's  voyage  to  New 
England. — Rise  of  the  Puritans. — Their  persecution  in  England. — Their  emi- 
gration to  Holland. — Brown  and  Robinson. — Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers. —  Voyage  of  the  Mayflower  to  America. — Arrival  of  the  Pilgrims  at 
Cape  Cod. — Adventures  with  the  natives,  and  perils  of  the  colonists. — Landing 
at  Plymouth. 


Landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 

IN  the  year  1602,  Captain  Bartholomew  Gosnold  made  a  voy- 
age to  New  England,  apparently  on  his  own  account,  and  perhaps 
with  a  view  to  the  Newfoundland  fishery.  He  sailed  from  Dart- 
mouth, in  a  small  vessel,  with  a  crew  of  thirty-two  men.  He  first 
made  the  land  about  Nan  tucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard.  The 
voyagers  found  the  soil  exceedingly  fertile,  so  that  wheat,  barley 
and  oats,  being  sown  in  the  middle  of  May,  grew  nine  inches  in  a 
fortnight.  On  reaching  the  main  land,  "  they  stood  awhile,  rav- 
ished with  the  beauty  and  delicacy  of  the  scene,"  which  presented 
large  and  fine  meadows,  adorned  with  clear  and  noble  streams. 
They  caught  in  a  few  hours  more  codfish  than  they  knew  how 


COLONIZATION   OF   NEW   ENGLAND.  363 

to  dispose  of;  and  the  coast  appeared  so  rocky  and  broken  as  to 
afford  every  promise  of  good  harbors.  Gosnold  published  suc/i 
alluring  accounts  of  this  territory,  which  still  bore  the  name  of 
North  Virginia,  that  the  attention  of  the  English,  which  had  been 
turned  somewhat  from  the  subject  of  western  adventure  by  the 
ill  success  of  the  southern  colony,  was  roused  anew.  This  dis- 
covery presented  to  their  eyes  a  new  country,  and  gave  them  a 
much  larger  idea  of  that  vast  dominion,  which,  under  the  above 
name,  stood  nominally  attached  to  the  British  empire. 

In  1606,  Thomas  Arundel,  Lord  Wardour,  an  accomplished  and 
spirited  nobleman  fitted  out  a  vessel,  under  Captain  Weymouth, 
to  make  further  discoveries.  Weymouth,  following  the  same  route 
as  Gosnold,  brought  home  a  most  favorable  report,  but  the  narra- 
tive of  his  voyage  is  not  sufficiently  distinct  to  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine the  precise  localities  to  which  his  delineations  refer.  He 
describes  a  noble  river,  a  mile  broad  for  forty  miles  upward  into 
the  country,  and  adds  that  "  Orenoque,  so  famous  in  the  world's 
ears,"  was  not  comparable  to  it.  From  the  size  of  this  river,  one 
might  judge  it  to  be  the  Hudson ;  but  from  his  mention  of  a  bay 
with  the  isles,  channels  and  inlets  about  it,  we  incline  to  think  it 
was  the  Penobscot.  The  soil  is  represented  as  most  rich,  "  verged 
with  a  green  border  of  grass,"  and  which,  when  cleared  of  the 
thick  woods  that  covered  it,  might  be  formed  into  the  most  beau- 
tiful meadow.  Weymouth  might  have  found  opportunity  for 
trade,  but  he  would  not  "  hazard  so  hopeful  a  business,"  and 
regarded  nothing  but  "  a  public  good  and  promulgating  God's  holy 
Church." 

The  first  colony  sent  to  New  England  was  despatched  by  Sh 
John  Popham,  chief  justice,  and  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  governoi 
of  Plymouth,  and  "  divers  others  worshipful  knights  and  mer- 
chants of  the  west."  These  great  personages,  however,  produced 
nothing  more  than  a  little  bark  of  fifty-five  tons,  on  board  of  which 
they  shipped  twenty-nine  Englishmen  and  two  savages,  who  had 
been  brought  from  that  country.  But  these  adventurers  nevei 
reached  the  New  England  shores.  On  <  the  coast  of  Hispaniola 
they  were  caught  in  a  thick  and  tempestuous  fog,  on  the  clearing 
up  of  which  they  found  themselves  in  the  midst  of  a  fleet  of 
Spanish  vessels,  who  made  them  prisoners  and  carried  them  to 
Spain.  Notwithstanding  the  miscarriage  of  this  enterprise,  Cap- 
tain Popham,  son  to  the  chief  justice,  and  Captain  Gilbert,  set 
sail,  in  1607,  on  a  new  adventure,  with  a  hundred  men,  well 
equipped.  They  settled  on  the  river  Sagadahock,  and  built  a  fort, 
which  they  called  St.  George.  The  first  years  of  a  colony,  how- 
ever, always  constitute  a  period  of  hardships,  and  the  new  settlers 


364  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

•suffered  additionally  by  part  of  their  stores  being  accidentally 
burned.  Next  summer  a  vessel  arrived  with  supplies,  but  brought 
tidings  of  the  death  of  their  great  patron,  the  chief  justice,  and 
likewise  of  the  brother  of  Captain  Gilbert,  who  determined  imme- 
diately to  go  home  and  take  possession  of  his  estate.  The  whole 
colony,  discouraged  and  sick  of  the  enterprise,  set  sail  together. 

The  next  adventurer  in  New  England,  it  appears,  was  Captain 
John  Smith,  who  acted  so  eminent  a  part  in  Virginia,  and  whom 
Purchas  describes  as  "a  man  who  hath  many  irons  in  the  fire." 
He  went  about  the  principal  seaports  in  the  west  of  England, 
visiting  all  the  gentlemen  who  were  likely  to  favor  his  scheme ; 
and  complains  that  this  negotiation  cost  him  more  toil  and  torment 
than  any  he  endured  on  the  coasts  of  the  New  World.  The  mer- 
chants of  London  were  best  able  to  furnish  the  funds,  but  the 
western  sailors  were  the  best  fishers,  and  the  voyage  from  London 
to  Plymouth  was  almost  as  hard  as  from  Plymouth  to  New  Eng- 
land. At  length  he  equipped  two  vessels,  whose  destination  was 
threefold:  first,  the  whale  fishery;  next,  a  mine  of  gold;  and,  in 
default  of  both,  to  make  a  saving  voyage  any  other  way.  All 
three  failed.  The  whale-fishery  proved  a  "  costly  conclusion ;" 
for,  though  they  saw  and  chased  a  great  number  of  whales,  they 
could  not  kill  any.  The  gold  was  found  a  mere  device  of  the 
projector ;  and  when  they  came  to  the  banks  of  Newfoundland, 
they  found  they  had  lost  the  prime  season  for  fishing,  and  re- 
turned to  England  with  only  a  sorry  cargo. 

During  this  voyage,  however,  Smith  surveyed  and  made  a  map 
of  the  coast  of  New  England,  which  he  presented  to  the  king, 
Charles  I.,  who  always  took  a  great  interest  in  maritime  affairs, 
and  amused  himself  in  changing  the  uncouth  Indian  names  of 
places  into  others  derived  from  England.  Notwithstanding  this 
sunshine  of  royal  favor,  Smith  had  difficulty  next  year  in  equipping 
a  small  bark  with  sixteen  colonists,  whom  he  would  have  wished 
to  be  several  thousands,  and  who  seemed,  indeed,  to  be  incapable 
of  providing  for  their  own  security  on  this  barbarous  shore ;  but 
he  trusted  in  the  friendship  of  Dohoday,  "one  of  the  greatest 
lords  of  the  savages."  This  vessel  was  captured  by  the  French, 
and  Smith  effected,  with  difficulty,  his  return  to  England.  Yet 
his  ardent  and  persevering  temper  still  led  him  to  dwell  on  the 
scheme,  and  in  his  General  History  of  New  England,  he  copiously 
sets  forth  all  its  advantages.  The  shore,  he  admits,  is  in  many 
places  "rocky  and  affrightable,"  but  in  penetrating  into  the  in- 
terior it  greatly  improved,  and  might  yield  plentifully,  though  not 
quite  the  same  perfection  as  in  Virginia,  the  best  grains,  fruits  and 
vegetables. 


NEW    ENGLAND    COLONIZATION.  365 

Meantime,  the  first  voyage  of  Smith  had  been  followed  by  a 
tragical  event.  One  Hunt,  who  had  been  left  in  charge  of  one  of 
the  ships  inveigled  twenty  or  thirty  of  the  natives  on  board  and 
carried  them  to  Malaga,  where  he  sold  them  to  the  Spaniards. 
The  consequence  was  that  Captain  Hobson,  who  came  after  him, 
without  knowing  anything  of  the  affair,  was  attacked  by  the 
Indians ;  several  of  his  crew  were  killed,  and  himself  wounded. 
The  natives  were  subsequently  pacified  for  a  time,  but  in  a  few 
years  these  hostile  acts  were  repeated. 

These  mishaps,  with  other  discouraging  circumstances  arising 
out  of  the  loose  and  indiscriminate  manner  in  which  the  patentees 
of  the  colony  made  grants  of  land  to  individuals,  threw  such  a 
damp  on  the  undertaking,  that  England,  an  hundred  and  twenty 
years  after  her  discovery  of  North  America,  possessed  nothing  on 
the  shores  of  this  great  continent  except  a  few  scattered  huts  built 
by  the  fishermen  who  resorted  hither  in  summer.  But  the  time 
was  now  come,  when  causes  unforeseen,  and  events  undesigned 
by  their  authors,  were  to  lead  the  way  to  a  mighty  tide  of  emi- 
gration, and  render  New  England  the  most  flourishing  and  pros- 
perous of  all  the  colonies  in  the  western  world. 

New  England  was  the  destined  asylum  of  oppressed  piety  and 
virtue,  and  its  colonization,  denied  to  the  pretensions  of  greatness 
and  the  efforts  of  power,  was  reserved  for  men  whom  the  great 
and  the  powerful  despised  for  their  insignificance,  and  persecuted 
for  their  integrity.  The  recent  growth  of  the  Virginian  colony,  and 
the  repeated  attempts  to  form  a  settlement  in  New  England, 
naturally  attracted,  to  this  quarter  the  eyes  of  men  who  felt  little 
reluctance  to  forsake  a  country,  where,  for  conscience  sake,  they 
had  already  incurred  the  loss  of  temporal  ease  and  enjoyment ; — 
whom  persecution  had  fortified  to  the  endurance  of  hardship,  and 
piety  had  taught  to  despise  it.  It  was  at  this  juncture,  accordingly, 
that  the  project  of  colonizing  New  England  was  undertaken  by 
the  Puritans,  a  body  of  men,  respecting  whose  sentiments  and 
previous  history  we  must  give  some  account. 

Henry  the  Eighth  abolished  the  authority  of  the  church  of  Rome 
in  England,  but  his  haughty  and  imperious  disposition  incited 
him  to  substitute  his  own  authority  for  that  of  the  pope,  and  regu- 
late the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  kingdom  in  an  arbitrary  and 
despotic  manner.  Abetted  by  a  body  of  servile,  dependent  and 
sordid  nobles,  whom  he  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  the  plundered 
monasteries,  and  by  a  compliant  House  of  Commons,  whose  pro- 
fession of  faith  veered  about  with  every  variation  of  the  royal, 
creed,  he  paid  no  respect  whatever,  in  the  ecclesiastical  institutions 
which  he  successively  established,  to  the  sentiments  of  the  body 
31* 


306  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

of  the  people, — a  portion  of  his  subjects,  to  whose  petitions  he  once 
answered  by  a  public  proclamation  that  they  were  "but  brutes 
and  inexpert  folk,"  and  as  unfit  to  advise  him  as  blind  men  were 
to  judge  of  colors.  His  object  was  to  make  himself  and  his  suc- 
cessors the  heads  of  the  church,  in  place  of  the  pope ;  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  this  usurped  dominion,  he  retained,  both  in  the 
ceremonies  of  worship  and  the  constitution  of  the  clerical  order, 
a  great  deal  of  the  machinery  which  his  predecessor  in  the  supre- 
macy had  found  useful.  While  he  rigidly  denied  the  right  of  pri- 
vate judgment  to  his  subjects,  his  own  incessant  and  imperious 
exercise  of  this  right  continually  tempted  them  to  partake  the 
satisfaction  which  it  seemed  to  afford  him.  Moreover,  the  frequent 
variations  of  the  creeds  he  promulgated,  at  once  excited  a  spirit 
of  speculation  akin  to  his  own,  and  practically  refuted  the  only 
pretence  that  could  recommend  or  entitle  his  judgment  to  the 
implicit  assent  of  fallible  men.  The  pope,  expressly  maintaining 
that  he  could  never  be  in  the  wrong,  was  disabled  from  correcting 
either  his  own  errors  or  those  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  predeces- 
sors. Henry  the  Eighth,  merely  pretending  to  the  privilege  of 
being  always  in  the  right,  defeated  this  pretension  by  the  variety 
and  inconsistency  of  the  systems  to  which  he  applied  it.  While 
he  insisted  on  retaining  much  of  the  peculiar  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  he  attacked,  in  its  infallibility,  a  tenet  not  only 
important  in  itself,  but  the  sole  sanction  and  foundation  of  a  great 
many  others.  Notwithstanding  all  his  exertions,  a  spirit  of  re- 
ligious inquiry  began  to  arise  among  the  -multitude  of  professors, 
who,  blindly  or  interestedly,  had  followed  the  fortunes  and  the 
variations  of  the  royal  creed ;  and  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth, 
combined  with  a  growing  regard  for  simplicity  of  divine  worship, 
arising  first  in  the  higher  classes,  spread  downwards  through 
the  successive  ranks  of  society  during  this  and  the  following  reigns. 
Even  in  the  lifetime  of  Henry,  the  protestant  doctrines  had 
spread  far  beyond  the  limits  of  any  of  the  peculiar  creeds  which 
he  had  adopted  and  promulgated,  and  in  their  illegitimate  extent 
had  made  numerous  proselytes  in  his  court  and  kingdom.  The 
propagation  of  them  was  aided  by  the  translation  and  diffusion  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  he  vainly  endeavored  to  prevent,  and  which 
enabled  his  people  to  draw  truth  for  themselves,  unstinted  and 
unadulterated,  from  the  everlasting  wells.  The  open  profession 
of  those  illicit  opinions,  was  in  many  instances  repressed  by  the 
terror  of  his  inflexible  cruelty,  and  by  the  influence  over  his 
measures  which  his  courtiers  found  it  easy  to  obtain,  by  feigning 
implicit  submission  to  his  capricious  and  impetuous  temper.  The 
temptations  to  which  these  men  were  exposed,  proved  fatal  in 


HENEY  VIII.  AND  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.         367 

some  instances  to  their  integrity ;  and  several  of  them,  even  the 
virtuous  Cranmer,  concurred,  though  reluctantly,  in  punishing 
by  a  cruel  death  the  open  profession  of  sentiments  which  they 
secretly  cherished  in  their  own  breast.  They  were  afterwards 
compelled  themselves  to  drink  of  the  same  cup  of  martyrdom,  and 
enabled  to  make  some  atonement  to  the  cause  of  truth,  by  the 
heroism  with  which,  in  Mary's  bloody  reign,  they  suffered  for  the 
cause  which  they  had  persecuted  before. 

By  the  death  of  Henry,  his  protestant  subjects  were  exempted 
from  the  necessity  of  further  dissimulation.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Sixth,  the  Catholic  doctrines  were  wholly  expunged 
from  the  national  creed,  and  the  fundamental  articles  of  the  pro- 
testant faith  recognised  and  established  by  law.  As  among  other 
practices  of  the  preceding  reign,  the  absurd  and  tyrannical  device 
of  promoting  'uniformity  of  faith  and  worship  by  persecution, 
was  still  pursued,  the  influence  of  temporal  fear  and  favor  con- 
tributed, no  doubt,  to  encumber  the  protestant  church  with  many 
reluctant  and  hypocritical  professors.  In  the  hope  of  reconciling 
the  English  nation,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  system  they  had 
established,  the  ministers  of  Edward  preserved  not  only  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  which  Henry  had  retained,  but  as  much  of 
the  ancient  ceremonial  of  worship  as  they  judged  likely  to  gratify 
the  taste  and  predilections  of  minds  that  hankered  after  Catholic 
pageantry.  They  rather  yielded  in  this  respect  to  the  necessity 
of  the  times,  than  indulged  their  own  sentiments  or  followed  out 
their  principles;  and  plainly  insinuated  their  opinion,  that,  when- 
ever the  public  mind  was  sufficiently ,  prepared  for  it,  a  farther 
reformation  should  be  introduced  into  the  establishment.  But  in 
the  prosecution  of  this  temporizing  policy,  the  rulers  of  the  Eng- 
lish reformed  church  encountered  a  spirit  of  resistance,  originating 
in  the  protestant  body  itself.  During  the  late  reign,  the  disaffec- 
tion that  had  been  cherished  in  secret  toward  the  national  church 
had  not  confined  itself  to  the  doctrine  savoring  of  popery  which 
she  retained,  and  which  many  protestants  connected  in  their 
opinion  and  esteem  with  the  ceremonial  rites  and  clerical  habits 
that  had  for  ages  been  their  associate  and  their  characteristic.  With 
their  enmity  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church,  they  com- 
bined an  aversion  to  those  ceremonies  which  her  ministers  had 
too  often  rendered  subservient  to  imposture.  These  sentiments, 
which  were  subsequently  matured  into  doctrines  by  the  puritans, 
had  already  begun  to  take  possession  of  the  minds  of  the  English 
protestants. 

But  the  sentiments  of  the  puritans  were  overborne  by  the 
weight  of  superior  numbers,  and  might,  perhaps,  have  gradually 


368  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

died  away,  if  the  reign  of  Edward  had  been  much  farther  pro- 
longed, or  his  sceptre  transmitted  to  a  protestant  successor.  But 
the  reign  of  Mary  seemed  destined  not  only  to  purify  the  protes- 
tant body,  by  separating  the  true  from  the  false  professors,  but  to 
strengthen  and  confirm  every  protestant  sentiment,  by  exposing 
that  religion  to  persecution.  During  the  tyrannical  and  bloody 
reign  of  Mary,  many  of  the  English  protestants  forsook  their 
country  and  took  refuge  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  The 
puritans  beheld  with  pleasure,  in  the  continental  churches,  the 
establishment  of  a  constitution  and  ritual,  which  had  been  the 
object  of  their  own  warm  approbation  and  earnest  desire.  On  the 
death  of  Mary,  the  emigrants  returned  to  England ;  but  her  suc- 
cessor, Elizabeth,  inherited  the  headstrong  and  arrogant  disposi- 
tion of  her  father,  and  though  she  had  been  educated  with  her 
brother  Edward,  and  her  understanding  had  received  a  strong 
tincture  of  protestant  opinion,  her  feelings  inclined  her  in  favor  of 
the  rites,  discipline,  and  even  doctrines  of  the  Catholics ;  of  every- 
thing, in  short,  which  might  enable  her  to  maintain  a  dominion 
over  the  clergy.  She  desired  to  make  them  priests,  not  preachers; 
discouraged  their  sermons,  and  would  have  interdicted  them  from 
marriage,  had  she  not  been  restrained  by  the  remonstrances  of 
her  minister,  Lord  Burleigh.  Disregarding  the  wishes  both  of 
churchmen  and  puritans,  she  restored  king  Edward's  constitution, 
with  no  other  alteration  than  the  omission  of  a  few  passages  in 
the  liturgy  that  were  offensive  to  the  Catholics  ;  and  caused  a  law 
to  be  framed,  commanding,  under  the  penalties  of  fine,  imprison- 
ment and  deprivation  of  ministerial  office,  a  strict  uniformity  of 
religious  worship.  This  was  the  first  step  in  a  line  of  policy 
which  the  Church  of  England  had  deep  and  lasting  cause  to 
deplore,  and  which,  by  compelling  thousands  of  her  best  and 
ablest  ministers  reluctantly  to  forsake  her  communion,  afflicted 
her  with  a  decay  of  internal  piety,  the  effects  of  which  continued 
to  be  visible  after  many  generations. 

The  immediate  consequences  of  the  oppressive  policy  of  Eliza- 
beth were  the  enkindling  of  a  great  additional  zeal  and  fervor  in 
the  minds  of  the  puritans;  the  multiplication  of  their  numbers, 
and  a  growing  abhorrence  in  their  body  to  the  order  of  bishops, 
and  the  whole  frame  of  a  church  which  was  to  them  an  organ  of 
injustice  and  tyranny.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  puritans  of 
those  times  were  at  first  exceedingly  reluctant  to  separate  from 
the  Church  of  England.  They  willingly  allowed  her  to  be  a  true 
Christian  church,  and  merely  claimed  indulgence  with  regard  to  a 
few  ceremonies  which  did  not  affect  the  substance  of  her  consti- 
tution. But  the  injurious  treatment  which  they  received,  induced 


THE    BROWNISTS  369 

different  views;  it  at  once  aroused  their  passions,  stimulated 
their  inquiries,  and  extended  their  objections.  Expelled  from 
the  national  church,  they  were  forced  to  inquire  if  they  could  not 
do  without  it.  Their  next  step  was  to  deny  the  lawfulness  of 
communion  with  it,  inasmuch  as  this  church  persecuted  them  for  a 
conscientious  adherence  to  their  opinions.  So  firm  was  the  resis- 
tance of  the  puritans  to  the  despotic  authority  of  the  crown,  that 
the  historian,  Hume,  has  not  hesitated  to  declare  that  to  this  sect 
alone  the  English  of  the  present  day  owe  the  whole  freedom  of 
their  constitution. 

Robert  Brown,  in  1586,  was  the  first  who  proclaimed  an  open 
rupture  with  the  established  church.  His  doctrine  readily  gained 
the  assent  and  approbation  of  multitudes.  This  individual,  from 
whom  the  name  of  Brownists  was  applied  to  the  first  seceders, 
was  a  young  clergyman,  of  a  good  family,  active  and  intrepid,  but 
excited  by  a  fiery  temper  and  an  insatiable  rage  for  controversy. 
He  travelled  about  the  country,  inveighing  against  bishops,  eccle- 
siastical courts,  ceremonies,  and  episcopal  ordination  of  ministers, 
and  exulting,  above  all,  in  the  boast  that  he  had  been  committed 
to  thirty-two  prisons,  in  some  of  which  he  could  not  see  his  hand 
at  noonday.  The  queen  and  the  bishops  had  recourse  to  the 
usual  remedy,  persecution,  and  the  Brownists  were  oppressed 
with  cruelties  that  disgraced  the  name  of  religion.  This  course 
had  its  usual  effect  of  spreading  the  persecuted  doctrine  still 
more  widely.  Brown  himself,  with  a  congregation  attached  to 
him,  emigrated  to  Holland,  where  they  were  permitted  to  enjoy 
their  opinions  without  molestation.  Those  who  remained  in 
England  were  exposed  to  all  the  severity  of  the  law  and  all  the 
fury  of  theological  hatred.  Some  were  hanged  for  circulating 
the  writings  of  the  Brownists,  and  others  for  attending  their  dis- 
courses. Numbers  suffered  severe  imprisonment,  and  many  fami- 
lies were  ruined  by  heavy  fines.  On  the  accession  of  James  to 
the  throne,  he  was  solicited,  by  numerous  petitions,  to  interpose 
his  authority  for  the  protection  and  relief  of  the  puritans.  At 
first  he  showed  himself  so  far  disposed  to  comply,  as  to  appoint  a 
solemn  conference  between  their  leaders  and  the  heads  of  the 
church  party  at  Hampton  Court.  But  the  hopes  inspired  by  the 
proposal  of  this  conference  were  disappointed  by  the  result ;  and 
James,  instead  of  tolerating  the  puritans,  banished,  imprisoned, 
and  otherwise  persecuted  three  hundred  of  their  ministers,  in  the 
second  year  of  his  reign. 

The  first  congregation  of  Brownists  which  ^migrated  to  Hol- 
land, broke  up  into  parties  and  were  soon  dispersed.  Brown 
returned  to  England,  and  ended  his  days  in  obscurity.  But  in 

u2 


370  THE    tiNITED    STATES. 

1610,  another  congregation  fled  from  the  persecutions  at  home, 
and  look  refuge  in  Leyden,  where  they  were  permitted  tp  establish 
themselves  in  peace,  under  the  ministry  of  their  pastor,  John 
Robinson.  This  excellent  person  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Independents,  having  been  the  first  teacher 
who  steered  a  middle  course  between  Brownism  and  the  Presby- 
terian system.  He  was  a  man  of  most  exemplary  life,  fervent 
piety,  sound  sense  and  high  attainments. 

Enjoying  the  counsel  and  direction  of  such  a  pastor,  and  cher- 
ishing an  adequate  sense  of  his  value,  the  English  exiles  com- 
posing this  congregation  remained  for  ten  years  at  Leyden,  in 
harmony  with  each  other,  and  in  peace  with  their  neighbors. 
But,  at  the  end  of  that  period,  the  same  pious  views  that  had 
prompted  their  departure  from  England,  incited  them  to  undertake 
a  more  distant  migration.  They  beheld  with  deep  concern  the 
prevalence  around  them  of  manners  which  they  esteemed  loose 
and  profane;  more  particularly  the  general  neglect  among  the 
Dutch  of  a  reverential  observance  of  Sunday ;  and  they  reflected 
with  apprehension  on  the  danger  to  which  their  children  were 
exposed,  from  the  natural  contagion  of  habits  so  remote  from 
serious  piety.  Their  country,  too,  still  retained  a  hold  on  their 
affections;  and  they  were  loath  to  behold  their  posterity  com- 
mingled and  identified  with  the  Dutch  population.  The  small- 
ness  of  their  numbers  and  the  difference  of  language,  discouraged 
them  from  attempting  to  propagate  in  Holland  the  principles, 
which,  with  so  much  suffering  and  hazard,  they  had  hitherto 
maintained ;  and  the  conduct  of  the  English  government  extin- 
guished every  hope  of  toleration  in  their  native  land.  The 
famous  Arminian  controversy,  moreover,  which  was  now  raging 
in  Holland  with  a  fury  that  produced  the  barbarous  execution 
of  the  Grand  Pensionary,  Barneveldt,  and  the  imprisonment  of 
Grotius,  probably  contributed  to  alienate  the  desires  of  the  Eng- 
lish exiles  from  farther  residence  in  a  land  where  the  Calvinistic 
tenets,  which  they  cherished,  were  thus  disgraced  by  cruelty  and 
intolerance.  In  these  circumstances,  it  occurred  to  them  that  they 
might  combine  the  indulgence  of  their  patriotic  attachment  with 
the  propagation  of  their  religious  principles,  by  establishing  them- 
selves in  some  distant  quarter  of  the  British  dominions ;  and  after 
many  days  of  earnest  supplication  for  the  counsel  and  direction 
of  Heaven,  they  unanimously  determined  to  transport  themselves 
and  their  families  to  the  territory  of  America.  It  was  resolved 
that  a  part  of  the  congregation  should  proceed  thither  before  the 
rest,  to  prepare  a  settlement  for  the  whole;  and  that  the  main 
body,  meanwhile,  should  continue  at  Leyden  with  their  pastor. 


EMBARKATION    OF    THE   PILGRIMS.  371 

In  choosing  the  particular  scene  of  their  establishment,  they  hesi- 
tated for  some  time,  between  the  territory  of  Guiana, — of  which  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  had  published  a  most  dazzling  and  attractive  de- 
scription, mainly  engendered  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  own  imagi- 
nation,— and  the  provinces  of  Virginia,  to  which  they  finally  gave 
the  preference ;  but  Providence  had  ordained  that  their  residence 
should  be  established  in  New  England. 

By  the  intervention  of  agents,  whom  they  deputed  to  solicit  the 
sanction  of  the  English  government  to  their  enterprise,  they  rep- 
resented to  the  king,  "that  they  were  well  weaned  from  the 
delicate  milk  of  their  mother  country,  and  inured  to  the  difficulties 
of  a  strange  land ;  that  they  were  knit  together  in  a  strict  and 
sacred  bond,  by  virtue  of  which  they  held  themselves  bound  to 
take  care  of  the  good  of  each  other,  and  of  the  whole ;  that  it  was 
not  with  them  as  with  other  men,  whom  small  things  could  dis- 
courage, or  small  discontent  cause  to  wish  themselves  at  home 
again."  The  king,  wavering  between  his  desire  to  promote  the 
colonization  of  America,  and  his  reluctance  to  suffer  the  con- 
sciences of  any  portion  of  his  subjects  to  be  emancipated  from  his 
control,  refused  to  grant  them  a  charter  assuring  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  liberty,  but  promised  to  connive  at  their 
practices,  and  to  refrain  from  molesting  them*.  They  were  forced 
to  accept  this  precarious  security,  and  would  hardly  have  obtained 
it  but  for  the  friendly  interposition  of  Sir  Robert  Nanton,  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  state,  and  a  favorer  of  the  puritans ;  but  they 
relied  with  more  reason  on  the  distance  from  the  ecclesiastical 
tribunals  of  England,  and  from  the  eye  and  arm  of  their  persecuting 
sovereign.  Having  procured  from  the  Virginia  Company  a  grant 
of  a  tract  of  land,  lying  as  was  supposed  within  the  limits  of  its 
patent,  several  of  the  congregation  sold  their  estates,  and  expended 
the  purchase  money  in  the  equipment  of  two  vessels,  in  which  a 
hundred  and  twenty  of  their  number  were  appointed  to  embark 
from  an  English. port  for  America. 

All  things  being  prepared  for  the  departure  of  this  detachment 
of  the  congregation  from  Delft  haven,  where  they  took  leave  of 
their  friends  for  the  English  port  of  embarkation,  Robinson  and 
his  people  devoted  their  last  meeting  in  Europe  to  an  act  of 
solemn  and  social  worship,  intended  to  implore  a  blessing  from 
Heaven  upon  the  hazardous  enterprise.  He  preached  a  sermon  to 
them  from  Ezra  viii.  21.  "  I  proclaimed  a  fast  there  at  the  river 
Ahava,  that  we  might  afflict  ourselves  before  our  God,  to  seek  of 
him  a  right  way  for  us,  and  for  our  little  ones,  and  for  all  our 
substance."  On  the  6th  of  September,  1620,  the  pilgrims  took 
their  final  departure  from  England  in  the  Mayflower,  a  vessel  of 


372  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

one  hundred  and  eighty  tons.  The  whole  number  who  embarked 
amounted  to  one  hundred  and  one  souls.  The  story  of  their 
voyage  from  Leyden  across  the  Atlantic,  and  their  arrival  in  the 
New  World,  cannot  be  better  related  than  in  the  following  words 
from  the  simple  and  touching  narrative  of  Nathaniel  Morton,  the 
author  of  New  England's  Memorial. 

"  The  wind  being  fair,  they  went  on  board  and  their  friends 
with  them,  where  truly  doleful  was  the  sight  of  that  sad  and 
mournful  parting,  to  hear  what  sighs  and  sobs  and  prayers  did 
sound  amongst  them ;  what  tears  did  gush  from  every  eye.  Yet 
comfortable  and  sweet  it  was  to  see  such  lively  and  true  express- 
ions of  dear  and  unfeigned  love.  But  the  tide,  which  stays  for 
no  man,  calling  them  away  that  were  thus  loath  to  depart,  their 
reverend  pastor,  falling  down  upon  his  knees,  and  they  all  with 
him,  with  watery  cheeks,  commended  them  with  most  fervent 
prayers  unto  the  Lord  and  his  blessing.  And  then,  with  mutual 
embraces  and  many  tears,  they  took  their  leave  of  one  another, 
which  proved  to  be  the  last  leave  to  many  of  them.  Then  hoist- 
ing sail,  with  a  prosperous  gale  of  wind,  they  came  in  a  short  time 
to  Southampton.  Now  all  being  compact  together  in  one  ship, 
they  put  to  sea  again  with  a  prosperous  wind.  But  after  they 
had  enjoyed  fair  winds  for  a  season,  they  met  with  many  contrary 
winds  and  fierce  storms,  with  which  their  ship  was  shrewdly 
shaken  and  her  upper  works  made  very  leaky,  and  one  of  the 
main  beams  of  the  mid-ship  was  bowed  and  cracked,  which  put 
them  to  some  fear  that  she  would  not  be  able  to  perform  the 
voyage ;  on  which  the  principal  of  the  seamen  and  passengeis  had 
serious  consultation  what  to  do,  whether  to  return  or  hold  on. 
But  the  ship  proving  strong  under  water,  by  a  screw  the  said 
beam  was  brought  into  his  place  again ;  which  being  done  and 
well  secured  by  the  carpenter,  they  resolved  to  hold  on  their 
voyage.  And  so,  after  many  boisterous  storms,  in  which  they  could 
bear  no  sail,  but  were  forced  to  lie  at  hull  many  days  together, 
after  long  beating  at  sea,  they  fell  in  with  the  land  called  Cape 
Cod ;  the  which  being  made  and  certainly  known  to  be  it,  they 
were  not  a  little  joyful.  After  some  little  deliberation,  they  tacked 
about  to  stand  to  the  southward,  to  find  some  place  about  Hudson's 
river,  according  to  their  first  intentions,  for  their  habitations.  But 
they  had  not  sailed  that  course*  above  half  a  day,  before  they  fell 
among  perilous  shoals  and  breakers,  and  they  were  so  far  entan- 
gled therewith,-  as  they  conceived  themselves  in  great  danger ;  and 
the  wind  shrinking  upon  them  withal,  they  resolved  to  bear  up 
again  for  the  cape  aforesaid.  The  next  day,  by  God's  Providence, 
they  got  into  the  cape  harbor.  Thus,  they  arrived  at  Cape  Cod, 


MORTON'S  NARRATIVE.  373 

alias  Cape  James,  in  November,  1620,  and  being  brought  safe  to 
land,  they  fell  upon  their  knees  and  blessed  the  God  of  heaven, 
who  had  brought  them  over  the  vast  and  furious  ocean,  and  deliv- 
ered them  from  many  perils  and  miseries. 

"  But  what  could  they  see  but  a  hideous  and  desolate  wilderness, 
full  of  wild  beasts  and  wild  men '?  And  what  multitudes  of  them 
there  were,  they  then  knew  not ;  neither  could  they,  as  it  were, 
go  up  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  to  view  from  this  wilderness  a  more 
goodly  country  to  feed  their  hopes ;  for  which  way  soever  they 
turned  their  eyes,  save  upwards  to  heaven,  they  could  have  little 
solace  or  content  in  respect  of  any  outward  object ;  for  summer 
being  ended,  all  things  stood  in  appearance  with  a  weather-beaten 
face,  and  the  whole  country,  full  of  woods  and  thickets,  represented 
a  wild  and  savage  hue.  If  they  looked  behind  them,  there  was 
the  mighty  ocean  which  they  had  passed,  and  was  now  as  a  main 
bar  and  gulf  to  separate  them  from  all  the  civil  parts  of  the  world. 

"  Necessity  now  calling  them  to  look  out  a  place  for  habitation, 
while  their  carpenter  was  trimming  up  of  their  boat,  sixteen  of 
their  men  tendered  themselves  to  go  by  land  and  discover  those 
nearest  places,  which  was  accepted ;  and  they,  being  well  armed, 
were  sent  forth  on  the  16th  of '  November,  and  having  marched 
about  a  mile  by  the  sea-side  they  espied  five  Indians,  who  r.an 
away  from  them ;  and  they  followed  them  all  that  day  sundry 
miles,  but  could  not  come  to  speech  with  them.  So  night  coming 
on,  they  betook  themselves  to  their  rendezvous,  and  set  out  their 
sentinels  and  rested  in  peace  that  night.  The  next  morning  they 
followed  the  Indian  tracks,  but  could  not  find  them  nor  their 
dwellings,  but  at  length  lighted  on  a  good  quantity  of  clear  ground, 
near  to  a  pond  of  fresh  water,  where  the  Indians  had  planted  corn, 
at  which  place  they  saw  sundry  of  their  graves.  And  proceeding 
further,  they  found  new  stubble  where  Indian  corn  had  been 
planted  the  same  year ;  also  they  found  where  lately  a  house  had 
been,  where  some  planks  and  a  great  kettle  were  remaining,  and 
heaps  of  sand  newly  paddled  with  their  hands,  which  they  digged 
up,  and  found  in  them  divers  fair  Indian  baskets  filled  with  corn, 
some  whereof  was  in  ears,  fair  and  good,  of  divers  colors,  which 
seemed  to  them  a  very  goodly  sight,  having  seen  none  before;  of 
which  rarities  they  took  some  to  carry  to  their  friends  on  shipboard, 
like  as  the  Israelites'  spies  brought  from  Eshcol  some  of  the  good 
fruits  of  the  land.  But  finding  little  that  might  make  for  their 
encouragement  as  to  situation,  they  returned. 

"After  this,  their  shallop  being  ready,  they  set  out  the  second 
time  for  a  more  full  discovery  of  this  place,  especially  a  place  that 
seemed  to  be  an  opening,  as  they  went  into  the  said  harbor,  some 
32 


374  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

two  or  three  leagues  off,  which  the  master  judged  to  be  a  river. 
About  thirty  of  them  went  out  on  this  second  discovery,  the  mas- 
ter of  the  ship  going  with  them ;  but  upon  the  more  exact  discov- 
ery thereof,  they  found  it  to  be  no  harbor  for  ships,  but  only  for 
boats.  There  they  also  found  two-  houses  covered  with  mats,  and 
sundry  implements  in  them,  but  the  people  ran  away  and  could 
not  be,  seen.  Also  there  they  found  more  of  their  corn  and  beans 
of  various  colors :  the  corn  and  beans  they  brought  away,  pur- 
posing to  give  them  full  satisfaction  when  they  should  meet  with 
any  of  them.  And  here  is  to  be  noted  a  special  and  great  mercy 
to  this  people,  that  here  they  got  them  seed  to  plant  their  corn  the 
next  year,  or  otherwise  they  might  have  starved,  for-  they  had 
none  nor  any  likelihood  to  get  any  until  the  season  had  been  past, 
as  the  sequel  did  manifest ;  neither  is  it  likely  that  they  had  had 
this  if  the  first  discovery  had  not  been  made,  for  the  ground  was 
now  all  covered  with  snow  and  hard  frozen.  But  the  Lord  is 
never  wanting  unto  those  that  are  his,  in  their  greatest  needs. 
Let  his  holy  name  have  all  the  praise ! 

"  The  month  of  November  being  spent  on  these  affairs,  and  having 
much  foul  weather,  on  the  sixth  of  December  they  concluded 
to  send  out  their  shallop  again  on  a  third  discovery.  They  set 
sail,  intending  to  circulate  the  deep  bay  of  Cape  Cod,  the  weather 
being  very  cold,  so  as  the  spray  of  the  sea  lighting  on  their  coats, 
they  were  as  if  they  had  been  glazed  :  notwithstanding,  that  night 
they  got  down  into  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  and  as  they  drew  near 
the  shore,  they  saw  some  ten  or  twelve  Indians,  and  landed  about 
a  league  off  them,  but  with  some  difficulty,  by  reason  of  the  shoals 
in  that  place,  where  they  tarried  that  night. 

"In' the  morning  they  divided  Jheir  company  to  coast  along, 
some  on  shore  and  some  in  the  boat,  where  they  saw  the  Indians 
had  been  the  day  before,  cutting  up  a  fish  like  a  grampus ;  and 
so  they  ranged  up  and  down  all  that  day,  but  found  no  people, 
nor  any  place  they  liked,  as  fit  for  their  settlement :  and  that 
night  they  on  shore  met  with  their  boat  at  a  certain  creek,  where 
they  made  them  a  barricade  of  boughs  and  logs  for  their  lodging 
that  night,  and  being  weary,  betook  themselves  to  rest.  The  next 
morning,  about  five  o'clock,  seeking  guidance  and  protection  from 
God  by  prayer,  and  refreshing  themselves  in  way  of  preparation 
to  persist  on  their  intended  expedition,  some  of  them  carried  their 
arms  down  to  the  boat,  having  laid  them  up  in  their  coats  from 
the  moisture  of  the  weather ;  but  others  said  they  would  not  carry 
theirs  till  they  went  themselves.  But  presently,  all  on  a  sudden, 
about  the  dawning  of  the  day,  they  heard  a  great  and  strange  cry, 
and  one  of  their  company  being  on  board,  came  hastily  in  and 


MORTON'S  NARRATIVE.  375 

cried,  '  Indians !  Indians  ! '  and  withal,  their  arrows  came  flying 
amongst  them ;  on  which  all  their  men  ran  with  speed  to  recover 
their  arms,  as  by  God's  good  providence  they  did.  In  the  mean 
time,  some  of  those  that  were  ready,  discharged  two  muskets  at 
them,  and  two  more  stood  ready  at  the  entrance  of  their  rendez- 
vous, but  were  commanded  not  to  shoot  until  they  could  take  full 
aim  at  them,  and  the  other  two  charged  again  with  all  speed,  for 
there  were  only  four  that  had  arms  there,  and  defended  the  barri- 
cado  which  was  first  assaulted.  The  cry  of  the  Indians  was 
dreadful,  especially  when  they  saw  their  men  run  out  of  their 
rendezvous  toward  the  shallop  to  recover  their  arms,  the  Indians 
wheeling  about  upon  them :  but  some  running  out  with  coats  of 
mail  and  curtal-axes  in  their  hands,  they  soon  recovered  their 
arms  and  discharged  amongst  them,  and  soon  stayed  their  violence. 
Notwithstanding,  there  was  a  lusty  man,  and  no  less  valiant,  stood 
behind  a  tree,  within  half  a  musket  shot,  and  let  his  arrows  fly 
amongst  them.  He  was  seen  to  shoot  three  arrows,  which  were 
all  avoided,  and  stood  three  vshots  of  musket,  until  one,  taking  full 
aim  at  him,  made  the  bark  and  splinters  of  the  tree  fly  about 
his  ears,  after  which  he  gave  an  extraordinary  shriek,  and  away 
they  went,  all  of  them.  And  so,  leaving  some  to  keep  the  shallop, 
they  followed  them  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  that  they  rm'ght 
conceive  that  they  were  not  afraid  of  them,  or  any  way  discouraged. 
"  From  hence  they  departed,  and  coasted  all  along,  but  discerned 
no  place  likely  for  harbor,  and  therefore  hasted  to  the  place  the 
pilot  told  them  of,  who  assured  them  that  there  was  a  good  har- 
bor, and  they  might  reach  it  before  night ;  of  which  they  were  glad, 
for  it  began  to  be  foul  weather.  After  some  hours'  sailing,  it  began 
to  snow  and  rain,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  the  wind 
increased,  and  the  sea  became  very  rough,  and  they  broke  their 
rudder,  and  it  was  as  much  as  two  men  could  do  to  steer  the  boat 
with  a  couple  of  oars.  But  the  pilot  bid  them  be  of  good  cheer, 
for  he  saw  the  harbor.  But  the  storm  increasing  and  night  drawing 
on,  they  bore  what  sail  they  could  to  get  in  while  they  could  see : 
but  herewith  they  broke  their  mast  in  three  pieces,  and  their  sails 
fell  overboard  in  a  very  grown  sea,  so  as  they  had  like  to  have 
been  cast  away,  yet  by  God's  mercy  they  recovered  themselves, 
and  having  the  flood  with  them,  struck  into  the  harbor.  But 
when  it  came  to,  the  pilot  was  deceived,  and  said,  '  Lord  be  mer- 
ciful to  us  !  my  eyes  never  saw  this  place  before"!'  And  he  and 
the  master's  mate  would  have  run  the  boat  ashore  in  a  cove  full 
of  breakers  before  the  wind,  but  a  lusty  seaman  who  steered,'bid 
them  that  rowed,  '  if  they  were  men,  about  with  her !  else  they 
were  all  cast  away  :'  the  which  they  did  with  all  speed.  So  he 


376 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


bid  them  be  of  good  cheer  and  row  hard,  for  there  was  a  fair 
sound  before  them,  and  he  doubted  not  but  they  should  find  one 
place  or  other  they  might  ride  in  safety.  And  although  it  was 
very  dark  and  rained  sore,  yet  in  the  end  they  got  under  the  lee 
of  a  small  island,  and  remained  there  all  night  in  safety.  But 
they  knew  not  this  to  be  an  island  until  the  next  morning,  but 
were  much  divided  in  their  minds  :  some  would  keep  the  boat, 
doubting  they  might  be  amongst  the  Indians ;  others  were  so  wet 
and  cold  they  could  not  endure,  but  got  on  shore,  and  with  much 
difficulty  got  fire.  And  so  the  whole  were  refreshed  and  rested 
in  safety  that  night.  The  -next  day,  rendering  thanks  to  God  for 
his  great  deliverance  of  them,  and  his  continued  merciful  good 
providence  towards  them,  and  finding  this  to  be  an  island,  it  being 
the  last  day  of  the  week,  they  resolved  to  keep  the  Sabbath  there." 


James  I. 


Charles  I. 


Oliver  CromroelL 


Charles  II. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

MASSACHUSETTS  CONTINUED. — The  Plymouth  settlement. — Sufferings  of  the  colo- 
nists.— Hostility  of  the  Indians  prevented. —  The  Old  Colony. — Salem  founded. — 
The  new  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. — Foundation  of  Boston. — Alliance  with 
the  Indians. — Theological  dissensions. — Roger  Williams, — Endicott. — Founda- 
tion of  Providence  Plantations. — Representative  government  in  Massachusetts. — 
Emigration  to  New  England. — Hugh  Peters. — The  colonists  penetrate  to  the 
Connecticut. 


Settlement  of  Boston. 

THE  next  day,  December  11,  1620,  O.  S.,  they  landed  on  the  con- 
tinent. This  is  the  day,  now  the  22d,  N.  S.,  celebrated  ever  after- 
wards in  the  history  of  New  England  for  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 
The  rock  on  which  they  first  planted  their  feet,  known  as  "Fore- 
father's Rock,"  is  now  visited  with  devotion  by  their  grateful 
descendents.  The  town  which  they  built  here,  was  named  Ply- 
mouth, in  memory  of  the  last  English  port  from  which  they  sailed. 
The  settlement  was  immediately  begun  by  building  houses.  This 
territory  having  been  found  without  the  limits  of  their  patent,  as 
their  original  destination  was  the  country  about  Hudson  river, 
they  formed  a  voluntary  government  before  landing,  upon  purely 
democratic  principles.  John  Carver  was  chosen  governor.  Their 
building  went  on  slowly ;  cold  weather,  snow  and  rain,  hindered 
their  labors  and  subjected  them  to  great  sufferings.  By  a  fortu- 


378  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

nate  chance  they  had  saved  for  seed  the  corn  first  discovered; 
otherwise,  their  agriculture  for  the  first  season  would  hardly  have 
kept  them  from  starving.  Sickness  diminished  their  numbers, 
and  a  fire  consumed  their  storehouse.  By  March,  1621,  only 
fifty-five  remained  of  their  whole  number,  yet  were  they  not  dis- 
couraged. 

None  of  the  natives  had  yet  been  seen  at  Plymouth.  But,  on 
the  16th  of  March,  an  Indian  walked  into  the  town  and  saluted 
them,  in  broken  English,  with  the  exclamation,  "  Welcome,  Eng- 
lishmen!" This  was  Samoset,  a  sagamore  of  Monhegan,  in 
Maine,  where  he  had  learnt  some  English  by  intercourse  with 
fishing  vessels  and  traders.  He  informed  the  Plymouth  settlers 
'that  the  place  where  they  had  established  themselves  was  called 
by  the  Indians,  Patuxet,  'and  that  an  extraordinary  pestilence  had 
depopulated  the  whole  neighborhood  about  four  years  previous, 
leaving  neither  man,  woman  nor  child  remaining.  The  settlers 
had  found  ancient  cornfields  and  other  marks  of  cultivation  here, 
which  confirmed  this  account.  There  were  in  consequence  no 
owners  of  the  land  first  occupied  by  the  New  England  pilgrims. 
They  treated  Samoset  with  hospitality,  and  he  made  them  subse- 
quent visits,  bringing  with  him  Squanto,  a  native  who  had  been 
kidnapped  by  Captain  Hunt,  in  1614,  and  carried  to  England 
The  settlers  now  learned  that  Massasoit,  the  greatest  sachem  in 
the  country,  was  near,  with  a  train  of  sixty  men.  His  visit  was 
friendly,  and  a  treaty  was  made  between  him  and  the  English,  for 
mutual  assistance  and  defence,  which  was  observed  inviolate  for 
half  a  century.  The  settlers,  by  their  moderate,  discreet  and 
upright  conduct  toward  their  neighbors,  secured  their  firm  friend- 
ship and  alliance ;  and  within  a  year,  nine  sachems  of  the  country 
declared  their  allegiance.  Massasoit,  with  several  others,  signed 
a  writing,  acknowledging  the  king  of  England  as  their  sovereign. 

The  first  demonstration  of  a  hostile  spirit  came  from  Canonicus, 
sachem  of  the  Narragansetts,  who  sent  the  English  a  bundle  of 
arrows  wrapped  in  the  skin  of  a  rattlesnake.  The  token  was 
readily  understood,  and  promptly  answered  by  sending  back  the 
skin  stuffed  with  powder  and  shot.  The  savage  chieftain  discov- 
ered that  the  strangers  were  not  to  be  frightened  away,  and 
changing  his  mind,  eagerly  sought  their  friendship.  Meantime 
the  English  had  explored  Boston  harbor  and  the  shores  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay.  A  settlement  was  made  at  Weymouth,  in  1622,  by 
Mr.  Weston,  of  London,  who,  without  any  connection  with  the 
Plymouth  company,  obtained  a  patent  for  a  tract  of  land  in  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay.  His  colony  of  fifty  or  sixty  persons,  by  their 
imprudent  and  disorderly  behavior,  came  to  nothing  at  the  end  of 


FOUNDATION   OF    BOSTON.  379 

a  year.  They  would  have  starved  or  been  cut  off  by  the  Indians, 
but  for  the  aid  of  the  Plymouth  men,  who  averted  a  plot  for  their 
destruction,  which  had  been  revealed  by  the  faithful  Massasoit. 
The  settlers  at  Plymouth  first  threw  all  their  property  into  a 
common  stock,  but  this  scheme  was  found  impracticable  after'  a 
short  trial.  The  property  was  therefore  equally  divided,  and 
the  colonists  became  freeholders  of  the  soil.  The  progress  of 
population  was  slow,  and  at  the  end  of  ten  years  the  settlement 
contained  only  three  hundred  souls.  Salem  was  settled  in  1628, 
by  Endicott,  one  of  the  original  planters.  An  establishment  had 
been  made  in  1624,  at  Cape  Ann,  but  shortly  afterwards  aban- 
doned. 

The  government  of  Plymouth,  or,  as  it  was  afterwards  called, 
the  Old  Colony,  was  a  voluntary  association,  not  deriving  its 
powers  from  the  king  of  England.  A  new  government  soon  arose 
in  its  neighborhood.  Humphrey,  Endicott  and  Whetcomb,  and 
three  other  gentlemen  of  Dorchester,  in  England,  obtained  a  char- 
ter for  a  colony  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  which  afterwards  absorbed 
the  Plymouth  colony  and  became  the  head  of  the  New  England 
settlements.  This  charter  was  signed  by  king  Charles  I.,  in 
March,  1629.  Winthrop,  Dudley,  Johnson,  Pynchon,  Saltonstall, 
Bellingham  and  others,  celebrated  in  the  colonial  annals,  were 
parties  to  the  undertaking.  An  association  at  Boston  in  Lincoln- 
shire, lent  them  their  support,  and  they  received  encouragement 
from  the  great  body  of  the  Puritans  throughout  England.  Their 
ships  sailed  in  May  of  the  same  year,  and  at  the  end  of  June  arrived 
at  Salem,  which  at  that  time  consisted  of  ten  or  a  dozen  wretched 
hovels.  The  first  attempts  of  the  new  emigrants  were  unprom- 
ising; winter  brought  disease  and  suffering,  and  before  spring, 
eighty,  almost  half  their  number,  had  died.  However,  during  the 
following  season,  the  colony  received  a  strong  reinforcement;  no 
less  than  one  thousand  and  five  hundred  persons  arrived  at  Salem. 
Many  of  them  were  of  high  endowments,  large  fortunes  and  good 
education ;  scholars  well  versed  in  all  the  learning  of  the  times ; 
clergymen  who  ranked  among  the  most  eloquent  and  pious  in 
England.  A  search  was  now  made  for  a  more  desirable  locality 
to  build  a  town,  and  the  peninsula  of  Shawmut,  or  Tri-mountain, 
was  found  to  be  a  place  of  "  sweet  and  pleasant  springs,  and  good 
land,  affording  rich  corn-fields  and  fruitful  gardens."  The  safe 
and  capacious  harbor,  sheltered  from  the  ocean  by  clusters  of  well 
wooded  islands,  offered  additional  advantage,  and  in  September, 
1630,  the  foundation  of  Boston  was  laid.  The  town  received  jts 
name  from  the  Rev.  John  Cotton  and  other  "  Boston  men,"  who 
had  shown  great  zeal  for  the  colony. 


380  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

The  new  emigrants  encountered  much  the  same  obstacles  that 
afflicted  the  Plymouth  settlers.  Disease  and  hardship  thinned 
their  ranks,  yet  they  bore  all  with  equal  firmness,  and  their  con- 
duct towards  the  natives  was  equally  prudent  and  upright.  The 
Boston  settlers  soon  became  formidable  in  the  eyes  of  the  savages, 
who  were  at  hostility  with  each  other.  The  sagamore  of  the 
Mohegans  came  from  the  banks  of  the  Connecticut,  soliciting  the 
English  to  settle  in  his  neighborhood.  He  praised  the  fertility  of 
the  country,  and  sought  their  alliance  as  a  bulwark  against  the 
inroads  of  his  enemies,  the  Pequods.  Next  came  the  Nipmucks, 
begging  for  assistance  against  the  tyranny  of  the  Mohawks.  Then 
came  Miantonimo,  the  great  warrior  of  the  Narragansets;  then 
the  son  of  the  aged  Canonicas ;  and  then  a  Pequod  sachem,  with 
a  great  store  of  wampumpeag  and  bundles  of  sticks,  in  promise  of 
so  many  beaver  and  other  skins.  Charlestown,  Roxbury,  Dor- 
chester, Cambridge,  Ipswich  and  Newbury,  were  founded  about 
this  time,  or  within  a  few  years.  The  first  General  Court  was 
held  at  Boston,  in  October,  1630.  The  government  underwent 
some  changes,  but  was  established  on  a  representative  system, 
with  a  governor  elected  annually.  For  a  long  time,  however,  the 
elective  franchise  was  confined  to  the  members  of  the  church. 


City  of  Boston. 

The  first  theological  dissension  that  arose  in  the  colony,  was 
promoted  by  Roger  Williams,  who  had  emigrated  to  New  Eng- 
land in  1630,  and  officiated  for  some 'time  as  pastor  of  New 
Plymouth ;  but  not  finding  there  an  audience  of  congenial  spirits, 
he  obtained  leave  to  resign  his  functions  at  that  place,  and  had 
recently  been  appointed  minister  of  Salem.  This  celebrated  man 
was  a  Brownist,  keen,  resolute  and  uncompromising.  He  began  to 
announce  from  the  pulpit,  which  he  had  gained  by  his  substantial 
piety  and  fervid  zeal,  many  new  opinions,  some  wildly  specula- 


ROGER   WILLIAMS.  381 

live,  some  boldly  opposed  to  the  existing  constitutions  of  civil 
society,  and  some  which,  if  unexceptionable  in  the  abstract,  were 
regarded  as  unsuitable  to  the  place  where  they  were  promul- 
gated, and  the  exercises  and  sentiments  with  which  he  endeav- 
ored to  combine  them.  He  maintained  that  it  was  not  lawful 
for  an  unregenerate  man  to  pray,  nor  for  Christians  to  join  in 
family  prayer  with  those  whom  they  judged  unregenerate ;  that 
it  was  not  lawful  to  take  an  oath  to  the  civil  magistrate, — not 
even  the  oath  of  allegiance,  which  he  had  declined  himself  to  take, 
and  advised  his  congregation  equally  to  reject;  that  king  Charles 
had  unjustly  usurped  the  power  of  disposing  of  the  territory  of 
the  Indians,  and  hence  the  colonial  patent  was  utterly  invalid ; 
that  the  civil  magistrate  had  no  right  to  restrain  or  direct  the  con- 
sciences of  men ;  arid  that  anything  short  of  unlimited  toleration 
for  all  religious  systems,  was  detestable  persecution.  These  liberal 
principles  of  toleration,  he  combined  with  a  spirit  so  rigid  and 
separating,  that  he  not  only  refused  all  communion  with  persons 
who  did  not  profess  every  one  of  the  foregoing  opinions,  but  for- 
bade the  members  of  the  church  at  Salem  to  communicate  with 
any  of  the  other  churches  in  the  colony ;  and  when  they  refused 
to  obey  this  prohibition,  he  forsook  his  ministerial  office  among 
them  and  established  a  separate  meeting  in  a  private  house.  He 
even  withdrew  from  the  society  of  his  wife,  because  she  continued 
to  attend  the  church  of  Salem,  and  from  that  of  his  children, 
because  he  accounted  them  unregenerate.  In  his  retirement  he 
was  attended  by  a  select  assembly  of  zealous  admirers,  consisting 
of  men  in  whose  minds  an  impetuous  temper,  inflamed  by  perse- 
cution, had  greatly  impaired  the  sense  of  moral  perspective ;  who 
entertained  disproportionate  ideas  of  those  branches  of  the  trunk 
of  godliness,  for  the  sake  of  which  they  had  endured  severe  afflic- 
tion, and  had  seen  worth  and  piety  foully  wronged;  and  who 
abhorred  every  symbol,  badge,  and  practice,  that  was  associated 
with  the  remembrance,  and  spotted,  as  they  conceived,  with  the 
iniquity,  of  their  idolatrous  oppressors.  One  of  these  individuals, 
Endicott,  a  magistrate  of  the  place,  and  formerly  deputy  governor 
of  the  colony,  in  a  transport  of  devouring  zeal  against  superstition, 
was  instigated  by  Williams  to  cut  the  red  cross  out  of  the  royal 
standard ;  and  many  of  the  trained  bands  who  had  followed  this 
standard  without  objection,  caught  the  contagion  of  Endicott's 
fervor,  and  protested  that  they  would  no  longer  follow  a  flag,  on 
which  the  popish  emblem  of  a  crucifix  was  painted.  The  intem- 
perate and  disorderly  conduct  of  Endicott  was  generally  disap- 
proved, and  the  provincial  authorities  punished  his  misdemeanor 
by  reprimand,  and  disability  of  holding  office  for  a  year ;  but  they 


382  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

were  obliged  to  compromise  the  dispute  with  the  protesters  among 
the  trained  bands,   and  comply  to  a  certain  extent  with  their 
remonstrances.     They  were  preparing  to  call  Williams  to  a  judi- 
cial reckoning,  when  Cotton  and  other  ministers  interposed,  and 
desired  to  be  allowed  to  reason  with  him;   alleging   that  his 
vehemence  and  breach  of  order  betokened  rather  a  misguided 
conscience  than  seditious  principles,  and  that  there  was  hope  that 
they  might  gain,  instead  of  losing,  their  brother.    You  are  deceived 
in  that  man,  if  you  think  that  he  will  condescend  to  learn  of  any  of 
you,  was  the  prediction  of  the  governor ;  at  all  events,  the  result 
of  that  conference  was  that  sentence  of  banishment  from  the 
colony  was  forthwith  pronounced  upon  Williams.     This  sentence 
excited  great  feeling  in  Salem,  and  was  so  generally  regarded 
as  persecution  by  the  adherents  of  Williams,  that  the  bulk  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  preparing  to  follow  him  into 
exile ;  when  an  earnest  and  pious  admonition,  addressed  to  them 
by  Cotton  and  the  other  ministers  of  Boston,  induced  them  to 
relinquish  their  purpose,  to  acknowledge  the  justice  of  the  pro- 
ceeding, and  abandon  Williams  to  his  fate.     He  was  not,  however, 
abandoned  by  his  more  select  admirers,  whose  esteem  and  affec- 
tion he  had  gained  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  resolved  to  brave 
every  hardship  in  order  to  live  and  die  with  him.     Accompanying 
him  in  his  exile,  they  directed  their  march  towards  the  south ;  and 
settling  at  a  place  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  they 
purchased  a  considerable  tract  of  land  from  the  Indians,  and 
bestowed  on   their   plantation    the  name  of  Providence.      Had 
Williams  encountered  the  severities  to  which  the  publication  of  his 
peculiar  opinions  would  have  exposed  him  in  England,  he  would 
probably  have  lost  his  senses ;  the  wiser  and  kinder  treatment  he 
experienced  from  the  Massachusetts  authorities,  was  productive 
of  happier  effects ;  and  Cotton  and  his  colleagues  were  not  wholly 
mistaken,  in  supposing  that  they  would  gain  their  brother.     They 
gained  him,  indeed,  in  a  manner  less  flattering  to  themselves  than 
a  controversial  victory  would  have  been,  but  much  more  benefi- 
cial to  the  interests  of  America.     He  contributed,  as  we  shall  see, 
at  a  later  period,  to  found  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  and  was 
one  of  its  most  eminent  benefactors.     He  lived  to  an  advanced 
age,  and  soon  throwing  off  the  impetuous  yet  punctilious  spirit 
with  which  his  doctrinal    sentiments    had  been   leavened,   he 
regained  the  friendship  and  esteem  of  his  ancient  fellow-colonists, 
and  preserved  a  friendly  correspondence  with  Cotton  and  others 
of  them  till  his  death.     The  principles  of  toleration,  which  he 
had  formerly  discredited,  by  the  rigidness  with  which  he  disal- 
lowed the  slightest  difference  of  opinion  between  the  members  of 


REPRESENTATIVE    GOVERNMENT   IN   MASSACHUSETTS.  383 

liis  own  communion, — he  now  recommended,  by  the  exercise  of 
meekness,  charity  and  forbearance.  The  great  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity,  progressively  acquiring  a  more  exclusive 
and  absorbing  influence  on  his  mind,  he  began  to  labor  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Indians ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  benefits  of 
which  his  ministry  among  them  was  productive  to  this  race  of 
people,  he  acquired  over  them  an  influence  which  he  rendered 
highly  advantageous  to  his  old  associates  in  Massachusetts,  whom 
he  was  enabled  frequently  to  apprize  of  conspiracies  formed 
against  them  by  the  savages  in  their  vicinity,  and  revealed  to  him 
by  the  tribes  with  whom  he  maintained  relations  of  friendship. 
Endicott's  vehemence  was  not  less  mellowed  by  time  and  the 
ascendency  of  sound  wisdom  and  piety.  He  remained  in  Massa- 
chusetts; and  at  a  later  period  held  for  many  years  the  chief 
office  in  its  government,  with  great  public  advantage  and  general 
esteem. 

The  colony  of  Massachusetts  had  continued,  meanwhile,  to  ad- 
vance in  the  attainment  of  stability  and  prosperity,  and  to  extend 
its  settlements ;  and  in  1634,  an  important  and  beneficial  change 
took  place  in  its  municipal  constitution.  The  mortality  that  had 
prevailed  among  the  Indians,  had  vacated  a  great  many  stations 
formerly  occupied  by  their  tribes ;  and  as  most  of  these  were 
advantageously  situated,  the  colonists  took  possession  of  them  with 
an  eagerness  that  dispersed  their  settlements  widely  over  the  face 
of  the  country.  This  necessarily  led  to  the  introduction  of  repre- 
sentative government,  and,  accordingly,  at  the  period  of  convoking 
the  general  court,  the  freemen,  instead  of  personally  attending  it, 
which  was  the  literal  prescription  of  the  provincial  charter,  elected 
representatives  in  their  several  districts,  whom  they  authorized 
to  appear  in  their  name  and  act  in  their  behalf.  The  representa- 
tives were  admitted,  and  henceforward  considered  themselves,  in 
conjunction  with  the  governor  and  council  of  assistants,  as  the 
supreme  legislative  body  of  the  province. 

The  abstract  tvisdom  of  this  innovation  could  not  admit  ol 
doubt;  and,  in  defence  of  its  legitimacy,  it  was  forcibly  urged 
that  the  colonists  were  only  making  an  improved  and  necessary 
access  to  the  enjoyment  of  an  advantage  already  bestowed  on 
them,  and  preventing  their  assemblies  from  becoming  either  too 
numerous  to  transact  business,  or  inadequate  to  represent  the  gen- 
eral interest  and  administer  the  general  will.  The  number  of 
freemen  had  greatly  increased  since  the  charter  was  granted; 
many  resided  at  a  distance  from  the  places  where  the  general 
courts  or  assemblies  of  the  freemen  were  held ;  personal  attendance 
had  become  inconvenient ;  and,  in  such  circumstances,  little  if  any 


THE    UNITED   STATES. 

blame  can  attach  to  the  colonists  for  making  with  their  own  hands 
the  improvement  that  was  necessary  to  preserve  their  existing 
rights,  instead  of  applying  to  the  government  of  England,  which 
was  steadily  pursuing  the  plan  of  subverting  the  organs  of  liberty 
in  the  mother  country,  and  had  already  begun  to  exhibit  an  altered 
countenance  towards  the  colonial  community.  In  consequence 
of  this  important  measure,  the  colony  advanced  beyond  the  state 
of  a  mercantile  society  or  corporation,  and  acquired  by  its  own 
act  the  condition  of  a  commonwealth  endowed  with  political  lib- 
erty. The  representatives  of  the  people  having  established  them- 
selves in  their  office,  asserted  its  inherent  rights,  by  enacting  thai 
no  legal  ordinance  should  be  framed  within  the  province,  no  tax 
imposed,  and  no  public  officer  appointed  in  future,  except  by  the 
provincial  legislature. 

The  increasing  violence  and  injustice  of  the  royal  government 
in  England  cooperated  so  forcibly  with  the  tidings  that  were 
circulated  of  the  prosperity  of  Massachusetts, — and  the  simple 
frame  of  ecclesiastical  policy  that  had  been  established  in  the 
colony,  presented  a  prospect  so  desirable,  and,  by  the  comparison 
which  it  invited,  exposed  the  gorgeous  hierarchy  and  recent 
superstitious  innovations  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  English  church 
to  so  much  additional  odium. — that  the  flow  of  emigration  seemed 
rather  to  enlarge  than  subside,  and  crowds  of  new  settlers  contin- 
ued to  flock  to  New  England.  Among  the  passengers  in  a  fleet 
of  twenty  vessels  that  arrived  in  the  year  1635,  were  two  per- 
sons who  afterwards  made  a  distinguished  figure  in  a  more 
conspicuous  scene.  One  of  these  was  Hugh  Peters,  the  celebrated 
chaplain  and  counsellor  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  the  other  was 
Vane,  whose  father,  Sir  Henry  Vane,  the  elder,  enjoyed  the  dignity 
of  a  privy  counsellor  at  the  English  court.  Peters,  who  united 
an  active  and  enterprising  genius  with  the  warmest  devotion  to 
the  interests  of  religion  and  liberty,  became  minister  of  Salem, 
where  he  not  only  discharged  his  sacred  functions  with  zeal  and 
advantage,  but  roused  the  planters  to  new  courses  of  useful  indus- 
try, and  encouraged  them  by  his  own  successful  example.  His 
labors  were  blessed  with  a  produce  not  less  honorable  than  en- 
during. The  spirit  which  he  fostered  has  continued  to  prevail 
with  unabated  vigor;  and  nearly  two  centuries  after  his  death, 
the  piety,  good  morals,  and  industry,  by  which  Salem  has  always 
been  characterized,  have  been  ascribed,  with  just  and  grateful 
commemoration,  to  the  effects  of  Peters'  residence  there.  He 
remained  in  New  England  till  the  year  1641,  when,  at  the  request 
of  the  colonists,  he  went  to  transact  some  business  for  them  in  the 
mother  country,  from  which  he  was  fated  never  to  return.  But 


SIR    HENRY   VANE.  385 

his  race  remained  in  the  land  which  had  been  thus  highly  indebted 
to  his  virtue ;  and  the  name  of  Winthrop,  one  of  the  most  honored 
in  New  England,  was  again  acquired  and  transmitted  by  his 
daughter.  Vane,  afterwards  Sir  Henry  Vane,  the  younger,  had 
been  for  some  time  restrained  from  indulging  his  wish  to  proceed 
to  New  England,  by  the  prohibition  of  his  father,  who  was  at 
length  induced  to  waive  his  objections  by  the  interference  of  the 
king.  A  young  man  of  patrician  family,  animated  with  such 
ardent  devotion  to  the  cause  of  pure  religion  and  liberty,  that, 
relinquishing  all  his  prospects  in  Britain,  he  chose  to  settle  in  an 
infant  colony,  which  as  yet  afforded  but  little  more  than  a  bare 
subsistence  to  its  inhabitants,  was  received  in  New  England  with 
the  fondest  regard  and  admiration.  He  was  then  little  more  than 
twenty-four  years  of  age.  His  youth,  which  seemed  to  magnify 
the  sacrifice  he  had  made,  increased  no  less  the  impression  which 
his  manners  and  appearance  were  calculated  to  produce.  The 
deep,  thoughtful  composure  of  his  aspect  and  demeanor  stamped 
a  serious  grace,  and  somewhat,  according  to  our  conceptions,  of 
angelic  grandeur  on  the  bloom  of  manhood ;  his  countenance  dis- 
closed the  surface  of  a  character  not  less  resolute  than  profound, 
and  of  which  the  energy  was  not  extinguished,  but  concentrated 
into  a  sublime  and  solemn  calm.  He  possessed  a  prompt  and 
clear  discernment  of  the  spirits  of  other  men,  and  a  wonderful 
mastery  over  his  own.  He  has  been  charged  with  a  wild  enthu- 
siasm, by  some  who  have  remarked  the  intensity  with  which  he 
pursued  purposes,  which  to  them  have  appeared  worthless  and 
ignoble ;  and  with  hypocrisy  by  others,  who  have  contrasted  the 
vigor  of  his  resolutions  with  the  calmness  of  his  manners.  But  a 
juster  consideration,  perhaps,  may  suggest  that  it  was  the  habitual 
energy  of  his  determination,  that  repressed  every  symptom  of 
vehement  impetuosity,  and  induced  an  equality  of  manner  that 
scarcely  appeared  to  exceed  the  pitch  of  a  grave,  deliberate  con- 
stancy. So  much  did  his  mind  predominate  over  his  senses,  that 
though  constitutionally  timid,  and  keenly  susceptible  of  impres- 
sions of  pain,  yet  his  whole  life  was  one  continued  course  of  great 
and  daring  enterprise;  and  when,  amid  .the  wreck  of  his  fortune 
and  the  treachery  of  his  associates,  death  was  presented  to  him- 
self in  the  appalling  form  of  a  bloody  execution,  he  prepared  for 
it  with  a  heroic  and  smiling  intrepidity,  and  encountered  it  with 
tranquil  and  dignified  resignation.  The  man  who  could  so  com- 
mand himself,  was  formed  to  acquire  a  powerful  ascendency  over 
the  minds  of  others.  He  was  admitted  a  freeman  of  Massa- 
chusetts; and  extending  his  claims  to  respect,  by  the  address 
and  ability  which  he  displayed  in  conducting  business,  he  was 
33  w2 


386  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

elected  governor,  in  the  year  subsequent  to  his  arrival,  by  unani- 
mous choice,  and  with  the  highest  expectations  of  a  happy  and 
advantageous  administration.  These  hopes,  however,  were  dis- 
appointed. Yane,  not  finding  in  the  political  affairs  of  the  colo- 
nists, a  field  wide  enough  for  the  excursion  of  his  active  spirit, 
embarked  its  energy  in  their  theological  discussions ;  and,  unfor- 
tunately connecting  himself  with  a  party  who  had  conceived 
singularly  just  and  profound  views  of  Christian  doctrine,  but  asso- 
ciated them  with  some  dangerous  errors,  and  discredited  them 
by  a  wild  extravagance  of  behavior,  he  very  soon  witnessed  the 
abridgment  of  his  usefulness  and  the  decline  of  his  popularity, 
and  returned  to  England. 

The  incessant  flow  of  emigration  to  Massachusetts,  causing  the 
inhabitants  of  some  of  the  towns  to  feel  themselves  straitened  for 
room,  suggested  the  formation  of  additional  establishments.  A 
project  of  founding  a  new  settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Connecticut,  was  now  embraced  by  Hooker,  one  of  the  ministers 
of  Boston,  and  a  hundred  of  the  members  of  his  congregation. 
After  enduring  extreme  hardship,  and  encountering  the  usual 
difficulties  that  attended  the  foundation  of  civilized  society  in  this 
quarter  of  America,  with  the  usual  display  of  fortitude  and  reso- 
lution, they  at  length  succeeded  in  establishing  a  plantation,  which 
gradually  enlarged  into  the  flourishing  State  of  Connecticut. 


CHAPTER    XL. 

MASSACHUSETTS  CONTINUED. — Foundation  of  the  province  of  Connecticut. — The 
Narraganset  Indians.— The  Pequods. — Indian  wars. — Sassacus  and  Mason. — 
Victory  over  the  Pequods,  and  extirpation  of  that  tribe. — Atrocities  of  the  Indian 
wars. — Internal  dissensions  in  Massachusetts. — Doctrines  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson. — 
Their  effects  upon  the  colony. 


Indian  mars. 

SOME  Dutch  settlers  from  New  York,  who  had,  in  1633,  occu- 
pied a  post  in  Connecticut,  were  compelled  to  surrender  it  to  the 
British  colonists,  who,  moreover,  obtained  shortly  after  from  Lord 
Brooke,  and  Lords  Say  and  Sele,  the  grant  of  a  district,  which 
these  noblemen  had  acquired  in  the  same  quarter,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  flying  from  the  royal  tyranny  to  America.  Thomas 
Hooker,  a  clergyman,  made  the  first  permanent  settlement  in 
Connecticut.  Hooker  and  his  comrades  at  first  carried  with  them 
a  commission  from  the  government  of  "Massachusetts ;  but  sub- 
sequently, ascertaining  that  their  territory  was  beyond  the  juris- 
diction of  the  authorities  of  Massachusetts,  they  combined  them- 
selves, by  a  voluntary  association,  into  a  body  politic,  constructed 
on  the  model  of  the  colonial  society  from  which  they  had  separated. 
They  continued  in  this  condition  till  the  Restoration,  when  they 
obtained  a  charter  for  themselves,  from  King  Charles  the  Second. 
That  this  secession  from  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  was  occa- 


389  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

sioned  by  lack  of  room  in  a  province  yet  imperfectly  peopled,  has 
appeared  so  improbable  to  some  writers,  that  they  have  thought 
it  necessary  to  assign  another  cause,  and  have  found  none  so 
probable  or  so  satisfactory  as  the  jealousy  which  they  conclude 
that  Hooker  must  inevitably  have  entertained  towards  Cotton, 
whose  patriarchal  authority  had  attained  such  a  height  in  Massa- 
chusetts, that  even  a  formidable  political  dissension  was  quelled 
by  one  of  his  pacific  discourses.  But  envy  was  not  a  passion 
congenial  to  the  breast  of  Hooker,  or  likely  to  be  generated  by  the 
character  or  influence  of  Cotton.  The  notion  of  a  redundant 
population  was  the  more  readily  entertained  at  this  period,  from 
the  unwillingness  of  the  settlers  to  penetrate  far  into  the  interior 
of  the  country,  or  deprive  themselves  of  an  easy  communication 
with  the  coast.  Another  reason,  indeed,  appears  to  have  sug- 
gested the  formation  of  the  new  settlement ;  but  it  was  a  reason 
that  argued  not  dissension,  but  community  of  feeling  and  design 
between  the  planters  who  remained  in  Massachusetts  and  those 
who  removed  to  Connecticut.  By  the  establishment  of  this  ad- 
vanced station,  a  barrier,  it  was  hoped,  would  be  erected  against 
the  troublesome  incursions  of  the  Pequod  Indians.  Nor  is  it 
utterly  impossible  that  some  of  the  seceders  of  the  new  settle- 
ment were  actuated  by  a  restless  spirit,  which  had  hoped  too 
much  from  external  change,  and  which  vainly  urged  a  farther 
pursuit  of  that  excitement  which  is  found  in  a  life  of  adventure 
and  vicissitude. 

In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  this  new  settlement  another 
plantation  was  formed,  about  two  years  after,  by  a  numerous  body 
of  emigrants  who  arrived  from  England,  under  the  guidance  of 
Theophilus  Eaton,  a  man  of  large  fortune,  and  John  Davenport, 
an  eminent  puritan  minister.  Unwilling  to  erect  the  social  institu- 
tions which  they  projected,  upon  foundations  previously  laid  by 
other  hands,  these  adventurers  declined  to  settle  in  Massachusetts, 
which  already  presented  the  scene  of  a  thriving  and  well-com- 
pacted community ;  and,  smitten  with  the  attractions  of  a  vacant 
territory  skirting  the  large  and  commodious  bay  to  the  southwest 
of  Connecticut  river,  they  purchased  from  its  Indian  owners  all 
the  land  that  lies  between  that  stream  and  Hudson's  river,  which 
divides  the  southern  parts  of  New  England  from  New  York. 
Repairing  to  the  shores  of  this  bay,  they  built,  first  the  town 
of  New  Haven,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  whole  colony,  and 
then  the  towns  of  Guilford,  Milford,  Stamford  and  Brainford. 
After  some  time  they  crossed  the  bay,  and  planted  various  settle- 
ments in  Long  Island;  in  all  places  where  they  came,  erecting 
ehurches  on  the  model  of  the  Independents.  When  we  observe 


SETTLEMENT   OF    CONNECTICUT.  389 

the  injustice  and  cruelty  exercised  by  the  government  of  Britain, 
thus  contributing  to  cover  the  earth  with  cities,  and  to  plant  reli- 
gion and  liberty  in  the  savage  deserts  of  America,  we  recognise 
the  overruling  providence  of  that  Being,  who  can  render  even  the 
insolence  of  tyrants,  who  usurp  his  attributes,  conducive  to  his 
honor.  Having  no  royal  patent,  nor  any  other  title  to  their  lands 
than  by  purchase  of  the  natives,  and  not  being  included  within 
the  boundaries  of  any  provincial  jurisdiction  established  by  British 
authority,  these  settlers  entered  into  a  voluntary  association,  of  the 
same  nature  and  for  the  same  ends  as  that  which  the  founders  of 
Connecticut  had  embraced ;  and  in  this  condition  they  remained 
till  the  Restoration,  when  New  Haven  and  Connecticut  were  united 
by  a  charter  of  King  Charles  the  Second. 

When  the  settlement  of  Connecticut  was  first  projected,  hopes 
were  entertained  that  it  might  conduce  to  overawe  the  hostility  of 
the  Indians;  but  it  produced  a  directly  opposite  effect.  The 
tribes  of  Indians  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
were  comparatively  feeble  and  unwarlike;  but  the  colonies  of 
Providence  and  Connecticut  were  planted  in  the  midst  of  power- 
ful and  martial  hordes.  Among  these,  the  most  considerable  were 
the  Narragansets,  who  inhabited  the  shores  of  the  bay  which 
bears  their  name;  and  the  Pequods,  who  occupied  the  territory 
which  stretches  from  Rhode  Island  to  the  banks  of  the  Connec- 
ticut. The  Pequods  were  a  numerous  tribe,  and  renowned  for 
their  prowess  and  ferocity.  They  had  early  entertained  a  jealous 
hatred  of  the  European  colonists,  and  for  some  time  past  had 
harassed  them  with  unprovoked  attacks,  and  excited  their  abhor- 
rence and  indignation  by  the  monstrous  outrages  to  which  they 
subjected  their  captives.  Unoffending  men,  women  and  children, 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  their  hands,  were  scalped  and 
sent  back  to  their  friends,  or  put  to  death  with  every  circum- 
stance of  torture  and  indignity, — while  the  assassins,  with  dia- 
bolical glee  and  derision,  challenged  them  to  invoke  the  God  of 
the  Christians,  and  put  to  the  proof  his  power  to  save  them.  The 
extension  of  the  English  settlements  excited  anew  the  fury  of  the 
savages,  and  produced  a«  repetition  of  injuries,  which  Vane,  the 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  determined  at  length  to  retaliate  and 
punish  by  offensive  operations.  Receiving  intelligence  of  a  serious 
attack  that  had  been  made  by  the  Pequods  on  the  Connecticut 
settlers,  he  summoned  all  the  New  England  communities  to  as- 
semble and  despatch  the  strongest  force  they  could  contribute,  to 
the  defence  of  their  countrymen,  and  of  the  common  cause  of 
European  civilization.  The  Pequods,  aware  of  the  impending 
danger,  were  not  negligent  of  prudent  precautions,  as  well  as 
33* 


390  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

active  endeavors  to  repel  it.  To  this  end,  they  sought  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Narragansets,  their  hereditary  enemies,  and 
rivals  in  power ;  proposing  that  on  both  sides  the  remembrance  of 
ancient  quarrels  and  animosities  should  be  buried ;  and  urging  the 
Narragansets  for  once  to  cooperate  cordially  with  them  against  a 
common  foe,  whose  progressive  encroachments  threatened  to  con- 
found them  both  in  one  common  destruction.  But  the  Narragan- 
sets had  long  cherished  a  fierce  and  deep-rooted  hatred  against 
the  Pequods;  and  less  moved  by  a  distant  prospect  of  danger  to 
themselves,  than  by  the  hope  -of  an  instant  gratification  of  their 
implacable  revenge,  they  rejected  the  proposals  of  accommoda- 
tion, and  determined  to  assist  the  English  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  war,  which  broke  out  in  1637. 

The  Pequods,  incensed  but  not  dismayed  by  this  disappoint- 
ment, hastened  by  the  vigor  of  their  operations  to  anticipate  the 
junction  of  the  allied  provincial  forces;  and  the  Connecticut 
troops,  while  as  yet  they  had  received  a  small  part  of  the  succors 
with  which  their  friends  had  undertaken  to  reinforce  them,  found 
it  necessary  to  advance  against  the  enemy.  The  Pequod  warriors, 
amounting  in  number  to  more  than  fifteen  hundred,  commanded 
by  Sassacus,  their  principal  sachem,  occupied  two  fortified  sta- 
tions, against  one  of  which,  at  Mistic,  in  Rhode  Island,  Captain 
Mason  and  the  Connecticut  militia,  consisting  only  of  ninety  men. 
attended  by  a  body  of  Indian  allies,  directed  their  attack.  The 
approach  of  Mason  was  quickened  by  the  information  that  the 
enemy,  deceived  by  a  seeming  retreat  of  the  provincial  troops,  had 
abandoned  themselves  to  the  conviction  that  the  English  dared 
not  encounter  them,  and  were  celebrating  in  premature  triumph 
the  supposed  evacuation  of  their  country.  About  daybreak,  while 
in  deep  slumber  and  supine  security,  they  were  approached  by 
the  colonists ;  and  the  surprise  would  have  been  complete,  if  an 
alarm  had  not  been  communicated  by  the  barking  of  a  dog.  The 
war-whoop  was  immediately  sounded,  and  they  flew  to  their  arms. 
The  colonial  troops  rushed  on  to  the  attack ;  and  while  some  of 
them  fired  on  the  Indians  through  the  palisades,  others  forced 
their  way  by  the  entrances  into  the  fort,  and  setting  fire  to  the 
huts,  which  were  covered  with  reeds,  involved  their  enemies  m 
the  confusion  and  horror  of  a  general  conflagration.  The  Pequods, 
notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  of  their  situation,  behaved 
with  great  intrepidity ;  but  after  a  prolonged  and  furious  resist- 
ance, they  were  totally  defeated,  with  the  slaughter  of  at  least 
five  hundred  of  their  tribe.  Many  of  the  women  and  children  per- 
ished in  the  flames ;  and  the  warriors,  in  endeavoring  to  escape, 
were  slain  by  the  colonists,  or,  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Indian 


EXTINCTION   OF    THE   PEQUODS.  391 

allies  of  the  English,  who  surrounded  the  fort  at  a  distance,  were 
reserved  for  a  mofe  cruel  fate.  Soon  after  this  action,  Captain 
Stoughton  having  arrived  with  the  auxiliary  troops  from  Massa- 
chusetts, it  was  resolved  to  pursue  the  victory.  Several  engage- 
ments took  place,  which  terminated  unfavorably  for  the  Pequods ; 
and  in  a  short  time  they  sustained  another  general  defeat,  which 
put  an  end  to  the  war.  A  few  only  of  this  once  powerful  nation 
survived,  who,  abandoning  their  country  to  the  victorious  Euro- 
peans, dispersed  themselves  among  the  neighboring  tribes,  and  lost 
their  existence  as  a  separate  people.  Sassacus  had  been  an  object 
of  superstitious  terror  to  the  Narragansets,  who  had  endeavored  to 
dissuade  the  colonists  from  risking  a  personal  encounter  with  him, 
by  the  assurance  that  his  life  was  charmed  and  his  person  invul- 
nerable. After  the  destruction  of  his  people,  when  he  fled  for 
refuge  to  a  distant  tribe,  the  Narragansets,  exchanging  their  terror 
for  cruelty,  solicited  and  prevailed  with  these  Indians  to  cut  off  his 
head.  Thus  terminated  a  struggle  more  important  from  its  conse- 
quences than  from  the  number  of  the  combatants,  or  the  celebrity 
of  their  names.  On  its  issue  there  had  been  staked  no  less  than 
the  question,  whether  Christianity  and  civilization,  or  paganism 
and  barbarity  should  prevail  in  New  England. 

This  first  military  enterprise  of  the  colonists  was  conducted 
with  vigor  and  ability,  and  impressed  the  Indian  race  wifh  a  high 
opinion  of  their  steadfast  courage  and  superior  skill.  Their  vic- 
tory, however,  it  must  be  confessed,  was  sullied  by  cruelties 
which  it  is  easy  to  account  for  and  extenuate,  but  painful  to  re- 
collect. The  Massachusetts  militia  had  been  exceedingly  diligent 
before  their  march  in  purging  their  ranks  of  all  persons  whose 
religious  sentiments  did  not  correspond  with  the  general  standard 
of  faith,  orthodoxy.  It  had  been  happy  if  they  could  have  purged 
their  own  bosoms  of  the  vindictive  feelings  which  the  outrages  of 
their  savage  foes  were  but  too  well  fitted  to  inspire.  Some  of  the 
prisoners  were  tortured  by  the  Indian  allies,  whose  cruelties,  we 
can  hardly  doubt,  the  English  might  have  prevented  ;  a  consider- 
able number  were  sold  as  slaves  in  Bermuda,  and  the  rest  were 
reduced  to  servitude  in  the  New  England  settlements.  In  aggra- 
vation of  the  reproach  which  these  proceedings  undoubtedly 
merit,  it  has  been  urged,  but  with  very  little  reason,  that  the 
Pequods  were  entitled  to  the  treatment  of  an  independent  people, 
gallantly  striving  to  defend  their  property,  their  rights  and  their 
freedom.  But,  in  truth,  the  Pequods  were  the  aggressors  in  an 
unjust  quarrel,  and  were  fighting  all  along  in  support  of  unpro- 
voked and  ferocious  purposes  of  extermination. 

While  the  military  force  of  Massachusetts  was  thus  employed 


392  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

in  the  field,  the  provincial  commonwealth  was  shaken  by  intestine 
dissensions,  which  had  been  excited  by  theological  controversy, 
and  inflamed  by  the  gall  and  bitterness  of  unruly  tongues.  It 
was  the  custom  at  that  time,  in  Boston,  that  the  members  of  every 
congregation  should  assemble  in  weekly  meetings,  to  reconsider 
the  sermons  of  the  preceding  Sunday ;  to  discuss  the  doctrinal 
instructions  they  had  heard ;  to  revive  the  impressions  that  had 
been  produced  by  their  sabbatical  exercises ;  and  extend  the  sacred 
influences  of  the  Sabbath  throughout  the  week.  Mrs.  Hutchinson, 
the  wife  of  one  of  the  most  respectable  inhabitants  of  the  colony, 
a  woman  of  masculine  spirit, — subtle,  ambitious  and  enthusiastic, 
•—submitted  with  impatience  to  the  restriction  by  which  women,  at 
these  meetings,  were  debarred  from  the  privilege  of  joining  in  the 
debates;  and  at  length,  conceiving  that  she  was  authorized  to 
exercise  her  didactic  powers,  by  the  precept  of  Scripture,  which 
enjoins  the  elder  women  to  teach  the  younger,  she  established  sep- 
arate meetings  of  the  Christians  of  her  own  sex,  where  her  zeal 
and  talents  soon  procured  her  a  numerous  and  admiring  audience. 
These  women,  who  had  partaken  the  struggles  and  perils  of  the 
male  colonists,  had  also  caught  no  small  portion  of  the  various 
hues  of  their  spirit ;  and  as  many  of  them  had  been  accustomed  to 
a  life  more  replete  with  external  elegance  and  variety  of  interest 
and  employment  than  the  state  of  the  colony  could  supply,  they 
experienced  a  listless  craving  for  something  to  animate  and  engage 
their  faculties,  and  judged  nothing  fitter  for  this  purpose  than 
an  imitation  of  those  exercises,  for  the  promotion  of  the  great 
common  cause,  which  seemed  to  minister  such  comfort  and  sup- 
port to  the  spirits  of  the  men.  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  their  leader, 
had  by  her  devout  behavior,  gained  the  cordial  esteem  of  John 
Cotton,  whose  charity  never  failed  to  recognise,  in  every  human 
being,  the  slightest  trace  of  those  graces  which  he  continually 
and  ardently  longed  to  behold ;  and  towards  him  she  entertained 
and  professed  for  some  time  a  very  high  veneration.  The  friend- 
ship of  Vane  and  some  others  had  a  less  favorable  influence  on 
her  mind ;  and  their  admiring  praise  of  the  depth  and  vigor  of 
her  genius  seems  to  have  elevated,  in  her  estimation,  the  gifts  of 
intellect  above  the  graces  of  character.  She  acquired  the  title  of 
The  Nonesuch,  which  the  ingenuity  of  her  admirers  derived  from 
an  anagrammatical  transposition  of  the  letters  of  her  name ;  and 
gave  to  her  female  assemblies  the  title  of  gossipings, — a  term  at 
that  time  of  respectable  import,  but  which  the  scandalous  repute 
of  female  conventions  and  debates  has  since  consigned  to  con- 
tempt and  ridicule.  Doing  amiss  what  the  Scriptures  plainly 
forbade  her  to  do  at  all,  she  constituted  herself  not  only  a  dictator 


ft  MRS.  HUTCH1NSON.  393 

of  orthodoxy,  but  a  censor  of  the  spiritual  estate  and  value  of  all 
the  ministers  and  inhabitants  of  the  province.  Her  canons  of 
doctrine  were  received  by  her  associates  as  the  unerring  standard 
of  truth  ;  and  a  defamatory  persecution  was  industriously  waged 
against  all  who  rejected  them  as  unsound,  uncertain,  or  unintelli- 
gible. A  scrutiny  was  instituted  into  the  characters  of  all  the 
provincial  clergy  and  laity ;  and  of  those  who  refused  to  receive 
the  doctrinal  testimony  of  the  conclave,  few  found  it  easy  to  stand 
the  test  of  a  censorious  inquisition,  stimulated  by  female  petulance 
and  controversial  rancor.  In  the  assemblies  which  were  held  by 
the  followers  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  there  were  nourished  and  trained 
a  keen,  pugnacious  spirit,  and  unbridled  license  of  tongue,  of 
which  the  influence  was  speedily  felt  in  the  serious  disturbance 
first  of  domestic  happiness,  and  then  of  public  peace.  The  mat- 
rons of  Boston  were  transformed  into  a  synod  of  slanderous 
praters,  whose  inquisitorial  deliberations  and  audacious  decrees 
instilled  their  venom  into  the  innermost  recesses  of  society ;  and 
the  spirits  of  a  great  majority  of  the  citizens  being  in  that  com- 
bustible state  in  which  a  feeble  spark  will  suffice  to  kindle  a 
formidable  conflagration,  the  whole  colony  was  inflamed  and 
distracted  by  the  incontinence  of  female  spleen  and  presumption. 
The  tenets  adopted  and  inculcated  by  the  faction  of  which  Mrs. 
Hutchinson  was  the  leader,  were  denounced  by  their  adversa- 
ries as  constituting  the  heresy  of  antinomianism.  The  doctrine 
which  she  taught,  and  the  censures  which  she  pronounced,  were 
received  with  avidity  and  delight  by  a  considerable  party;  and 
proportionally  provoking  the  displeasure  of  others,  excited  the 
most  violent  dissensions  throughout  the  whole  colony.  Cotton 
endeavored  to  moderate  the  heats  that  arose,  by  representing  to 
the  parties,  that  their  strife  was  prejudicial  to  the  great  purpose  in 
which  he  firmly  believed  the  minds  of  both  were  united, — the 
exalting  and  honoring  divine  grace ;  the  one  (said  he)  seeking  to 
advance  the  grace  of  God  within  us,  in  the  work  of  sanctification, 
the  other  seeking-  to  advance  the  grace  of  God  without  us,  in  the 
work  of  justification.  But  the  strife  was  not  to  be  stayed;  his 
endeavors  to  pacify  and  reconcile,  only  served  to  draw  down 
upon  himself  the  charge  of  a  timorous  and  purblind  incapacity, 
from  the  assembly  of  the  women ;  and,  as  even  this  insult  was 
not  able  to  induce  him  to  declare  himself  entirely  opposed  to 
them,  he  incurred  a  temporary  abatement  of  his  popularity  with 
a  majority  of  the  colonists.  Some  of  the  tenets  promulgated  by 
the  sectaries,  he  reverenced  as  the  legitimate  fruit  of  profound  and 
enlightened  meditation  upon  the  Scriptures;  but  he  viewed  with 
grief  and  amazement  the  fierce  and  arrogant  spirit  with  which  they 

x2 


-1 


394          %  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

were  maintained,  and  the  wild  and  dangerous  errors  with  which 
they  very  soon  came  to  be  associated.  The  controversy  raged 
with  a  violence  very  unfavorable  to  the  discernment  and  recog- 
nition of  truth.  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her  adherents,  both  male 
and  female,  firmly  persuaded  of  the  superior  soundness  and  purity 
of  their  system  of  doctrines,  forgot  to  consider  how  far  the  opposi- 
tion which  it  encountered  might  be  traced  to  the  obscurity  and 
imperfection  of  their  views,  and  their  manner  of  exhibiting  them. 

It  is  asserted  that  the  heat  of  their  tempers  gradually  commu- 
nicated itself  to  the  understandings  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her 
party ;  and  that,  in  addition  to  their  original  tenets,  they  adopted 
the  idea  that  the  Spirit  of  God  communicates  with  the  minds  of 
believers  independently  of  the  written  word ;  and,  in  consistency 
with  this,  received  many  revelations  of  future  events,  announced 
to  them  by  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  as  equally  infallible  with  the  prophe- 
cies of  Scripture.  But  the  accounts  that  are  transmitted  to  us  of 
such  theological  dissensions  are  always  obscured  by  the  cloud  of 
contemporary  passion,  prejudice  and  error ;  hasty  effusions  of  irri- 
tated zeal  are  mistaken  for  deliberate  sentiments,  and  the  excesses 
of  the  zealots  of  a  party  are  held  up  as  the  standard  by  which 
the  whole  body  may  fairly  be  measured. 

Some  ministers,  who  had  embraced  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  opinions, 
began  to  proclaim  them  from  the  pulpit,  with  such  opprobrious 
invectives  against  all  by  whom  they  were  rejected,  as  at  length 
brought  the  dissensions  to  a  crisis;  and  Vane,  being  considered  the 
confederate  and  protector  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  his  continuance  in 
office,  or  privation  of  it,  at  the  approaching  annual  election,  was 
the  first  test  by  which  the  parties  were  to  try  with  which  of  them 
resided  the  power  of  imposing  silence  on  the  other.  So  much  ill 
humor  and  mutual  jealousy  had  now  been  instilled  into  the  minds 
of  the  people,  that  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  sober  and  humane 
barely  sufficed  to  prevent  the  day  of  election  from  being  disgraced 
by  a  general  riot.  All  the  exertions  of  Vane's  partisans  failed  to 
obtain  his  reappointment;  and  by  a  great  majority  of  votes,  the 
government  was  conferred  on  Winthrop.  Vane,  nevertheless,  re- 
mained in  the  colony,  professing  his  willingness  to  undertake  even 
the  humblest  function  in  the  service  of  a  commonwealth  of  the 
people  of  God ;  and  the  followers  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  regarding 
his  deprivation  of  office  as  a  dangerous  blow  to  themselves,  ceased 
not  to  labor  for  his  reinstatement,  with  as  much  warmth  as  they 
had  exerted  in  the  propagation  of  their  religious  tenets.  The 
government  was  loudly  reproached,  and  Winthrop  openly  slighted 
and  affronted.  At  length,  the  prevailing  party  resolved  to  cut  up 
this  source  of  contention  by  the  roots ;  and  a  general  synod  of 


MRS.  HUTCHINSON.  395 

the  churches  of  the  colony  having  been  assembled,  the  doctrines 
recently  broached  were  condemned  as  erroneous  and  heretical. 
As  this  proceeding  served  only  to  provoke  the  professors  of  these 
doctrines  to  assert  them  with  increased  warmth  and  pertinacity, 
the  leaders  of  the  party  were  summoned  before  the  general  court. 
Mrs.  Hutchinson  rebuked  her  judges  for  their  wicked  persecution 
of  truth,  compared  herself  to  the  prophet  Daniel  cast  into  the  den 
of  lions,  and  attempted  to  complete  the  similitude  by  exercising 
what  she  believed  to  be  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  predicting  that 
her  exile  would  be  attended  with  the  ruin  of  her  adversaries  and 
all  their  posterity.  To  this  punishment,  nevertheless,  she  was 
condemned,  together  with  her  brother,  Wheelwright,  who  was  a 
clergyman,  and  who  had  been  the  great  pulpit  champion  of  her 
doctrines ;  and  some  of  the  inferior  members  of  the  faction,  partly 
on  account  of  the  violence  with  which  they  still  proclaimed  their 
theological  tenets,  and  partly  for  the  seditious  insolence  with 
which  they  had  treated  the  new  governor,  were  fined  and  dis- 
franchised. In  consequence  of  these  proceedings,  Vane  quitted 
the  colony,  and  returned  to  England,  "leaving  a  caveat,"  says 
Cotton  Mather,  "  that  all  good  men  are  not  fit  for  government." 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES.  Jealousy  of  the  English  government. — Attempts 
upon  American  liberty. — Firmness  of  the  colonists. — Attempts  of  the  crown  to 
stop  emigration. — Cromwell  and  Hampden. — Trouble  in  England. — Harvard 
College  founded. — Settlement  of  Maine. —  General  state  of  the  colonies. — Man- 
ners, government,  religion,  strictness  of  morals. — Severity  of  the  laws. — 
Attempts  to  civilize  the  Indians. — Elliot,  the  Indian  apostle. — His  labors  among 
the  natives. — Stubborn  character  of  the  Indians. — Mayhew's  missionary  efforts. — 
Translation  of  the  Bible. — Result  of  the  attempts  at  civilizing  the  savages. 


Elliot  preaching  to  the  Indians. 

MEANTIME,  the  progress  of  the  New  England  colonies  had  begun 
to  excite  the  jealousy  of  the  English  government.  The  system 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  now  rapidly  growing  up  in  the  west, 
was  too  striking  a  spectacle  to  escape  serious  notice.  The  clergy, 
in  particular,  began  to  look  upon  the  American  innovations  as  an 
affair  of  state,  and  in  April,  1634,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
and  his  associates  received  full  power  over  the  American  planta- 
tions, with  authority  to  establish  the  government,  regulate  the 
church,  and  revoke  any  charter  which  conceded  liberties  prejudi- 
cial to  the  royal  prerogative.  This  account  spread  alarm  among 
the  colonists,  and  they  resolved  to  defend  their  rights.  Fortifica- 
tions were  hastily  erected,  and  a  military  fund  of  six  hundred 
pounds  raised, — a  large  sum,  if  we  consider  the  poverty  of  the 
colonies  at  that  period.  Ail  the  ministers  assembled  at  Boston 


DISTRICT   OP   MAINE.  397 

and  declared  unanimously  the  determination  of  the  settlers  to 
defend  their  lawful  possessions  as  far  as  they  were  able.  The 
holders  of  the  general  patent  for  New  England  were  forced  to 
surrender  it  to  the  king,  and  by  a  writ  of  quo  warranto,  the  Mas- 
sachusetts charter  was  likewise  ordered  to  be  given  up.  With  a 
design  to  stop  the  tide  of  emigration  to  the  colonies,  the  privy 
council,  in  May,  1638,  forbade  the  sailing  of  eight  ships,  in  the 
Thames,  bound  to  New  England.  A  tradition  is  current  that 
Oliver  Cromwell  and  John  Hampden,  afterwards  so  famous  in  the 
history  of  England,  were  among  the  emigrants  on  board  this  fleet. 
After  some  detention,  however,  the  ships  were  permitted  to  depart. 

When  the  order  for  surrender  of  the  charter  arrived  at  Boston, 
accompanied  with  a  threat  that  in  case  of  refusal  the  king  would 
take  into  his  own  hands  the  whole  government  of  the  plantations, 
the  colonists  firmly  refused ;  and,  fortunately  for  them,  before  the 
royal  anger  could  wreak  itself  on  their  heads,  the  troubles  broke 
out  in  England  which  led  Charles  I.  to  the  scaffold.  The  repub- 
lican parliament  favored  the  colonists,  and  the  House  of  Commons, 
in  1643,  voted  a  resolution  favorable  to  the  New  England  colonies. 
In  the  meantime  Massachusetts  promulgated  a  bill  of  rights  and 
offered  a  free  welcome  to  Christians  of  every  nation,  who  might 
fly  from  war,  famine,  tyranny  or  persecution.  New  England  had 
at  this  early  period  become  the  asylum  for  the  oppressed  of  •  all 
Christendom.  Antecedent  to  this  period  the  colonists  had  begun 
to  look  forward  to  the  promotion  of  literature.  Harvard  College 
was  founded,  in  1636,  by  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts,  who 
appropriated  a  whole  year's  taxation  towards  the  establishment 
of  a  college  at  Cambridge.  Two  years  afterwards,  John  Harvard, 
of  Charlestown,  bequeathed  one  half  of  his  estate  and  all  his 
library  to  the  same  purpose,  from  which  donation  the  infant  Uni- 
versity received  his  name. 

The  District  of  Maine,  now  a  separate  state,  was  in  the  early 
part  of  its  existence,  a  portion  of  Massachusetts.  This  territory 
was  at  first  comprised  within  the  limits  of  a  patent  granted  to 
Gorges  and  Mason,  who  obtained  a  title  for  the  whole  country 
between  the  Merrimack  and  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  French  had 
already  visited  the  coast  of  Maine  and  established  themselves  at 
Mount  Desert.  Some  English  settlers  took  post  at  Saco  river  and 
Monhegan  Island,  about  1618,  but  the  first  permanent  settlement 
was  made  in  1626,  "  on  the  Maine,"  as  it  was  called,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  islands  which  so  thickly  stud  the  coast.  This 
settlement  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pemaquid.  The  Frenqh 
made  encroachments  and  claimed  nearly  all  the  territory  of  Maine, 
but  they  were  finally  expelled.  The  first  court  organized  in  this 
34 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 

district  was  in  1636,  at  Saco.  Gorges  gave  the  country  the  name 
of  New  Somersetshire.  In  1652,  Massachusetts,  by  a  literal  inter- 
pretation of  her  charter,  extended  her  limits  so  as  to  absorb  the 
territory  of  Maine  as  far  as  Casco  Bay.  In  1691,  the  whole  of 
Maine  became  incorporated  with  Massachusetts,  and  continued 
an  integral  portion  of  that  state  till  1820. 

When  the  intercourse,  which  for  twenty  years  had  subsisted 
between  New  England  and  the  parent  state,  was  interrupted  by 
the  civil  war  in  England,  the  number  of  colonists  appears  to  have 
amounted  to  about  twenty  thousand  persons,  or  four  thousand 
families,  including  about  a  hundred  ministers.  The  expenditure 
that  had  already  been  incurred  in  equipping  vessels  and  transport- 
ing emigrants,  amounted  to  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  pounds, 
— a  prodigious  sum  in  that  age,  and  which  nothing  but  the  grand 
and  unconquerable  principle  which  animated  the  puritans,  could 
have  persuaded  men  to  expend  on  the  prospect  of  forming  an 
establishment  in  a  remote,  uncultivated  desert,  offering  to  its 
inhabitants  merely  a  plain,  unadorned  freedom  and  difficult  sub- 
sistence. When  the  civil  war  broke  out  in  the  parent  state,  the 
colonists  had  already  founded  fifty  towns  and  villages ;  they  had 
erected  upwards  of  thirty  churches  and  ministers'  houses;  and 
combining  with  their  preponderating  regard  for  the  concerns  of 
religion,  a  diligent  and  judicious  conduct  of  their  temporal  affairs, 
they  had  improved  their  estates  to  a  high  degree  of  cultivation. 
During  the  first  seven  years  of  the  infancy  of  the  settlement  that 
was  founded  in  1630,  even  subsistence  was  procured  with  diffi- 
culty, and  trade  was  not  attempted ;  but  soon  after  that  period,  the 
people  began  to  extend  their  fishery,  and  to  open  a  trade  in  lum- 
ber, which  subsequently  proved  the  staple  article  of  New  England 
commerce.  In  the  year  1637,  there  were  but  thirty  ploughs  in  the 
whole  province  of  Massachusetts,  and  less  than  one  third  of  that 
number  in  Connecticut.  The  culture  of  the  earth  was  generally 
performed  with  hoes,  and  was  consequently  slow  and  laborious. 
Every  commodity  bore  a  high  price.  Though  money  was  ex- 
tremely scarce,  the  price  of  a  good  cow  was  thirty  pounds ;  Indian 
com  cost  five  shillings  a  bushel ;  labor  and  every  other  article  of 
use  was  proportionably  dear.  Necessity  at  first  introduced  what 
the  jurisprudence  of  the  colonists  afterwards  confirmed ;  and 
desiring  to  perpetuate  the  habits  that  had  proved  so  conducive  to 
piety  and  virtue,  they  endeavored  by  legislative  enactments  to 
exclude  luxury  and  promote  industry.  When  the  assembling  of 
the  long  parliament  opened  a  prospect  of  safety,  and  even  of 
triumph  and  supremacy  to  the  puritans  in  England,  many  persons 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  America  returned  to  their  native  country  ; 


GENERAL  STATE  OF  THE  COLONIES.  399 

but  a  great  majority  of  the  colonists  had  experienced  so  much  of 
the  substance  and  happiness  of  religious  life  in  the  societies  which 
had  been  formed  within  the  colony,  that  they  felt  themselves 
united  to  New  England  by  stronger  and  nobler  ties  than  any  that 
patriotic  recollections  could  supply ;  and  resolved  to  abide  in  a 
region  which  their  virtue  had  converted  from  a  wilderness  into 
a  garden.  In  these  infant  communities  of  men  devoted  to  godli- 
ness and  liberty,  all  hearts  were  strongly  united  by  community 
of  feeling  on  subjects  the  most  interesting  and  important ;  the 
inhabitants  were,  in  general,  very  nearly  on  a  level  in  point  of 
temporal  condition ;  the  connexion  of  neighborhood  operated  as 
extended  family  ties;  and  the  minds  of  all  were  warmed  and 
invigorated  by  a  primitive  friendliness,  freedom,  and  simplicity  of 
mutual  communication.  And  yet  some  indications  of  an  aristo- 
cratical  disposition,  arising  not  unnaturally  from  peculiar  circum- 
stances that  had  occurred  in  the  formation  of  the  colonial  settle- 
ments, did  occasionally  manifest  themselves.  Several  of  the  first 
planters,  particularly  Dudley,  Winthrop,  Bradford,  Bellingham 
and  Bradstreet,  were  persons  of  ample  fortune ;  and  besides  the 
transportation  of  their  own  families,  they  had  borne  the  charge 
of  transporting  many  poor  families,  who  must  otherwise  have 
remained  in  England.  Others  were  members  of  the  original  body 
of  patentees,  and  had  incurred  expenses  in  the  procurement  of 
the  charter, 'the  formation  of  the  company,  the  equipment  of  the 
first  body  of  adventurers,  and  the  purchase  of  the  soil  from  the 
natives,  of  which  they  had  now  no  prospect  of  obtaining  reim- 
bursement. On  this  class  of  planters  the  offices  of  government 
naturally  devolved  during  the  infancy  of  the  settlements,  and 
long  continued  to  be  discharged  by  them  with  no  other  pecuniary 
recompense  than  presents,  which  were  occasionally  voted  to  them 
by  the  gratitude  of  their  fellow-citizens.  It  was  probably  owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  the  peculiar  sentiments  inspired  by  the  ser- 
vices of  these  persons,  that,  in  the  first  general  court  which  was 
assembled  in  Massachusetts,  the  election  of  the  governor,  the 
appointment  of  all  the  other  officers,  and  even  the  power  of  legisla- 
tion, were  withdrawn  from  the  freemen,  and  vested  in  the  council 
of  assistants ;  and  although  the  freemen  reclaimed  and  resumed 
their  rights  the  following  year,  yet  the  exercise  of  legislation  was 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  council  of  assistants,  till  the  intro- 
duction of  the  representative  system  in  the  year  1634.  From  this 
time  the  council  and  the  freemen,  assembled  together,  formed  the 
General  Court, — till  the  year  1644, — when  it  was  arranged  that  the 
governor  and  assistants  should  sit  apart ;  and  thence  commenced 
the  separate  existence  of  the  democratic  branch  of  the  legislature, 


400  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

or  house  of  representatives.  Elections  were  conducted  by  ballot, 
in  which  the  balls  or  tickets  tendered  by  the  electors  consisted  of 
Indian  beans. 

Some  notice  of  the  peculiarities  of  jurisprudence  that  already 
prevailed  in  the  various  communities  of  New  England,  will  serve 
to  illustrate  the  state  of  society  and  manners  that  sprung  up  at 
first  among  this  singular  people.  By  a  fundamental  law  of 
Massachusetts,  it  was  enacted,  "that  all  strangers  professing  the 
Christian  religion,  who  shall  flee  to  this  country  from  the  tyranny 
of  their  persecutors,  shall  be  succored  at  the  public  charge  until 
some  provision  can  be  made  for  them."  Jesuits  and  other  Romish 
priests,  however,  were  subjected  to  banishment,  and  in  case  of 
their  return,  to  death.  This  cruel  ordinance  was  afterwards  ex- 
tended to  the  Quakers;  and  all  persons  were  forbidden,  under  the 
severest  penalties,  to  import  any  of  "  that  cursed  sect,"  or  of  their 
writings,  into  the  colony.  By  what  proceedings  the  Quakers  of 
that  age  provoked  so  much  aversion  and  such  rigorous  treatment, 
we  shall  have  an  opportunity  of  considering  hereafter.  These 
persecuting  edicts  had  no  place  in  Rhode  Island,  where  no  one 
was  exposed  to  active  molestation  for  religious  opinions,  and  all 
professors  of  Christianity,  except  Roman  Catholics,  were  admitted 
to  the  full  rights  of  citizenship.  In  Connecticut,  persons  \vere  for- 
bidden to  run,  or  even  to  walk,  "except  reverently  to  and  from 
church,"  on  Sunday,  or  to  profane  the  day  by  sweeping  their  houses, 
cooking  their  victuals,  or  shaving  their  beards.  Mothers  were  even 
commanded  not  to  kiss  their  children  on  that  sacred  day.  The 
usual  punishments  of  great  crimes  were  disfranchisement,  banish- 
ment, and  temporary  servitude ;  but  perpetual  slavery  was  not  per- 
mitted to  be  inflicted  upon  any  persons  except  captives  lawfully 
taken  in  the  wars ;  and  these  were  to  be  treated  with  the  gentleness 
of  Christian  manners,  and  to  be  entitled  to  all  the  mitigations  of 
their  lot,  enjoined  by  the  law  of  Moses.  Disclaiming  all  but 
defensive  war,  the  colonists  considered  themselves  entitled  and 
constrained,  in  self-defence,  to  deprive  their  assailants  of  a  liberty 
which  they  had  abused  and  rendered  inconsistent  with  the  safety 
of  their  neighbors.  The  practice,  notwithstanding,  was  impolitic, 
to  say  no  worse,  and  served  to  pave  the  way,  at  a  later  period,  for 
the  introduction  of  negro  slavery  into  New  England. 

All  gaming  was  prohibited ;  cards  and  dice  were  forbidden  to 
be  imported ;  and  assemblies  for  dancing  were  proscribed.  By  a 
law  enacted  in  1646,  kissing  a  woman  in  the  street,  even  in  the 
way  of  honest  salute,  was  punished  by  flogging.  This  was  not 
considered  an  infamous  punishment  by  the  people  of  Massachu- 
setts ;  and  even  so  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 


SEVERITY    OF    THE    LAWS.  401 

there  were  instances  of  persons,  who,  after  undergoing  its  severity, 
have  associated  with  the  most  respectable  circles  of  society  in 
Boston.  This  doubtless  arose  from  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
government,  which,  seeming  to  hold  a  patriarchal  relation  to  the 
people,  could  never  be  supposed,  in  correcting  an  offender,  to  divest 
itself  entirely  of  hope  and  good  will  towards  him.  The  economy 
of  inns  was  regulated  with  a  strictness  which  deserves  to  be  noted, 
as  explanatory  of  a  circumstance  that  has  frequently  excited  the 
surprise  of  European  travellers  in  America.  The  intemperance 
and  immorality  to  which  these  places  are  so  often  made  subser- 
vient, were  punished  with  the  utmost  rigor ;  and  all  innkeepers 
were  required,  under  the  severest  penalties,  to  restrain  the  ex- 
cesses of  their  guests,  or  to  acquaint  the  magistrate  with  their 
perpetration.  To  secure  a  stricter  execution  of  this  law,  it  was 
judged  expedient  that  innkeepers  should  be  divested  of  the  temp- 
tation that  poverty  presents  to  its  infraction,  and  enjoy  such 
personal  consideration  as  would  facilitate  the  exercise  of  their 
difficult  duty;  and,  accordingly,  none  were  permitted  to  follow 
this  calling,  but  persons  of  approved  character  and  competent 
estate.  One  of  the  consequences  of  this  policy  was,  that  an  em- 
ployment very  little  respected  in  other  countries,  for  a  long  period, 
was  creditable  in  the  highest  degree  in  New  England. 

Persons,  wearing  apparel  which  the  grand  jury  should  account 
unsuitable  to  their  estate,  were  to  be  admonished  in  the  first 
instance,  and  if  contumacious,  fined.  A  fine  was  imposed  on 
every  woman  cutting  her  hair  like  a  man's,  or  suffering  it  to  hang 
loosely  upon  her  face.  Idleness,  lying,  swearing  and  drunken- 
ness, were  subjected  to  various  penalties  and  marks  of  disgrace. 
The  selectmen  assessed,  in  every  family,  the  quantity  of  spinning 
which  the  young  women  were  esteemed  capable  of  producing, 
and  enforced  by  fines  the  production  of  the  requisite  quantities. 
Usury  was  forbidden;  and  the  prohibition  was  not  confined  to  the 
interest  of  money,  but  extended  to  the  loan  of  laboring  cattle  and 
implements  of  husbandry.  Persons  deserting  the  English  settle- 
ments, and  living  in  heathen  license  and  profanity,  were  punished 
by  fine  and  imprisonment.  A  male  child  above  sixteen  years  of 
age,  accused  by  his  parents  of  rebellion  against  them  and  general 
misconduct,  incurred,  (conformably  with  the  Mosaic  code,)  the 
doom  of  capital  punishment ;  and  any  person  courting  a  maid 
without  the  sanction  of  her  parents,  was  fined  and  imprisoned. 

It  is  pleasing  to  contemplate  the  substantial  fruits  of  Chris- 
tian sentiment  evinced  by  the  memorable  exertions  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Indians.  The  circumstances  that  promoted  the 


402  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

emigrations  to  New  England,  had  operated  with  particular  force  on 
the  ministers  of  the  puritans ;  and  so  many  of  these  spiritual  direc- 
tors had  accompanied  the  other  settlers,  that  among  a  people  who 
derived  less  enjoyment  from  the  exercises  of  piety,  the  numbers 
of  the  clergy  would  have  been  reckoned  exceedingly  burdensome 
and  very  much  disproportioned  to  the  wants  of  the. laity.  This 
circumstance  was  highly  favorable  to  the  promotion  of  reli- 
gious habits  among  the  colonists,  as  well  as  to  the  extension  of 
their  settlements,  in  the  plantation  of  which,  the  cooperation  of  a 
minister  was  considered  indispensable.  It  contributed  also  to 
suggest  and  facilitate  missionary  labor  among  the  neighboring 
heathen,  to  whom  the  colonists  had  associated  themselves,  by 
superadding  the  ties  of  a  common  country  to  those  of  a  common 
nature.  While  the  people  at  large  were  progressively  extending 
their  industry,  and  overcoming  by  culture  the  rudeness  of  desert 
nature,  the  ministers  of  religion,  with  earnest  zeal,  aspired  to  an 
extension  of  their  peculiar  sphere  of  usefulness ;  and,  at  a  very 
early  period,  entertained  designs  of  redeeming  to  the  dominion  of 
piety  and  civilization  the  neglected  wastes  of  human  character  that 
lay  stretched  in  savage  ignorance  and  idolatry  all  around  them. 
John  Elliot,  one  of  the  ministers  of  Roxbury,  a  man  whose  large 
soul  glowed  with  the  intensest  flame  of  holy  charity,  had  been 
diligently  laboring  some  time  to  overcome  the  preliminary  diffi- 
culty by  which  its  performance  was  obstructed.  He  had  now,  by 
diligent  study,  obtained  such  a  knowledge  of  the  Indian  language, 
as  enabled  him  not  only  himself  to  speak  it  with  fluency,  but  to 
facilitate  the  acquisition  of  it  by  others,  in  the  construction  and 
publication  of  a  system  of  Indian  grammar.  Having  completed 
his  preparatory  inquiries,  he  began,  in  the  close  of  this  year,  a 
scene  of  labor,  which  has  been  traced  with  the  greatest  interest 
and  accuracy  by  the  ecclesiastical  historians  of  New  England. 

It  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  Elliot's  long  and  arduous  career, 
that  the  energy  by  which  he  was  actuated  never  sustained  the 
slightest  abatement;  but,  on  the  contrary,  manifested  a  steady 
and  continual  increase.  He  appears  never  himself  to  have 
doubted  its  endurance ;  but,  confidently  referring  it  to  Divine 
bestowment,  he  felt  assured  of  its  derivation  from  a  source  incapa- 
ble of  being  wasted  by  the  most  liberal  communication.  Every- 
thing he  saw  or  knew  occurred  to  him  in  a  religious  aspect; 
every  faculty,  and  every  acquisition  that  he  derived  from  the 
employment  of  his  faculties,  was  received  by  him  as  a  ray 
imparted  to  his  soul,  from  that  everlasting  source  of  sentiment 
and  intelligence,  which  was  the  object  of  his  earnest  contempla- 


LABORS    OF    ELLIOT   AMONG    THE   INDIANS.  403 

tion  and  continual  desire.  As  he  was  one  of  the  holiest,  so  was 
he  also  one  of  the  happiest  and  most  beloved  of  men.  When  he 
felt  himself  disabled  from  preaching,  by  the  infirmities  of  old  age, 
he  proposed  to  his  parishioners  of  Roxbury,  to  resign  his  ministe- 
rial salary ;  but  the  people  unanimously  declared,  that  they  would 
willingly  pay  the  stipend,  for  the  happiness  of  having  him  reside 
among  them.  His  example,  indeed,  was  the  most  valuable  part 
of  his  ministry  among  Christians ;  his  life,  during'  many  years, 
being  a  continual  effusion  of  soul  in  devotion  to  God  and  charity 
to  mankind. 

The  mild,  persuasive  address  of  Elliot  soon  gained  him  a  favor- 
able audience  from  many  of  the  Indians ;  and  having  successfully 
represented  to  them  the  expediency  of  an  entire  departure  from 
their  savage  habits  of  life,  he  obtained  from  the  general  court  a 
suitable  tract  of  land  adjoining  the  settlement  of  Concord,  in 
Massachusetts,  upon  which  a  number  of  Indian  families  began, 
under  his  counsel,  to  erect  fixed  habitations  for  themselves,  and 
where  they  eagerly  received  his  instructions,  both  spiritual  and 
secular.  It  was  not  long  before  a  violent  opposition  to  these 
innovations  was  excited  by  the  powows,  or  Indian  priests,  who 
threatened  death  and  other  inflictions  of  the  vengeance  of  their 
idols  on  all  who  should  embrace  Christianity.  The  menaces  and 
artifices  of  these  persons  caused  several  of  the  seeming  converts 
to  draw  back,  but  induced  others  to  separate  themselves  entirely 
from  the  society  and  converse  of  the  main  body  of  their  country- 
men, and  court  the  advantage  of  a  closer  association  with  that 
superior  race  of  men,  who  showed  themselves  so  willing,  nay,  so 
anxious,  to  diffuse  and  communicate  the  benefits  of  their  own 
improved  condition.  A  considerable  number  of  Indians  resorted 
to  the  land  allotted  to  them  by  the  provincial  government,  and 
exchanged  their  wild  and  barbarous  habits  for  the  modes  of  civil- 
ized living  and  industry.  Elliot  was  continually  among  them, 
instructing,  animating,  and  directing  them.  They  felt  his  supe- 
rior wisdom,  and  saw  him  continually  and  serenely  happy ;  and 
there  was  nothing  in  his  exterior  condition  that  indicated  sources 
of  enjoyment  from  which  they  were  debarred.  On  the  contrary, 
it  was  obvious  that  of  every  article  of  merely  selfish  comfort,  he 
was  willing  to  divest  himself,  in  order  to  communicate  to  them  a 
share  of  what  he  esteemed  the  only  true  riches  of  an  immortal 
being.  The  women  in  the  new  settlement  learned  to  spin ;  the 
men  to  dig  and  till  the  ground ;  and  the  children  were  instructed 
in  the  English  language,  and  taught  to  read  and  write.  ^As  the 
number  of  domesticated  Indians  increased,  they  built  a  town  by 
the  side  of  Charles  river,  which  they  called  Natick • ;  and  they 


404  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

desired  Elliot  to  frame  a  system  of  municipal  government  for 
them.  He  directed  their  attention  to  the  counsel  that  Jethro  gave 
to  Moses;  and  in  conformity  with  it,  they  elected  for  themselves 
rulers  of  hundreds,  of  fifties  and  of  tens.  The  provincial  govern- 
ment also  appointed  a  court,  which,  without  assuming  jurisdiction 
over  them,  tendered  the  assistance  of  its  judicial  mediation  to  all 
who  might  be  willing  to  refer  to  it  the  adjustment  of  their  more 
difficult  or  important  controversies.  In  endeavoring  to  extend 
their  missionary  influence  among  the  surrounding  tribes,  Elliot 
and  his  associates  met  with  diversified  results,  corresponding  to 
the  visible  varieties  of  human  character,  and  the  invisible  pre- 
determinations of  the  Divine  will.  Many  Indians  expressed  the 
utmost  abhorrence  and  contempt  of  Christianity;  some  made  a 
hollow  profession  of  willingness  to  hear,  and  even  of  conviction, 
with  the  view,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  of  obtaining  the  tools 
and  other  articles  of  value  that  were  furnished  to  every  Indian 
who  proposed  to  embrace  the  habits  of  civilized  life.  In  spite  of 
great  discouragement  the  missionaries  persisted;  and  the  diffi- 
culties that  at  first  mocked  their  efforts,  seeming  at  length  to 
vanish  under  an  invisible  influence,  their  labors  were  attended 
with  astonishing  success.  The  character  and  habits  of  the  lay 
colonists  promoted  the  efficacy  of  these  pious  endeavors,  in  a 
manner  which  will  be  forcibly  appreciated  by  all  who  have  exam- 
ined the  history  and  progress  of  missions.  Simple  in  their  man- 
ners,— devout,  moral  and  industrious  in  their  lives, — they  enforced 
the  lessons  of  the  missionaries  by  demonstrating  their  practica- 
bility and  their  beneficial  effects,  and  presented  a  model  which  in 
point  of  refinement  was  not  too  elevated  for  Indian  imitation. 

While  Elliot  and  an  increasing  body  of  associates  were  thus 
employed  in  the  province  of  Massachusetts,  Thomas  Mayhew,  a 
man  who  combined  the  gentlest  manners  with  the  most  ardent 
and  enthusiastic  spirit,  together  with  a  few  coadjutors,  diligently 
prosecuted  the  same  design  in  Martha's  Vineyard,  Nantucket,  and 
Elizabeth  Isles,  and  the  territory  comprehended  in  the  Plymouth 
patent.  Abasing  themselves,  that  they  might  elevate  their  species 
and  promote  the  divine  glory,  they  \vrought  with  their  own  hands 
among  those  Indians  whom  they  persuaded  to  forsake  savage 
habits ;  and  zealously  employing  all  the  influence  they  acquired  to 
the  communication  of  moral  and  spiritual  improvement,  they 
beheld  their  exertions  crowned  with  the  most  signal  success.  The 
character  and  manners  of  Mayhew  appear  to  have  been  singularly 
calculated  to  excite  the  tenderness,  no  less  than  the  veneration, 
of  the  objects  of  his  benevolence.  His  address  derived  a  pene- 
trating interest  from  that  earnest  concern,  and  high  and  holy 


ELLIOT   AND   MAYHEW.  405 

value,  which  he  manifestly  entertained  for  every  member  of  the 
family  of  mankind.  Many  years  after  his  death,  the  Indians 
could  not  hear  his  name  mentioned  without  shedding  tears,  and 
betraying  transports  of  grateful  emotion. 

Both  Elliot  and  Mayhew  found  great  advantage  in  the  practice 
of  selecting  the  most  docile  and  ingenious  of  their  Indian  pupils, 
and  by  especial  attention  to  their  instruction,  qualifying  them  to 
act  as  schoolmasters  among  their  countrymen.  To  a  zeal  that 
seemed  to  increase  by  exercise,  they  added  insurmountable 
patience  and  admirable  prudence ;  and  steadily  fixing  their  view 
on  the  glory  of  the  Most  High,  and  declaring  that,  whether  out- 
wardly successful  or  not  in  prosecuting  it,  they  felt  themselves 
blest  and  happy  in  pursuing  it :  they  found  its  influence  suflicient 
to  light  them  through  the  darkness  of  every  perplexity  and  peril, 
and  finally  conduct  them  to  a  degree  of  success  and  victory 
unparalleled,  perhaps,  since  that  era  when  the  miraculous  endow- 
ments of  the  apostolic  ministry  caused  multitudes  to  be  converted 
in  a  day.  They  were  not  hasty  in  urging  the  Indians  to  embrace 
improved  institutions ;  they  desired  rather  to  lead  them  insensibly 
forward, — more  especially  in  the'  establishment  of  religious  ordi- 
nances. Those  practices,  indeed,  which  they  accounted  likely  to 
commend  themselves,  by  their  obviously  beneficial  effects,  to  the 
natural  understanding  of  men,  they  were  not  restrained  from 
recommending  to  their  early  adoption;  and  trial  by  jury  very 
soon  superseded  the  savage  modes  of  determining  right,  or  ascer- 
taining guilt,  and  contributed  to  improve  and  refine  the  sense  of 
equity.  In  the  dress  and  modes  of  intercourse  among  the  savages, 
they  also  introduced,  at  an  early  period,  alterations  calculated  to 
form  and  develop  a  sentiment  of  modesty,  of  which  the  Indians 
were  found  to  be  grossly  and  universally  deficient.  But  all  those 
practices  which  are,  or  ought  to  be  exclusively  the  fruits  of 
renewed  nature  and  divine  light,  they  desired  to  teach  entirely  by 
example,  and  by  diligently  radicating  and  cultivating  in  the 
minds  of  their  flock,  the  principles  out  of  which  alone  such  visible 
fruits  of  piety  can  lastingly  and  beneficially  grow.  It  was  not 
till  the  year  1660,  that  the  first  Indian  church  was  founded  by 
Elliot  and  his  fellow-laborers  in  Massachusetts.  There  were  at 
that  time  no  fewer  than  ten  settlements  within  the  province  occu- 
pied by  Indians  comparatively  civilized. 

Elliot  had  occasionally  translated  and  printed  various  approved 
theological  dissertations  for  the  use  of  the  Indians ;  and,  at  length, 
in  the  year  1664,  the  Bible  was  printed  for  the  first  time,  in  the  na- 
tive language  of  the  New  World,  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts. 
This,  indeed,  was  not  accomplished  without  the  assistance  of 


406  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

pecuniary  contributions  from  the  mother  country.  The  colonists 
had  zealously  and  cheerfully  cooperated  with  their  ministers,  and 
assisted  to  defray  the  cost  of  their  charitable  enterprises ;  but  the 
increasing  expenses  threatened  at  last  to  exceed  what  their  narrow 
means  were  competent  to  afford.  Happily,  the  tidings  of  this 
great  work  excited  a  kindred  spirit  in  the  parent  state,  where,  in 
the  year  1649,  there  was  formed,  by  act  of  parliament,  a  Society 
for  propagating  the  Gospel  in  New  England,  whose  cooperation 
proved  of  essential  service  to  the  missionary  cause.  This  society, 
having  been  dissolved  at  the  restoration,  was  afterwards  reerected 
by  a  charter  from  Charles  the  Second,  obtained  by  the  exertions 
of  the  pious  Richard  Baxter,  and  the  influence  of  the  illustrious 
Robert  Boyle,  who  thus  approved  himself  the  benefactor  of  New 
England,  as  well  as  of  Virginia.  Supported  by  its  ample  endow- 
ments, and  the  liberal  contributions  of  their  own  fellow-colonists, 
the  American  missionaries  exerted  themselves  with  such  energy 
and  success  in  the  work  of  converting  and  civilizing  the  savages, 
that,  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  were 
collected  in  the  province  of  Massachusetts,  more  than  thirty  con- 
gregations of  Indians,  comprising  upwards  of  three  thousand 
persons,  reclaimed  from  a  gross  barbarism  and  degrading  super- 
stition, and  advanced  to  the  comfort,  and  respectability  of  civilized 
life,  and  the  dignity  and  happiness  of  worshippers  of  the  true 
God.  There  were  nearly  as  many  converts  to  religion  and  civiliza- 
tion in  the  islands  of  Massachusetts  Bay ;  there  were  several  Indian 
congregations  in  the  Plymouth  territories ;  and  among  some  of  the 
tribes  that  still  pursued  their  wonted  style  of  roving  life,  there 
was  introduced  a  considerable  improvement  in  civil  and  moral 
habits.  <  : 


CHAPTER    XLII. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  Gorges  and  Mason's  projects. — Foundation  of  Portsmouth. — 
New  Hampshire  absorbed  in  Massachusetts. — RHODE  ISLAND.  Williams  obtains 
a  charter  for  that  colony. — CONNECTICUT.  First  attempt  of  the  Dutch  at  a  set- 
tlement.— Hartford  founded  by  the  English. — Government  of  Connecticut. — New 
Haven. — Distresses  of  the  first  settlers. — Troubles  with  the  Indians  and  Dutch. — 
Connecticut  obtains  a  charter. 


Founding  of  Portsmouth. 

SLR  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  John  Mason,  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Plymouth,  obtained,  in  1022,  a  patent  for  Laconia,  under 
which  name  was  then  comprised  all  the  coast  from  the  river 
Merrimac  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  company  was  formed  in  Eng- 
land, under  this  patent,  and  settlements  effected  at  Portsmouth  and 
Dover,  in  1623.  The  colony,  however,- made  but  little  progress; 
the  patentees  got  involved  in  territorial  disputes  with  their  Massa- 
chusetts neighbors,  and  wasted  their  efforts  in  suits  at  law, — the 
poorest  means  of  helping  the  growth  of  an  estate.  Fifteen  years 
later,  the  whole  coast  of  New  Hampshire  and  Maine  is  described 
as  a  mere  wilderness,  with  a  few  huts  scattered  here  and  there 
along  the  shore ;  and  at  the  end  of  thirty  years,  Portsmouth  con- 
tained only  fifty  or  sixty  families.  Mason  took  out  a  new  patent, 
but  his  American  estate  became  ruined.  Neither  the  proprietor 
nor  the  king  paid  any  attention  to  this  colony,  and  the  New 


408  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

Hampshire  settlers  were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The 
colony  was  absorbed  into  Massachusetts  in  1641,  and  continued 
to  form  a  part  of  that  state  till  1677,  when  a  committee  of  the 
privy  council,  having  examined  all  the  colonial  charters,  de- 
cided that  Massachusetts  had  no  jurisdiction  over  this  terri- 
tory. New  Hampshire  then  became  a  royal  province.  The 
history  of  this  state  is  so  closely  connected  throughout  with  that 
of  Massachusetts,  that  they  cannot  be  separated  without  impair- 
ing the  unity  of  our  narrative  of  general  events. 

The  foundation  of  the  province  of  Rhode  Island  was  laid  by 
Roger  Williams,  whom  we  have  already  seen  leaving  the  settle- 
ments at  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  going  into  exile  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Williams  first  established  himself  at  Seekonk,  but  finding 
the  spot  within  the  limits  of  Plymouth,  he  removed  across  the 
river,  and  made  a  permanent  settlement  at  Providence  in  1638. 
He  bought  the  land  of  the  Narraganset  Indians,  and  his  infant 
colony  was  undisturbed  by  disputes  with  the  natives.  Tb.p 
friends  of  Anne  Hutchinson  sought  shelter  here,  and  the  colony 
increased  to  such  a  degree  that  a  constitution  was  established  in 
1641.  Williams  remained  here  upwards  of  forty  years,  and  in 
1643,  he  went  to  England,  where,  by  the  interest  of  Sir  Henry 
Vane,  he  obtained  a  parliamentary  charter,  by  which  the  colony 
was  governed  till  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  That  monarch 
favored  the  Rhode  Islanders;  and  the  liberal  terms  of  the  charter 
which  he  granted  the  colony  in  1663,  form  a  theme  of  unbounded 
praise  with  the  historians  of  the  time.  Under  this  charter  the 
state  continued  to  be  governed  down  to  the  year  1842. 

In  our  narrative  of  the  Indian  wars  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
we  have  alluded  to  the  early  establishment  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  on  Connecticut  river.  In  the  year  1635,  and  the  subse- 
quent years,  several  distinct  English  settlements  were  made. 
One  group  of  these  settlers,  led  by  Mr.  Hooker,  with  their  families, 
stock  and  property,  travelled  in  about  fourteen  days  from  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  to  Hartford,  across  .the  intermediate  trackless  wil- 
derness. They  had  no  guide  but  their  compass ;  no  covering  but 
the  fyeavens;  and  their  chief  subsistence  was  the  milk  of  their 
cows,  which  they  drove  before  them.  By  these  and  other  settlers 
from  Old  and  New  England,  two  colonies,  named  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven,  were  formed,  and  continued  distinct  for  about  thirty 
years,  but  were  then  united.  These  early  settlements  were  formed 
by  voluntary  associations  of  persons  who  purchased  the  soil  from 
the  natives,  and  the  right  of  settling  there  from  the  old  Plymouth 
company  in  England. 

The  constitution  of  the  colony  called  Connecticut,  was  estab- 


CONNECTICUT.  409 

lished  by  a  convention  of  all  the  freemen  of  Windsor,  Hartford, 
and  Wethersfield,  which  met  at  Hartford,  in  January,  1639.  It 
ordained  that  there  should  be  annually  two  general  courts  or  legis- 
lative assemblies,  one  in  April  and  the  other  in  September ;  that 
in  the  first,  all  public  officers  should  be  chosen ;  that  a  governor 
should  be  annually  appointed ;  that  no  one  should  be  chosen  to 
this  office  unless  he  had  been  a  magistrate,  and  also  a  member  of 
some  church ;  that  the  choice  of  officers  should  be  by  ballot,  and 
by  the  whole  body  of  freemen ;  and  that  every  man  was  to  be 
considered  as  a  freeman,  who  had  been  received  as  a  member  of 
any  of  the  towns,  and  had  taken  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  com- 
monwealth ;  that  each  of  the  three  towns  should  send  four  depu- 
ties to  the  general  court;  and  that,  when  there  was  an  equal 
division  of  votes,  the  governor  should  have  the  casting  vote. 
John  Haynes  was  chosen  the  first  governor,  and  henceforward 
the  general  court  proceeded  to  enact  laws.  A  free  representative 
government  was  thus  established  in  New  England,  one  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  years  before  the  American  revolution. 

The  planters  of  Quinipiack,  afterwards  called  New  Haven,  con- 
tinued more  than  a  year  without  any  other  constitution  than  their 
plantation  covenant.  In  this  they  had  solemnly  engaged  to  be 
governed,  as  well  in  their  civil  as  their  religious  concerns,  by  the 
rules  of  Scripture.  In  June,  1639,  they  held  a  convention  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  their  polity.  It  was  resolved  that  the  Scriptures 
afford  a  perfect  rule  for  the  discharge  of  all  duties,  and  that  they 
would  be  governed  by  them ;  that  church  members  only  should 
be  free  burgesses,  and  that  they  only  should  choose  magistrates 
among  themselves  to  manage  their  affairs.  They  met  in  court 
and  admitted  into  their  body  all  the  members  of  the  churches. 
To  this  succeeded  the  election  of  officers.  Theophilus  Eaton  was 
chosen  governor,  and  with  him  were  joined  four  magistrates.  It 
was  at  the  same  time  agreed  that  there  should  be  a  general  court 
annually  in  October,  at  which  all  the  officers  of  the  colony  should 
be  chosen,  and  that  the  word  of  God  should  be  the  sole  rule  for 
regulating  the  affairs  of  the  commonwealth. 

Connecticut,  when  first  settled,  was  a  vast  wilderness.  In  it 
were  neither  fields,  gardens,  public  roads,  nor  cleared  ground; 
but  much  valuable  limber  and  wild  fruit;  a  great  variety  of 
water-fowl  and  other  birds.  In  its  waters  there  was  an  abun- 
dance of  fish  of  different  kinds.  In  no  part  of  New  England  were 
the  Indians  so  numerous,  in  proportion  to  territory,  as  in  Connec- 
ticut. For  thirty  or  forty  years  after  its  settlement,  they  were 
computed  to  be  to  the  white  population,  in  the  proportion  of 
nineteen  to  one. 

35  z2 


410  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

The  settlement  of  this  cold  country  was  injudiciously  begun  in 
October.  By  the  15th  of  the  next  month,  Connecticut  river  was 
frozen  from  side  to  side.  The  snow  was  deep  and  the  season 
tempestuous.  In  the  following  month,  December,  provisions  gen- 
erally failed.  Famine  and  even  death  were  anticipated  by  many. 
Some,  impelled  by  hunger,  attempted  to  return  through  the 
wilderness,  to  Massachusetts.  Others  abandoned  their  habita- 
tions. Seventy  persons  were  obliged,  in  the  extremity  of  winter, 
to  go  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  to  meet  their  provisions,  as  the 
only  expedient  to  preserve  their  lives.  They  who  kept  their  sta- 
tions suffered  extremely.  After  all  the  help  they  could  obtain  by 
hunting  and  from  the  Indians,  they  were  obliged  to  subsist  on 
acorns,  malt  and  grains. 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  distresses  of  this  first  doleful  winter. 
These  first  settlers,  exposed  to  all  the  horrors  of  a  dreary  wilder- 
ness, were  encompassed  with  numerous  and  cruel  tribes  of  sava- 
ges, who  could  at  pleasure  destroy  them.  They  had  neither 
bread  for  themselves  nor  their  children;  neither  habitations  nor 
convenient  clothing.  Whatever  emergency  might  occur,  they 
were  cut  off,  both  by  land  and  water,  from  either  succor  or  retreat. 
Their  second  year  was  also  a  season  of  great  and  various  labors. 
Many  of  the  planters  had  to  remove  ftiemselves  and  effects  from 
a  considerable  distance.  It  was  also  incumbent  on  them  to  culti- 
vate the  earth,  and  raise  a  crop,  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  dis- 
tresses which  took  place  the  preceding  year.  It  was  necessary  to 
erect  and  fortify  their  houses ;  to  prepare  food  and  shelter  for  their 
cattle ;  to  make  roads  between  their  settlements,  that  on  any  emer- 
gency, they  might  assist  each  other.  These  various  labors  were 
of  difficult  accomplishment  in  a  new  and  unsettled  country.  The 
planters  had  not  been  accustomed  to  cutting  down  trees,  to  clearing 
and  cultivating  new  lands.  They  were  strangers  in  the  country, 
and  knew  not  what  kinds  of  grain  would  be  most  congenial  with 
its  soil;  nor  had  they  any  experience  how  the  ground  must  be 
cultivated,  that  it  might  yield  a  plentiful  crop.  They  had  few 
oxen  or  implements  of  husbandry.  Everything  was  to  be  pre- 
pared or  brought  from  a  great  distance  and  at  a  dear  rate. 
Besides  all  these  labors  and  difficulties,  much  time  was  taken 
up  in  constant  watchings,  trainings  and  preparations  for  the 
defence  of  themselves  and  children. 

In  addition  to  all  these  difficulties,  they  could  neither  hunt,  fish, 
nor  cultivate  their  fields,  nor  travel,  nor  even  walk  out  from  home, 
but  at  the  peril  of  their  lives.  They  were  obliged  to  keep  a  con- 
stant watch  by  night  and  day ;  to  go  armed  to  their  daily  labors, 
and  to  public  worship.  But  nothing  could  discourage  men  who 


UNION   OF   THE    COLONIES.  411 

were  determined  to  sacrifice  every  worldly  comfort  to  secure 
liberty  of  conscience,  the  privileges  of  a  pure  church,  and  the 
propagation  of  religion  and  liberty  in  America. 

Besides  these  troubles  from  Indians,  the  first  settlers  of  Connec- 
ticut and  New  Haven  had  well-founded  apprehensions  of  dangers 
from  their  neighbors,  the  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam,  who  had  been 
settled  there  upwards  of  twenty  years,  ana  urged  claims  to  a  great 
part  of  Connecticut,  as  the  property  of  the  United  Netherlands. 
At  this  time,  England,  convulsed  with  a  civil  war  between  the 
king  and  parliament,  could  afford  no  aid  to  her  American  colonies. 
Surrounded  with  dangers  and  enemies,  the  inhabitants  of  Con- 
necticut and  New  Haven  confederated  with  their  neighbors  and 
brethren  of  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth,  in  a  league  offensive 
and  defensive.  They  henceforward  took  the  name  of  the  United 
Colonies  of  New  England. 

This  was  an  union  of  the  highest  consequence  to  the  New  Eng- 
land colonies.  It  made  them  formidable  to  the  Dutch  and  Indians, 
and  respectable  among  their  French  neighbors.  It  was  happily 
adapted  to  maintain  a  general  harmony  among  themselves,  and  to 
secure  the  peace  and  rights  of  the  country.  It  was  one  of  the 
principal  means  of  the  preservation  of  the  colonies^  during  the 
civil  wars  and  unsettled  state  of  affairs  in  England.  "The  Indians 
were  so  hostile,  that  its  whole  influence  was  necessary  to  prevent 
a  general  war.  The  Indians  at  this  period  were  beginning  to 
acquire  the  use  of  fire-arms.  The  French,  Dutch,  and  others,  for 
the  sake  of  gain,  sold  them  arms  and  ammunition.  Laws  were 
made  to  restrain  this  traffic  ;  but,  from  the  avarice  of  individuals, 
they  were  not  carried  into  full  effect. 

The  Dutch,  at  Hartford,  maintained  a  distinct  and  independent 
government,  and  resisted  the  English  laws.  A  war  of  epistles, 
protests  and  proclamations,  was  carried  on  between  their  gov- 
ernors, each  of  whom  criminated  the  opposite  party,  while  the 
borderers  on  the  territories  of  both  made  reciprocal  incursions 
into,  and  depredations  on,  the  settlements  of  each  other.  Charges 
of  a  serious  nature  were  made  by  Connecticut  against  Stuyve- 
sant,  the  Dutch  governor  of  New'  Amsterdam,  as  having  leagued 
with  the  Indians  to  extirpate  the  English.  This  charge  was 
principally  supported  by  the  evidence  of  Indians.  Their  credi- 
bility was  admitted  by  one  party,  but  denied  by  the  other.  Three 
fourths  of  the  commissioners  urged  a  declaration  of  war  against 
their  Dutch  neighbors ;  but  Massachusetts,  contrary  to  the  articles 
of  union,  would  not  cooperate  with  the  other  three  colonies. 
These  applied  to  Cromwell  for  aid ;  but  he  was  too  much  occupied 
at  home  to  attend  to  the  wishes  of  his  distant  friends.  The  Dutch 


412  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

were  also  too  fully  employed  in  Europe,  to  aid  their  colonies  in 
North  America.  Nothing  serious  was  attempted  on  either  side; 
but  representations  continued  to  be  made  by  the  New  Englanders 
to  the  ruling  powers  of  England,  against  the  Dutch  in  New  Am- 
sterdam; and  their  subjugation  was  incessantly  urged,  as  essen- 
tial to  the  security  of  English  America.  These  were  seconded 
from  an  unexpected  quarter.  Stuyvesant,  having  retaken  New- 
castle, reduced  the  fort  at  Christiana,  and  compelled  the  submis- 
sion of  all  the  Swedes  near  the  Delaware.  The  proprietor  of 
Maryland,  uneasy  at  the  extension  of  Dutch  conquests,  as  en- 
croaching on  his  province,  joined  in  urging  the  necessity  of  fitting 
out  an  expedition  against  New  Amsterdam.  England,  convulsed 
by  a  civil  war,  could  not  immediately  attend  to  their  request ;  but 
Charles  the  Second,  soon  after  he  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  his 
ancestors,  listened  to  the  joint  wishes  of  his  subjects  in  Maryland 
and  New  England.  Before  any  effectual  measures  were  adopted 
for  this  purpose,  Connecticut  applied  to  the  restored  king  for  a 
royal  charter.  This  was  granted  in  1662.  New  Haven  was 
incorporated  into  the  colony  of  Connecticut  in  1665.  The  sub- 
sequent history  of  this  charter,  and  of  the  Indian  wars  of  which 
this  state  was  the  theatre,  will  be  found  related  in  the  history  of 
the  United  Colonies. 


CHAPTER     XLIII. 

NEW  YORK.  Henry  Hudson's  discoveries. — First  settlement  of  Ike  Dutch  in 
America. — Manhattan. — Albany. — The  colony  of  New  Amsterdam  founded. — 
Troubles  with  the  Connecticut  settlers. — The  English  conquer  the  New  Nether- 
lands.— Administration  of  Nichols. — The  Dutch  recover  the  province. — The 
English  again  acquire  it. — Leister's  usurpation. — Civil  war. —  Governor 
Slaughter. — Defeat  and  execution  of  Leisler. —  General  state  of  the  colony  of 
New  York. 


Discovery  of  the  Hudson  River. 

NEW  YORK  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  the 
country  by  right  of  discovery.  Henry  Hudson,  an  English- 
man in  the  Dutch  service,  made  a  voyage  to  this  coast  in  1609, 
and,  on  the  3d  of  September,  entered  the  mouth  of  that  great 
river,  which  now  bears  his  name.  He  ascended  the  stream  above 
the  point  where  Albany  is  now  situated,  but  made  no  settlement, 
as  his  chief  object  was  the  discovery  of  a  northwest  passage 
to  India.  On  a  subsequent  voyage,  in  the  same  pursuit,  in  the 
Northern  Seas,  he  discovered  Hudson's  Bay,  where  he  was  turned 
adrift  in  a  boat  by  his  mutinous  crew,  and  never  heard  of  after- 
wards. 

The  Dutch  East  India  Company,  under  whose  auspices  Hudson 

had  made  his  voyage  to  America,  claimed  the  territory  in  the 

neighborhood  of  the  newly-discovered  river  and  Delaware  Bay, 

for  the  United  Provinces  of  Holland.     Another  voyage  was  made 

35* 


414  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

by  the  merchants  of  Amsterdam,  in  1610;  a  profitable  trade  was 
carried  on  with  the  natives,  and  the  Dutch  repeated  their  visits. 
A  few  huts  were  erected  on  Manhattan  Island  in  1613,  and  this 
was  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  New  York,  although  there  was 
no  regular  attempt  to  establish  a  colony  till  some  years  later. 
Houses  were  built  at  Albany  as  early  as  1615.  Connecticut  river 
appears  to  have  been  first  discovered  by  the  Dutch.  The  settle- 
ment on  Manhattan  Island  was  called  New  Amsterdam,  and 
the  whole  province  received  the  name  of  the  New  Netherlands. 

Determined  at  length  on  the  settlement  of  a  colony,  the  States 
General  made  a  grant  of  the  country,  in  1621,  to  the  West  India 
Company.  Wouter  Van  Twiller  arrived  at  New  Amsterdam, 
and  took  upon  himself  the  government  in  1529.  The  New  Eng- 
landers  having  commenced  a  settlement  in  New  Haven,  Kieft,  the 
second  governor  of  New  Netherlands,  protested  against  them ;  but 
his  protest,  being  unsupported,  was  disregarded.  In  the  same 
year  the  Dutch  protested  against  a  settlement  of  the  Swedes, 
which  had  lately  been  made  on  the  banks  of  the  Dela\vare.  In 
1640,  the  English,  who  had  overspread  the  eastern  part  of  Long 
Island,  advanced  to  Oyster  Bay.  Kieft  broke  up  their  settlement 
in  1642,  and  fitted  out  two  sloops  to  drive  the  English  out  of 
Schuylkill,  of  which  the  Marylanders  had  lately  possessed  them- 
selves. 

Peter  Stuyvesant  was  the  third  and  last  Dutch  governor,  and 
began  his  administration  in  1647.  The  inroads  arid  claims  upon 
his  government  kept  him  constantly  employed.  New  England  on 
the  east,  and  Maryland  on  the  west,  excited  his  fears.  About 
the  same  time,  Captain  Forrester,  a  Scotchman,  claimed  Long 
Island  for  the  dowager  of  Stirling.  The  Swedes,  too,  were  pro- 
ceeding in  their  settlements  near  the  Delaware.  Governor  Stuy- 
vesant was  a  faithful  servant  to  the  West  India  Company.  He 
early  and  earnestly  stated  to  his  employers  the  -embarrassments 
he  daily  experienced  from  the  New  Englanders,  the  Marylanders, 
and  the  Swedes;  and  pointed  out  to  them  the  probability  of 
a  formidable  attack  from  England.  His  representations  were 
unavailing.  No  preparations  were  made  against  the  gathering 
storm.  Maryland  on  the  one  side,  and  Connecticut  on  the  other, 
urged  upon  their  mother  country  the  necessity  of  an  expedition 
against  the  Dutch,  who  separated  the  southern  from  the  northern 
English  colonies.  Their  representations  were  listened  to  by  Charles 
the  Second.  In  1664,  he  gave  to  his  brother  James,  duke  of  York 
and  Albany,  a  patent,  which  included  what  is  now  called  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  a  part  of  Connecticut,  arid  part  of  what  is  now 
called  Pennsylvania,  and  the  State  of  Delaware.  To  reduce  this 


NEW  NETHERLANDS  CONQUERED  BV  THE  ENGLISH.       415 

country,  part  of  which  was  in  peaceable  possession  of  the  Dutch, 
to  the  obedience  of  the  Duke  of  York ;  to  gratify  the  colonies  of 
Connecticut  and  Maryland,  and  to  consolidate,  in  continuity,  the 
English  colonies,  king  Charles  the  Second  despatched  three  armed 
vessels,  having  on  board  three  hundred  soldiers.  They  reached 
the  harbor  of  New  York  in  August,  1664.  Governor  Stuyvesant 
sent  a  respectable  deputation  of  citizens  with  a  letter,  desiring  to 
be  informed  of  the  reason  of  their  approach  and  continuance  in 
the  harbor.  Colonel  Nichols,  the  commander  of  the  expedition, 
answered  with  a  summons  to  surrender  all  fortified  places  to  the 
king  of  England;  and,  at  the  same  time,  gave  assurance  to  the 
inhabitants,  that  all  who  submitted  to  the  English  government 
should  be  confirmed  in  their  rights  to  estate,  life  and  liberty. 
Stuyvesant  promised  an  answer  to  the  summons  the  next  morn- 
ing; and  in  the  meantime  convened  the  council  and  burgomasters. 
The  Dutch  governor  was  a  good  soldier,  and  had  lost  a  leg  in  the 
service  of  the  states.  He  would  have  willingly  made  a  defence, 
and  therefore  refused  a  sight  of  the  summons,  both  to  the  inhabi- 
tants and  burgomasters,  lest  the  easy  terms  offered  might  induce 
them  to  capitulate.  The  latter,  however,  insisted  upon  a  copy, 
that  they  might  communicate  it  to  the  late'  magistrates  and 
principal  burghers.  They  called  together  the  [nhabitants  at 
the  stadt-house,  and  acquainted  them  with  the  governor's  refusal. 
Winthrop,  the  governor  of  Connecticut,  at  the  same  time  wrote 
to  the  director  and  his  council,  strongly  recommending  a  surren- 
der. On  the  22d  of  August,  the  burgomasters  came  again  into 
council,  and  desired  to  know  the  contents  of  the  English  mes- 
sage from  Governor  Winthrop;  which  Stuyvesant  still  refused  to 
communicate.  They  continued  their  importunity,  and  he,  in  a 
fit  of  anger,  tore  it  to  pieces ;  upon  which  they  protested  against 
the  act  and  all  its  consequences.  Determined  upon  a  defence  of 
the  country,  Stuyvesant  wrote  a  letter  in  answer  to  the  summons. 
In  this  he  vindicated  the  right  of  the  Dutch  to  the  country,  on 
the  ground  of  prior  possession.  He  in  particular  asserted  that 
they  had,  without  control  and  in  peace,  enjoyed  Fort  Orange  for 
forty-eight  or  fifty  years;  the  Manhattans  about  forty-one  or 
forty-two  years;  the  South  river  for  forty,  and  Fresh  Water 
river  for  thirty-six  years.  In  the  meantime,  Nichols  published  a 
proclamation  in  the  country,  encouraging  the  inhabitants  to  sub- 
mit, and  promising  them  the  king's  protection,  and  all  the  privi- 
leges of  subjects.  Stuyvesant  was  induced  to  write  another  letter ; 
wherein  he  declared,  "that  he  would  stand  the  storm;*  yet,  to 
prevent  the  spilling  of  blood,  he  had  sent  a  deputation  to  consult, 
if  possible,  on  accommodation."  Nichols,  who  knew  the  disposi- 


416  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

tion  of  the  people,  answered  immediately,  that  "he  would  treat 
about  nothing  but  a  surrender."  The  Dutch  governor,  the  next 
day,  agreed  to  a  treaty  and  surrendered. 

The  town  of  New  Amsterdam,  upon  the  reduction  of  the  island 
of  Manhattan,  took  the  name  of  New  York.  Hudson  and  the 
South  river  were  however  still  to  be  reduced.  Sir  Robert  Carr 
commanded  the  expedition  to  Delaware,  and  Carteret  was  com- 
missioned to  subdue  the  Dutch  at  Fort  Orange.  The  garrison 
capitulated  on  the  24th  of  September ;  and  he  called  it  Albany,  in 
honor  of  the  duke.  Sir  Robert  Carr  was  equally  successful  on 
South  river;  for  he  compelled  both  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  to 
capitulate,  and  deliver  up  their  garrisons,  on  the  1st  of  October, 
1664.  On  that  day  fell  the  Dutch  power  upon  the  continent  of 
North  America ;  and  the  whole  New  Netherlands  became  subject 
to  the  English  crown.  Before  these  conquests  were  completed, 
the  Duke  of  York  had  granted  a  portion  of  the  territory  ceded  to 
him  by  Charles  the  Second,  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George 
Carteret.  This  is  now  called  New  Jersey. 

Though  the  New  Netherlands  were  reduced,  very  few  of  the 
inhabitants  removed  from  the  country.  Governor  Stuyvesant 
held  his  estate  and  died  there.  His  posterity  still  survive  and 
maintain  a  respectable  rank  among  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States.  Nichols,  being  now  possessed  of  the  country,  took  upon 
himself  its  government.  He  permitted  the  city  to  be  ruled  as 
before,  by  a  scout,  burgomasters  and  schepens ;  but  gradually 
introduced  the  English  government. 

After  an  administration  of  three  years,  Nichols  returned  to 
England.  The  time,  during  his  short  residence,  was  almost 
wholly  taken  up  in  confirming  the  ancient  Dutch  grants.  He 
erected  no  courts  of  justice ;  but  took  .upon  himself  the  sole  deci- 
sion of-  all  controversies  whatever.  Complaints  came  before  him 
by  petition,  upon  which,  he  gave  a  day  to  the  parties ;  and  after 
a  summary  hearing,  pronounced  judgment.  His  determinations 
were  called  edicts,  and  executed  by  the  sheriffs  he  had  appointed. 
It  is  much  to  his  honor,  that,  notwithstanding  all  this  plenitude 
of  power,  he  governed  the  province  with  integrity  and  moderation. 

Colonel  Francis  Lovelace  was  appointed  by  the  duke  to  suc- 
ceed Nichols  in  the  government  of  the  province.  The  people 
lived  very  peaceably  under  him,  till  his  powers  were  rendered 
inefficient  by  the  re-surrender  of  the  colony.  This  was  effected 
in  1673,  by  the  treachery  of  John  Manning,  who  had  at  that  time 
the  command  of  the  fort.  He,  by  a  messenger,  sent  down  to  the 
commander  of  a  few  Dutch  ships,  which  had  recently  arrived, 
and  lay  under  Staten  Island,  and  made  his  peace.  On  the  same 


EDMUND    ANDROS. 

day  the  Dutch  ships  came  up,  moored  under  the  fort,  and  landed 
their  men,  who  entered  the  garrison,  without  giving  or  receiving  a 
shot.  On  the  surrender  of  the  capital,  all  the  magistrates  from  the 
adjacent  country  were  summoned  to  New  York ;  and  the  major 
part  of  them  swore  allegiance  to  the  States  General,  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange. 


The  Dutch  governor  enjoyed  his  office  but  a  very  short  season; 
for,  in  1674,  a  treaty  of  peace  between  England"  and  the  States 
General  was  signed,  which  restored  this  country  to  the  English, 
The  Duke  of  York,  to  remove  all  controversy  respecting  his  prop- 
erty, obtained  a  new  patent  from  the  king,  for  the  same  lands 
which  had  been  granted  to  him  ten  years  before ;  and,  two  days 
afterwards,  he  commissioned  Edmund  Andros,  as  governor  of  his 
territories  in  America. 

New  York,  being  a  conquered  country,  was  governed  as  such, 
by  the  duke's  governors,  and  their  councils,  who,  from  time  to 
time,  made  rules  and  orders,  which  were  esteemed  to  be  bind- 
ing as  laws.  This  state  of  things  continued  till  1653,  when,  for 
the  first  time,  deputies  from  the  several  towns  and  villages  assem- 
bled to  deliberate  on  the  civil  condition  of  the  country.  But  the 
representative  system  was  not  made  perfect  in  a  popular  leg- 
islative body  till  1683.  A  dissatisfaction  with  the  government 
soon  became  general.  Papists  began  to  settle  in  the  province, 
under  the  smiles  of  the  officers  appointed  by  the  duke.  Several 
public  characters  openly  avowed  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
The  cry  that  the  Protestant  religion  was  in  danger  became  uni- 
versal. In  this  state  of  general  alarm,  intelligence  arrived  that 
a  revolution  was  on  the  point  of  taking  place  in  Englarttl.  The 
hopes  of  the  disaffected  were  elevated ;  but  none  chose  to  act,  till 
the  Bostonians  had  set  the  example.  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who 

A3 


418  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

was  devoted  to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  king  James,  by  his 
tyranny  in  New  England,  had  drawn  upon  himself  the  universal 
odium  of  a  people  animated  with  the  love  of  liberty;  and  there- 
fore, when  they  could  no  longer  endure  his  despotic  rule,  they 
seized  and  imprisoned  him,  and  afterward  sent  him  to  England. 
Upon  the  news  of  these  events,  several  captains  of  militia  con- 
vened, to  concert  measures  in  favor  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
Among  these,  Jacob  Leisler  was  the  most  active.  He  was  a  man 
in  esteem  among  the  people,  and  of  a  moderate  fortune  ;  but  des- 
titute of  every  qualification  necessary  for  conducting  the  grand 
enterprise  which  he  undertook.  Milborne,  his  son-in-law,  an 
Englishman,  directed  all  his  councils. 

Their  first  object  was  the  seizure  of  the  garrison  in  New  York. 
Leisler  entered  it  with  forty-nine  men,  and  having  got  possession, 
determined  to  hold  it  till  the  whole  militia  should  join  him.  Being 
in  complete  possession  of  the  fort,  he  sent  an  address  to  king 
William  and  queen  Mary.  This  was  followed  by  a  private  letter 
from  Leisler  to  king  William,  which  informed  his  majesty  of  the 
state  of  the  garrison,  and  the  temper  of  the  people ;  and  concluded 
with  strong  protestations  of  sincerity,  loyalty  and  zeal. 

Leisler's  sudden  investiture  with  supreme  power  over  the  prov- 
ince, and  the  probable  prospects  of  king  William's  approbation  of 
his  conduct,  excited  the  envy  and  jealousy  of  the  late  council 
and  magistrates,  who  had  refused  to  join  in  the  glorious  work  of 
the  revolution.  Leisler,  on  the  other  hand,  fearful  of  their 
influence,  and  wishing  to  extinguish  the  jealousy  of  the  people, 
admitted  several  trusty  persons  to  a  participation  of  that  power, 
which  the  militia  had  committed  solely  to  himself.  In  conjunction 
with  these,  he  exercised  the  government,  assuming  to  himself 
only  the  honor  of  being  president  in  their  councils.  This  model 
continued,  till  a  packet  arrived  with  a  letter  from  the  lords  Car- 
marthen, Halifax  and  others,  directed  to  "  Francis  Nicholson  Esq., 
or,  in  his  absence,  to  such  as,  for  the  time  being,  take  care  for 
preserving  the  peace  and  administering  the  laws  in  their  majesties' 
province  of  New  York,  in  America." 

Nicholson,  who  had  acted  as  lieutenant-governor,  under  king 
James,  having  absconded  when  this  packet  came  to  hand,  Leisler 
considered  the  letter,  as  directed  to  himself;  and  from  that  time 
executed  all  kinds  of  commissions  in  his  own  name,  assuming  the 
title,  as  well  as  the  authority  of  lieutenant-governor.  Except  the 
eastern  inhabitants  of  Long  Island,  all  the  southern  part  of  the 
colony  cheerfully  submitted  to  Leisler's  commands.  The  people 
of  Albany,  in  the  meantime,  were  determined  to  hold  the  garrison 


LEISLER'S  USURPATION.  419 

and  city  for  king  William,  independent  of  Leisler,  and  formed 
themselves  into  a  convention  for  that  purpose. 

Taking  it  for  granted,  that  Leisler  at  New  York,  and  the  con- 
vention at  Albany  were  equally  well  affected  toward  the  revolution, 
nothing  could  be  more  unwise  than  the  conduct  of  both  parties, 
who,  by  their  uncompromising  temper,  threw  the  province  into 
convulsions,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  mutual  hatred  and  animosity. 
When  Albany  declared  for  the  prince  of  Orange,  there  was  noth- 
ing more  that  Leisler  could  properly  require.  Rather  than  sacrifice. 
the  public  peace  of  the  province  to  the  trifling  honor  of  resisting 
a  man,  who  had  no  evil  designs,  the  people  of  Albany  ought,  in 
prudence,  to  have  delivered  the  garrison  into  his  hands,  till  the 
king's  definitive  order  should  arrive;  but  while  Leisler,  on  the 
one  hand,  was  inebriated  with  his  newly-gotten  power,  so,  on  the 
other,  Bayard,  Cortlandt,  Schuyler,  and  their  associates,  could 
not  brook  a  submission  to  the  authority  of  a  man,  mean  in  his 
abilities,  and  inferior  in  his  degree. 

Jacob  Milborne  was  commissioned  for  the  reduction  of  Albany. 
Upon  his  arrival  there,  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants  armed 
themselves.  In  these  circumstances,  Milborne  thought  proper  to 
retreat,  and  soon  afterwards  departed  from  Albany.  In  the  spring, 
he  commanded  another  party  upon  the  same  ejrand ;  and  the  dis- 
tress of  the  country,  occasioned  by  an  Indian  irruption,  gave  him  all 
the  desired  success.  No  sooner  was  he  possessed  of  the  garrison, 
than  most  of  the  principal  members  of  the  convention  absconded ; 
upon  which,  their  effects  were  arbitrarily  seized  and  confiscated. 

Colonel  Henry  Sloughter,  who  had  a  commission  from  king 
William  to  be  governor  of  the  province,  arrived  and  published  it 
on  the  19th  of  March,  1691.  Never  was  a  governor  more  neces- 
sary to  the  province  than  at  this  critical  conjuncture ;  but  either 
through  the  hurry  of  the  king's  affairs,  or  the  powerful  interest  of 
a  favorite,  a  man  was  sent  over,  utterly  destitute  of  every  quali- 
fication for  government ;  licentious  in  his  morals,  avaricious  and 
poor.  If  Leisler  had  delivered  the  garrison  to  Colonel  Sloughter, 
as  he  ought  to  have  done,  upon  his  first  landing,  he  would  doubt- 
less have  attracted  the  favorable  notice  both  of  the  governor  a,nd 
the  crown ;  but,  being  a  weak  man,  he  was  so  intoxicated  with 
the  love  of  power,  that,  though  he  had  been  well  informed  of 
Slough ter's  appointment,  he  not  only  shut  himself  up  in  the  fort 
with  Bayard  and  Nichols,  whom  he  had  imprisoned,  but  refused 
to  deliver  them  up  or  to  surrender  the  garrison.  From  this 
moment,  he  lost  all  credit  with  the  governor,  who  joined*  the  party 
against  him.  On  the  second  demand  of  the  fort,  Milborne  and 
Delanoy,  came  out,  under  pretence  of  conferring  with  his  excel- 


420  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

lency ;  but  in  reality,  to  discover  his  designs.  Sloughter,  who 
considered  them  as  rebels,  threw  them  both  into  jail.  Leisler, 
upon  this  event,  thought  proper  to  abandon  the  fort,  which  Colonel 
Sloughter  immediately  entered.  Bayard  and  Nichols  were  now 
released  from  their  confinement,  and  sworn  as  members  of  the 
privy  council.  Leisler,  having  thus  ruined  his  cause,  was  appre- 
hended, with  many  of  his  adherents,  and  a  commission  of  oyer 
and  terminer  issued  for  their  trials. 

In  vain  did  they  plead  the  merit  of  their  zeal  for  king  William, 
since  they  had  so  lately  opposed  his  governor.  Leisler  endeav- 
ored to  justify  his  conduct,  insisting  that  Lord  Nottingham's  letter 
entitled  him  to  act  in  the  quality  of  lieutenant-governor.  Leisler 
and  his  son  were  condemned  to  death  for  high  treason.  These 
violent  measures  drove  many  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  fearful 
of  being  apprehended,  into  the  neighboring  colonies.  Tranquillity 
was  not  completely  restored,  till  an  act  of  general  indemnity  was 
passed. 

Colonel  Sloughter  proposed,  about  this  time,  to  set  out  for 
Albany;  but,  as  Leisler's  party  were  enraged  at  his  imprisonment 
and  the  late  sentence  against  him,  his  enemies  were  afraid  new 
troubles  would  spring  up,  in  the  absence  of  the  governor ;  for  this 
reason,  both  the  assembly  and  council  advised  that  the  prisoners 
should  be  immediately  executed.  Sloughter  chose  rather  to  delay 
such  a  violent  step;  being  fearful  of  cutting  off  two  men.  who 
had  vigorously  abetted  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  so  signally  con- 
tributed to  the  revolution.  Nothing  could  be  more  disagreeable  to 
Leisler's  enemies,  whose  interest  was  deeply  concerned  in  his  de- 
struction ;  and,  therefore,  when  no  other  measures  could  prevail 
with  the  governor,  tradition  informs  us  that  a  sumptuous  feast  was 
prepared,  to  which  Colonel  Sloughter  was  invited.  When  his  ex- 
cellency's reason  was  drowned  in  his  cups,  the  entreaties  of  the 
company  prevailed  with  him  to  sign  the  death-warrant.  Before 
he  recovered  his  senses,  the  prisoners  were  executed.  The  bodies 
of  these  unhappy  sufferers  were  afterwards  taken  up,  and  interred 
with  great  pomp  in  the  old  Dutch  church,  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  Their  estates  were  restored  to  their  families ;  and  Leisler's 
descendants  in  the  public  estimation  were  rather  dignified  than 
disgraced  by  the  fall  of  their  ancestor.  The  severity  on  both 
sides  irritated  one  half  the  people  against  the  other.  Leislerians 
and  anti-Leislerians,  became  the  names  of  two  parties,  who,  for 
many  years,  hated  and  opposed  each  other,  to  the  great  disturb- 
ance of  the  colony. 

The  revolution  being  established,  governors  were  appointed  by 
the  new  order  of  British  sovereigns.     As  they  were  good  or  bad, 


NEW    YORK    AND    CANADA. 


421 


the  people  were  happy  or  otherwise.  About  this  time,  the  French 
schemes  of  joining  Canada  and  Louisiana,  and  limiting  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  began  to  be  unfolded.  The 
governor  of  Canada  built  forts,  and  otherwise  encroached  on  the 
limits  of  New  York.  He  also  began  to  make  and  extend  a  com- 
munication from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  lakes  of  Canada ;  and 
gradually  to  approach  the  head  waters  of  the  Ohio.  The  friend- 
ship of  the  confederacy  of  Indians  known  by  the  name  of  the  Six 
Nations,  was  courted  by  both.  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  from 
Canada  were  sent  among  them,  ostensibly  to  convert  them  to  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  really  to  secure  their  attachment  to  France.  Severe 
laws  were  passed  in  New  York,  to  punish  them  as  intruders.  A 
great  trade  was  carried  on  between  Albany  and  Canada,  for  goods 
saleable  among  the  Indians.  Burnet,  governor  of  New  York,  with 
ftie  view  of  keeping  the  Six  Nations  dependent  on  the  English 
for  their  supplies,  procured  acts  of  the  legislature  for  restraining 
this  trade ;  but  in  this  he  was  thwarted  by  the  selfishness  of  the 
merchants.  To  secure  the  friendship  of  the  Indians,  to  obtain 
the  command  of  the  lakes,  and  of  the  country  between  New 
York  and  Canada,  were  the  objects  pursued  by  both,  from  an 
early  period  of  the  eighteenth  century,  or  rather  from  the  year 
1692,  Governor  Burnet,  who  commenced  hfs  administration  in 
1720,  was  the  first  who  sounded  a  general  alarm,  and  stirred  up 
the  colonists  to  be  on  their  guard;  but  reciprocal  schemes  of 
counteraction  had  been  previously  projected  by  the  Canadians  and 
New  Yorkers,  against  each  other ;  by  the  latter  for  security ;  by 
the  former,  in  subserviency  to  their  grand  scheme  of  uniting 
Canada  with  Louisiana.  '.:  >• 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

NEW  JERSEY  settled. — Berkeley  and  Carteret. —  William  Penn. — Foundation  of 
PENNSYLVANIA. —  Government  of  the  colony. — Philadelphia  founded. — Penn- 
sylvania united  to  New  York. — Revolutions  of  the  government. — Settlement  of 
DELAWARE  by  the  Swedes. —  Conquest  by  the  Dutch. — Final  transition  to  the 
English. — Colonization  of  MARYLAND. — Lord  Baltimore. — Tranquillity  of  the 
province. — Religious  liberty. — Loyalty  of  the  inhabitants. — Parly  violence. — 
General  state  of  the  colony. — Settlement  of  NORTH  and  SOUTH  CAROLINA. — 
Locke's  constitution, — its  anomalous  and  impracticable  character. — Settlement  of 
GEORGIA. 


Pennsylvania. 


NEW  JERSEY  was  a  portion  of  the  New  Netherlands  when  that 
territory  came  into  possession  of  the  English.  A  trading  station 
of  the  Dutch  seems  to  have  existed  at  Bergen,  as  early  as  1618, 
but  the  country  was  for  a  long  time  neglected.  In  1664,  some 
Quakers  settled  near  Raritan  Bay,  and  in  the  same  year  a  number 
of  New  England  puritans,  dwelling  on  Long  Island,  obtained  of 
the  Indians  a  deed  of  a  large  tract  on  Newark  Bay,  having  pre- 
viously enjoyed  the  permission  of  the  Dutch  to  settle  in  New 
Jersey.  This  was  called  the  "  Elizabethtown  purchase,"  and  led 
the  way  to  interminable  suits  of  law.  The  Duke  of  York  sold,  in 
1664,  the  New  Jersey  portion  of  his  patent  to  Lord  Berkeley  and 
Sir  George  Carteret.  Emigrants  were  brought  over  from  England 
by  the  new  proprietors,  and  the  foundation  of  a  capital  was  laid 


NEW   JERSEY   AND   PENNSYLVANIA. 


423 


which  received  the  name  of  Elizabethtown,  from  Lady  Carteret. 
The  first  legislative  assembly  was  held  there  in  1668.  The 
colony  received  further  accessions  from  Connecticut,  and  the  quiet 
of  the  settlers  was  not  disturbed  by  Indian  wars.  When  the 
Dutch  recovered  the  New  Netherlands,  in  1673,  the  New  Jersey 
colony  acknowledged  their  authority  for  fifteen  months.  Berke- 
ley and  Carteret  were  thus  reinstated  in  their  possessions.  In 
1674,  Berkeley  sold  his  half  of  the  territory  to  a  company  of 
Quakers  in  England,  who  formed  a  settlement  at  Salem  the  next 
year.  Carteret  soon  after  parted  with  his  claims,  to  William  Penn 
and  others,  and  a  charter  or  constitution  for  West  New  Jersey 
was  formed  in  1677.  The  colony  now  rapidly  increased  by  the 
emigration  of  Quakers.  East  and  West  Jersey  were  for  many  years 
under  separate  governments ;  and  both  territories  were  at  one  time, 
according  to  king  James's  plans,  annexed  to  New  England.  They 
continued  disunited  till  1702,  but  their  history  is  not  marked  by 
any  events  that  can  interest  the  general  reader,  till  the  period  of 
the  American  revolution. 


William  Penn  making  a  treaty  with  the  Indians. 


PENNSYLVANIA  was  founded  by  William  Penn,  a  Quaker,  who 
had  become  one  of  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  the 
son  of  Admiral  Penn,  the  conqueror  of  Jamaica,  and  embraced 
the  principles  of  the  Quakers  while  a  student  at  Oxford.  The 
Quakers  were  persecuted  in  England,  and  Penn  was*  repeatedly 
imprisoned.  The  spirit  of  religious  enquiry,  and  an  abhorrence 
of  persecution  for  conscience  sake,  took  complete  possession  of  his 


424  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

soul,  and  it  was  reserved  for  this  excellent  man  to  make  a  suc- 
cessful experiment  of  these  just  maxims,  by  establishing  a  colony 
in  the  Western  World,  on  the  most  liberal  principles  of  toleration, 
while  the  oldest  nations  of  enlightened  Europe  were  attempting  to 
reduce  the  minds  of  men  to  an  absurd  uniformity  in  articles  of 
faith  and  modes  of  worship.  Determined  to  seek  an  asylum  for 
himself  and  his  persecuted  sect  in  America,  he  made  use  of  a  claim 
upon  the  government  for  sixteen  thousand  pounds,  bequeathed 
him  by  his  father,  to  obtain  a  grant  of  territory.  Charles  II.. 
always  embarrassed  for  money,  assigned  him  a  tract  of  land  upon 
the  Delaware,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
charter  for  this  colony  was  drawn  up  by  Penn  himself,  and  bears 
the  date  of  1681.  The  settlement  was  begun  the  same  year,  by 
Markham,  an  agent  of  Penn's.  The  Duke  of  York  laid  claim  to 
a  portion  of  the  territory  comprised  within  his  patent,  and  held 
actual  possession  of  the  western  shores  of  Delaware  Bay,  where 
settlements  of  Dutch,  English  and  French,  had  for  some  time 
been  established. 

In  August,  1682,  Penn,  after  long  solicitations,  obtained  from 
the  Duke  of  York  a  conveyance  of  the  town  of  Newcastle,  with 
the  territory  twelve  miles  around  it,  and  that  tract  of  land  extend- 
ing thence  southward  on  the  Delaware,  to  Cape  Henlopen.  This 
is  now  the  state  of  Delaware.  He  soon  after  set  out  for  America, 
accompanied  by  about  two  thousand  emigrants ;  and  in  the  Octo- 
ber following,  landed  at  New  Castle,  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware, 
where,  in  addition  to  the  colonists  sent  out  by  himself,  he  found 
settlements  consisting  of  about  three  thousand  persons,  composed 
of  Swedes,  Dutch,  Finlanders  and  English.  He  cultivated  with 
care,  the  good  will  of  the  natives  and  purchased  from  them,  at  a 
satisfactory  price,  such  lands  as  were  necessary  for  the  present 
use  of  the  colony.  Within  the  space  of  a  year  after  the  requisites 
for  a  regular  settlement  were  obtained,  between  twenty  and  thirty 
sail,  with  passengers,  arrived  in  the  province.  The  banks  of 
the  Delaware  were  rapidly  settled,  from  the  Falls  of  Trenton, 
down  to  Chester.  Most  of  these  primitive  settlers  were  orderly, 
religious  people,  chiefly  of  the  Quaker  persuasion ;  and  several 
of  them  were  wealthy.  They  were  from  England,  Wales,  Ire- 
land and  Germany.  Emigrants  from  the  last,  settled  German- 
town  in  1682.  On  their  landing  they  set  about  procuring  shelter. 
Some  lodged  in  the  woods,  under  trees;  some  in  caves,  which 
were  easily  dug  in  the  high  banks  of  the  west  side  of  the  Dela- 
ware; others  in  huts,  erected  in  the  most  expeditious  manner. 
The  difference  between  the  finely  improved  countries  they  had 
left,  and  the  wild,  woody  desert,  on  which  they  were  about  to  fix 


NEW   JERSEY.  425 

themselves,  was  immense ;  but  the  soil  was  fertile,  the  air  clear 
and  healthy,  and  the  streams  of  water  good  and  plentiful.  There 
was  an  abundance  of  wood  for  fuel  and  building.  Tools,  for 
cutting  it  down,  and  working  it  up,  were  brought  from  England. 
The  anticipation  of  future  comforts  from  these  natural  advan- 
tages, together  with  the  recollection  of  their  honorable  views 
in  making  the  settlement,  enabled  them  to  bear,  up  under  all 
difficulties.  They  soon  cleared  ground  and  planted  it  with 
Indian  corn  and  wheat.  Though  nearly  three  thousand  people 
came  the  first  year,  they  were  all  provided  for.  Deer,  wild 
turkeys,  fish  and  Indian  corn,  were  in  great  plenty.  A  deer 
could  be  purchased  for  about  two  shillings,  and  other  articles 
in  a  relative  proportion.  Tradition  informs  us  that  in  partic- 
ular seasons,  wild  pigeons  were  in  such  abundance,  as  to  be 
easily  taken,  and  to  be  extensively  contributory  to  the  support  of 
the  settlers.  In  this  situation,  to  be  strong,  healthy,  active,  and 
capable  of  bearing  fatigue,  was  of  much  more  consequence  than 
high  birth  or  pompous  titles.  He  fared  the  best  who  was  most 
expert  in  the  various  practical  arts  directly  subservient  to  the 
procurement  of  food,  clothing  and  shelter,  from  the  woods,  waters, 
and  surface  of  an  uncultivated  country.  Even  that  delicacy  of 
habit,  which  results  from  close  application  to  study  and  mental 
improvement,  was  inconvenient;  for  it  abated  that  capacity  for 
labor  which  their  situation  required.  Hands  were  much  more  in 
demand  than  heads.  Servants  and  the  lower  class  of  people,  who 
had  been  used  to  work  hard  and  fare  scantily,  prospered  more 
than  those  who  had  been  accustomed  to  live  at  their  ease,  and 
brought  property  with  them.  In  a  society  thus  constituted, 
opinions  favorable  to  liberty,  equality  and  the  rights  of  man, 
were  of  spontaneous  growth. 

The  first  assembly  was  held  at  Upland,  now  called  Chester,  in 
1682;  and,  in  a  short  session  of  three  days,  it  despatched  much 
important  business.  They  agreed  upon  an  act  of  settlement,  in 
the  nature  of  a  constitution,  or  form  of  government;  or  rather 
consented  to  one  offered  to  them  by  Penn  for  their  consideration. 
The  Dutch,  Swedes,  Finlanders  and  others,  who  had  previously 
settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Delaware,  were  naturalized.  Every 
foreigner  who  should  join  them,  and  promise  allegiance  to  the 
king  and  obedience  to  the  proprietors,  was  declared  a  freeman. 
The  territories,  for  so  was  the  late  purchase  from  the  Duke  of 
York  dr nominated,  were  annexed  to  the  province;  and  to  the 
former,  all  the  privileges  of  the  latter  were  communicated;  but 
some  time  afterward,  they  were  detached,  and  continued  a  sepa- 
36*  u3 


426 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


rate  colony,  with  one  and  the  same  governor,  but  a  different 
assembly. 

The  following  principles  were  adopted  in  the  early  government 
of  Pennsylvania :  "  That  children  should  be  taught  some  useful 
trade,  to  the  end  that  none  may  be  idle ;  that  the  poor  may  work 
to  live,  and  the  rich,  if  they  became  poor ;  factors,  wronging  their 
employers,  to  make  satisfaction  and  one  third  over."  It  was  also 
declared,  that  everything  "  which  excites  the  people  to  rudeness, 
cruelty  and  irreligion,  should  be  discouraged  and  severely  pun- 
ished;" and,  "that  none  acknowledging  one  God,  and  living 
peaceably  in  society,  should  be  molested  for  his  opinions  or  his 
practice,  or  compelled  to  frequent  or  maintain  any  ministry  what- 
soever." To  these  regulations,  which  were  established  as  funda- 
mental, must  be  attributed  the  rapid  improvement  of  this  colony, 
and  the  spirit  of  diligence,  order  and  economy,  for  which  the 
Pennsylvanians  have  been  at  all  times  so  justly  celebrated. 

Penn,  dissatisfied  with  the  act  of  settlement,  though  formed  by 
himself,  proposed  a  second  frame  of  government.  To  this,  with 
his  usual  address,  he  easily  procured  the  assent  of  the  assembly. 
For  the  encouragement  of  aliens,  it  declared,  "  that  in  case  of 
death,  without  naturalization,  their  lands  should  descend  to  their 
heirs."  In  order  that  the  inhabitants  might  be  accommodated 
with  such  food  as  Providence  had  freely  afforded,  "liberty  was 
given  to  every  one  to  hunt  on  uninclosed  lands,  and  to  fish  in  all 
watery  belonging  to  the  province."  The  assembly  of  April,  1683, 
established  various  salutary  regulations.  Abrogating  the  common 
law,  with  regard  to  the  descent  of  lands,  it  enacted,  "  that  the 
estates  of  intestates  should  be  disposed  of,  one  third  of  the  per- 
sonal property  absolutely,  and  one  third  of  the  lands  during  life 
to  the  widow,  and  two-thirds  among  the  children,  the  eldest 
son  having  a  double  share." 

By  the  promulgation  of  these  and  similar  laws,  the  growing 
prosperity  of  the  colony  was  promoted.  Their  beneficial  effects 
were  felt  long  after  their  legislative  energy  had  ceased.  While 
Pennsylvania  prospered,  by  the  wisdom  of  her  regulations,  Penn, 
in  1684,  went  to  England.  He  left  his  province  in  profound  peace, 
under  the  administration  of  five  commissioners,  chosen  from  the 
provincial  council,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  President  Lloyd. 

In  the  year  1682,  the  foundation  of  Philadelphia,  the  metropo- 
lis of  the  province,  was  laid.  Within  twelve  months  from  its 
commencement,  it  contained  one  hundred  houses,  anC  rapidly 
increased.  In  ninety-four  years  it  became  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent empire;  and  in  it,  audience  was  given  to  a  minister 
plenipotentiary  from  the  court  of  France,  on  the  very  spot  where, 


PENNSYLVANIA.  427 

a  century  before,  wild  beasts  prowled,  and  wild  men  roamed.  At 
the  same  time,  Pennsylvania,  grown  to  great  consequence,  held 
in  her  hands  the  balance  between  six  independent  states  on  the 
north  and  as  many  on  the  south,  as  often  as  they  were  equally 
divided  on  national  questions. 


View  of  Philadelphia. 

..,,..•       Mt\  .*    ......       '•;'•;.- 

Penn  had  been  so  eminently  favored  by  Charles  the  First  and 

Charles  the  Second,  that  his  enemies-represented  him  as  a  Jesuit, 
disguised  under  the  garb  of  Quakerism.  Having  been  a  friend  of 
James,  he  was  supposed  to  be  an  enemy  to  William.  After  his 
return  from  America,  in  1684,  he  was  detained  in  Europe,  and 
at  four  different  times  imprisoned  on  vague  suspicions  and 
unfounded  charges;  but  his  upright,  virtuous  character  stood 
the  test  of  the  severest  scrutiny.  He  declared,  "that  he  loved 
his  country  and  the  Protestant  religion  above  his  life,  and  that  he 
had  never  acted  against  either;  but  that  King  James  had  been 
his  friend,  and  his  father's  friend,  and  he  thought  himself  bound, 
in  justice  and  gratitude,  to  be  a  friend  to  him."  The  jealous 
policy  of  that  day  had  no  ear  for  sentiments  of  the  heart.  Penn 
was  among  the  last  to  acknowledge  the  prince  and  princess  of 
Orange ;  and  the  government  of  Pennsylvania  was  carried  on  for 
one  or  two  years,  in  the  name  of  King  James,  after  his  abdica- 
tion. These  and  other  grounds  of  suspicion  were  urged  with  so 
much  zeal  against  Penn,  as  to  induce  King  William  to  deprive 
him  of  his  government.  Pennsylvania,  without  any  respect  to 
its  charter,  was,  in  1692,  annexed  to  New  York,  and  subjected  to 
the  administration  of  Fletcher,  governor  of  that  province.  Penn, 
having  vindicated  his  character,  and  established  himself  in  the 
good  opinion  of  King  William,  soon  regained  his  province,  and 
appointed  William  Markham  lieutenant-governor,  to  take  care  of 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

its  interests.  This  storm  had  scarcely  blown  over,  when  anothei 
began  to  lour.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  measures  were 
agitated  in  England  for  reducing  all  proprietary  governments  in 
America  into  regal  ones ;  and  a  bill  for  that  purpose  was  brought 
into  the  House  of  Lords.  By  the  address  of  the  friends  of  Penn 
and  of  Pennsylvania,  this  project  was  given  up. 

Though  Penn  was  a  wise  and  good  man,  and  the  people  he  led 
to  Pennsylvania  were,  in  general,  orderly  and  well-disposed,  yet 
there  were  almost  constant  bickerings  between  him  and  them. 
He  changed  the  form  of  government  two  or  three  times,  and  each 
change  was  apparently  for  the  better,  and  more  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  inhabitants ;  yet  there  was  seldom  any  reciprocal  satisfac- 
tion between  the  parties.  From  Moses,  the  legislator  of  Israel,  to 
Penn,  the  leader  of  the  Quakers,  it  has  been  the  lot  of  all  men 
who  have  undertaken  to  conduct  emigrants  from  one  country  to 
another,  to  fail  in  satisfying  the  people,  whose  benefit  was  one  of 
the  primary  objects  of  the  emigration.  Between  the  opposition 
Penn  had  to  encounter  in  England,  and  the  difficulties  he  had  to 
combat  in  Pennsylvania,  his  life  was  a  continued  scene  of  suc- 
cessive vexations.  His  private  fortune  was  materially  injured  by 
his  advances  to  promote  the  infant  settlement,  particularly  to  pre- 
serve the  friendship  and  good  will  of  the  Indians.  His  province, 
for  some  considerable  time,  was  subjected  to  a  mortgage.  After 
being  harassed  by  his  creditors,  he  was  obliged  to  submit  to  a 
temporary  loss  of  his  personal  liberty.  It  was  his  lot,  in  common 
with  many  illustrious  benefactors  of  mankind,  to  meet  with  very 
improper  returns  for  great  philanthropic  exertions.  He  lived 
poor,  but  died  rich,  leaving  an*  inheritance  to  his  children,  which, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  American  revolution,  was  of  immense 
value. 

DELAWARE  was  first  explored  by  the  Swedes  and  Finns,  about 
the  year  1627.  They  purchased  from  the  natives  the  land  on 
both  sides  the  bay  from  Cape  Henlopen  to  the  falls.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  urged  his  subjects  to  make  settlements  in  this  country, 
and  an  association  was  formed  under  his  patronage,  called  the 
West  India  Company.  A  settlement  was  made  on  Christiana 
creek,  and  the  colony  received  the  name  of  New  Sweden.  Lew- 
istown,  Tinicum  and  Chester  were  also  founded  soon  after  by  the 
Swedes,  and  fortifications  built  at  these  places  in  apprehension  of 
hostilities  with  the  Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam.  The  chancellor 
Oxenstiern  patronised  the  new  colony,  and  it  was  owing  to  his 
endeavors  that  the  Swedes  remained  here.  New  emigrants  were 
sent  over,  and  the  English  were  expelled  from  Elsingburg,  a  fort 
which  they  had  built  on  the  Jersey  side  of  the  Delaware.  The 


MARYLAND. 

Swedes  established  themselves  on  the  spot,  and  in  1651,  captured 
also  a  fort  erected  by  the  Dutch,  on  the  Delaware.  This  aggres- 
sion was  fatal  to  the  colony  of  New  Sweden.  The  Dutch  gover- 
nor of  New  Amsterdam  raised  a  force  of  six  hundred  men,  sailed 
with  a  fleet  up  the  Delaware,  and  reduced  the  Swedish  settle- 
ments, one  after  another,  without  bloodshed.  The  colony  had 
existed  seventeen  years,  and,  at  the  time  of  its  surrender,  con- 
tained about  seven  hundred  souls.  From  1655  to  1664,  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  Dutch  territory.  It  afterwards  passed  into 
the  hands  of  William  Penn,  and  was  also  claimed  by  Lord  Balti- 
more, as  a  part  of  Maryland.  Until  1703,  it  formed  a  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania, when  it  received  a  separate  legislative  assembly,  but 
one  governor  presided  over  both  provinces. 

Maryland  was  the  third  English  colony  settled  in  North 
America;  but  the  first  which,  from  its  beginning,  was  erected 
into  a  province  of  the  kingdom.  The  first  emigrants  to  Maryland, 
consisting  of  about  two  hundred  persons,  chiefly  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  landed  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Potomac,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1634.  Calvert,  their  leader,  purchased 
the  rights  of  the  aborigines,  and  with  their  consent,  took  posses- 
sion of  a  town,  which  he  called  St.  Mary's.  He  continued  care- 
fully to  cultivate  their  friendship,  and  Jived  with  them  on  terms 
of  perfect  amity.  The  lands,  which  had  been  thus  ceded,  were 
planted  with  facility,  because  they  had  already  undergone  the 
discipline  of  Indian  tillage.  Food  was  therefore  easily  procured. 
The  Roman  Catholics,  unhappy  in  their  native  land,  and  desirous 
of  a  peaceful  asylum,  went  over  in  great  numbers  to  Maryland. 
Lord  Baltimore,  to  whom  the  province  had  been  granted,  laid  the 
foundation  of  its  future  prosperity  on  the  broad  basis  of  security 
to  property,  and  of  freedom  in  religion.  The  wisdom  of  these 
measures  converted  a  dreary  wilderness  into  a  prosperous  colony ; 
because  men  exert  themselves  in  their  several  pursuits,  in  propor- 
tion as  they  are  assured  of  enjoying  in  safety  those  blessings 
which  they  wish  for  most.  Never  did  a  people  enjoy  more  hap- 
piness than  the  inhabitants  of  Maryland,  under  Cecilius,  the  father 
of  the  province.  While  Virginia  persecuted  the  puritans,  her 
severity  compelled  many  to  pass  over  into  this  new  province,  the 
assembly  of  which  had  enacted,  "  that  no  person  professing  to 
believe  in  Christ  Jesus,  should  be  molested  in  respect  of  their 
religion,  or  in  the  free  exercise  thereof."  The  prudence  of  the 
one  colony  acquired  what  the  folly  of  the  other  had  thrown 
away.  Mankind  then  beheld  a  new  scene  on  the  theatre  of 
English  America.  They  saw  in  Massachusetts,  the  Puritans 
abridging  the  rights  of  various  sects ;  and  the  Church  of  England 


430  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

in  Virginia,  actuated  by  the  same  spirit,  harassing  those  who  dis- 
sented from  the  established  religion ;  while  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Maryland  tolerated  and  protected  the  professors  of  all  denomi- 
nations. In  consequence  of  this  liberal  policy,  and  other  prudent 
measures  adopted  by  the  rulers  of  this  province,  it  rapidly 
increased  in  wealth  and  population. 

The  annals  of  Maryland  are  barren  of  those  striking  events 
which  enliven  the  page  of  history.  This  is  probably  the  reason 
that  so  little  of  its  history  has  been  published.  Its  internal  peace, 
in  the  period  of  infancy,  was  but  little  disturbed  either  by  Indians 
or  insurgents,  though  not  wholly  exempt  from  either.  Its  early 
settlers  loved  their  king  and  their  proprietary.  They  were  not 
given  to  change,  but  attached  to  ancient  forms,  their  native  coun- 
try and  its  constitution.  It  affords  the  first  example  in  colonial 
history,  of  the  dismemberment  of  an  ancient  colony,  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  one  out  of  it,  with  separate  and  equal  rights.  This 
occasioned  disputes  between  the  original  state,  Virginia,  and  that 
dissevered  portion  of  it  called  Maryland ;  and  also  between  persons 
claiming  rights  from  different  sources;  but  these  controversies 
were  adjusted  without  serious  consequences.  Their  first  assembly 
was  convened  in  1634,  and  was  probably  composed  of  all  the 
freemen  of  the  province.  In  1638,  representation  was  introduced. 
In  the  year  1650,  their  constitution  was  improved,  by  a  division 
of  the  legislature  into  two  distinct  branches,  sitting  and  deliber- 
ating apart.  Those  who  were  called  by  special  writs,  formed  the 
upper  house.  Those  who  were  chosen  by  the  hundreds,  composed 
the  lower  house. 

The  internal  peace  of  the  province  was  seriously  disturbed 
while  the  civil  wars  raged  in  England.  A  majority  of  the  chief 
men  in  Maryland  were  attached  to  the  cause  of  royalty.  But  the 
opposition  was  so  strong  as  to  end  in  a  civil  war.  After  various 
skirmishes,  fought  with  alternate  success,  a  decisive  engagement 
took  place.  The  party  attached  to  Oliver  Cromwell  prevailed. 
Stone,  the  governor  of  the  province,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  from 
the  violence  of  party  rage,  ordered  to  be  hanged.  He  suffered  a 
long  imprisonment ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  sentence  was 
executed.  He  had  administered  the  government  with  so  much  pro- 
priety, as  to  be  respected  by  good  men  of  both  parties.  Cromwell 
appointed  commissioners  to  settle  the  affairs  of  the  province. 
In  1658,  they  surrendered  the  government  to  Josias  Feudal,  who 
had  been  appointed  governor  by  the  proprietary;  but  the  public 
peace  remained  unsettled,  till  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  gave 
a  permanent  superiority  to  the  friends  of  royalty.  Notwithstand- 
ing various  distractions  and  revolutions  in  these  times  of  civil 


NORTH   CAROLINA. 


431 


war,  when  men  had  cast  off  the  usual  restraints  of  law  and  order, 
the  province  continued  to  increase  in  numbers,  industry  and 
wealth.  At  the  restoration,  in  1660,  it  contained  about  twelve 
thousand  persons. 

The  efforts  of  Charles  the  Second  and  James  the  Second,  to 
consplidate  the  colonies,  did  not  effect  anything  against  the 
charter  of  Maryland.  This  province,  then  in  its  infancy,  was 
happily  neglected,  or  forgotten,  so  long,  that  judgment  was  not 
obtained  against  it ;  but  the  introductory  process  had  commenced 
in  the  year  before  the  revolution.  With  the  exception  of  the 
three  or  four  ye&rs  that  followed  the  defeat  of  Braddock,  in  1775, 
Maryland  was  generally  in  possession  of  peace  and  orderly  gov- 
ernment, from  1663  till  1775.  In  these  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
years  immediately  preceding  the  American  revolution,  Maryland 
enjoyed  a  great  share  of  prosperity.  When  that  event  took  place, 
she  with  all  her  increased  resources,  heartily  joined  her  sister 
colonies,  in  contending  for  their  common  rights.  At  this  period, 
Maryland  had  increased  her  population,  from  twelve  thousand,  to 
three  hundred  and  ten  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy-four. 


Scene  in  North  Carolina. 

The  first  visits  of  the  English  to  NORTH  CAROLINA  have  been 
related  in  the  history  of  Virginia.  About  1650,  some  planters 
from  Virginia  settled  in  the  county  of  Albermarle,  and  this 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  permanent  establishment  in  the 
province.  In  1661,  another  settlement  was  made  at  Cape  Fear, 
by  a  number  of  adventurers  from  Massachusetts.  They  bought 
the  land  from  the  natives,  but  had  no  patent  from  the  crown. 
Both  these  settlements  were  voluntary,  and  their  government 


432  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

no  more  than  but  a  spontaneous  association  of  the  people.  Their 
nearest  civilized  neighbors  were  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine. 
In  1663,  Charles  II.  made  a  grant  of  Carolina  to  Lord  Clarendon 
and  others.  They  sent  over  emigrants,  and  placed  the  province 
under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  William  Berkely,  governor  of 
Virginia.  A  constitution  was  framed  for  North  Carolina,  and  the 
first  assembly  was  held  in  1669.  The  province  was  at  first 
divided  into  two  distinct  colonies,  the  Cape  Fear  settlers  giving 
their  territory  the  name  of  Clarendon;  but  this  separation  contin- 
ued only  for  a  short  time.  The  war  with  the  Tuscarora  Indians, 
which  happened  many  years  afterwards,  will  be  related  in  another 
chapter.  SOUTH  CAROLINA  was  held  by  the  same  proprietors  as 
her  sister  province.  The  first  settlement  made  within  the  limits 
of  the  present  state  was  at  Beaufort,  in  1670.  The  settlement 
went  on  so  slowly  and  quietly  as  to  offer  little  for  the  pen  of  tne 
historian.  For  nearly  a  century  the  colonists  had  not  penetrated 
above  eighty  miles  into  the  interior. 

The  celebrated  Locke  was  employed  by  Lord  Shaftesbury,  one 
of  the  proprietors,  to  frame  a  constitution  for  Carolina.  This 
scheme  of  government,  the  most  remarkable  ever  projected  for 
the  Anglo- American  colonies,  established  two  orders  of  nobility, 
landgraves  and  caciques,  who  were  to  enjoy  the  hereditary  pos- 
session of  two  fifths  of  all  the  land.  The  plebeian  landholders 
were  to  be  adscripts  of  the  soil  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their 
lords.  The  elective  franchise  was  confined  to  the  landholders. 
The  legislature  was  a  parliament,  composed  of  the  'four  estates,' 
— the  proprietors,  the  landgraves,  the  caciques  and  the  commons. 
The  whole  judicial,  executive  and  legislative  power  was  indepen- 
dent of  the  people.  The  government  was  organized  by  the  pro- 
prietors, and  Monk,  Duke  of  Albermarle,  appointed  ruler,  with  the 
title  of  Palatine.  This  strange  scheme  of  government,  however, 
was  found  to  be  totally  impracticable. 

GEORGIA  was  originally  comprised  in  the  Carolina  patent,  and 
was  the  last  settled  province  of  the  original  thirteen.  As  late  as 
1732,  there  was  not  a  European  within  its  limits.  In  that  year 
George  Unmade  a  grant  of  the  territory  to  a  company  who 
brought  over  settlers  and  the  next  year  founded  Savannah.  Gen- 
eral Oglethorpe,  was  the  conductor  of  the  enterprise.  The  lands 
were  distributed  as  military  fiefs,  and  entailed  on  the  male  pos- 
terity of  the  holders.  The  importation  of  blacks  was  prohibited. 
These  regulations  hindered  the  growth  of  the  colony  and  drew 
the  settlers  into  Carolina.  The  charter  was  surrendered  in  1752, 
and  a  government  similar  to  those  of  the  neighboring  provinces 
was  established. 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

THE  UNITED  COLONIES  OF  NEW  ENGLAND.  The  first  American  confederacy. — 
Its  policy  and  effects. — The  Massachusetts  charter  attacked. — Resistance  of  the 
colonists. — Bigotry  of  the  New  England  Puritans. — Persecution  of  Anabaptists 
and  Quakers. — Faults  of  the  Quakers. — The  civil  war  in  England. — The  charter 
again  attacked. — Philip's  war. — Ravages  committed  by  the  Indians. — Defeat  and 
death  of  Philip. 


Philip's  tvar. 


THE  success  of  the  colonists  in  their  war  with  the  Pequods,  led 
them  to  perceive  the  benefits  which  would  flow  from  a  more  sys- 
tematic and  permanent  combination  of  their  plans.  Hitherto  the 
respective  governments  of  Massachusetts.  Plymouth,  Connecticut 
and  New  Haven,  had  been  independent  of  each  other,  but  in 
1637,  the  scheme  of  a  confederacy  was  proposed.  Massachusetts, 
as  the  most  powerful  state  of  the  four,  was  to  take  the  leading 
station,  which  somewhat  offended  the  scrupulous  pride  of  Con- 
necticut, and  she  insisted  that  each  state  should  possess  a  negative 
on  the  proceedings  of  the  whole  body.  This  was  opposed  with 
good  reason  by  Massachusetts,  as  likely  to  defeat  the  main  object 
of  their  joint  counsels.  Connecticut  was  hard  pressed,  at  that 
moment,  by  the  Dutch  of  the  New  Netherlands,  and  at  length 
waived  her  scruples.  In  1643,  the  UNITED  COLONIES  of  NEW  ENG- 
LAND bound  themselves  by  a  mutual  league  to  render  each  other 
protection  and  assistance. 

37  c3 


434  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Each  colony  reserved  its  own  local  jurisdiction.  The  affairs 
of  the  confederacy  were  intrusted  to  a  body  of  commissioners, 
consisting  of  two  from  each  colony.  What  may  be  termed  the 
"foreign  relations"  )f  the  union, — the  intercourse  and  wars  with 
the  Indians, — were  specially  assigned  to  their  care.  They  were 
authorized  to  make  internal  improvements  at  the  common  charge, 
and  to  assess  the  common  expenses  according  to  population.  They 
declared  war,  levied  troops,  and  decided  all  questions  that  arose 
among  the  confederated  states.  Neither  New  Hampshire  nor 
Rhode  Island  were  members  of  this  league ;  the  former  was  ex- 
cluded as  not  sufficiently  conforming  to  the  Puritan  model ;  and 
the  latter  for  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  jurisdiction  of  Plymouth. 
The  New  England  Union  was  unsanctioned  by  the  authority  of 
the  crown,  and  might  reasonably  have  excited  the  jealousy  of 
Charles  I.,  had  he  been  at  leisure  to  bestow  his  attention  upon  his 
transatlantic  colonies,  yet  this  confederacy  was  allowed  to  continue 
many  years.  It  survived  the  jealousies  of  the  long  parliament, 
received  the  approbation  of  Cromwell,  and  escaped  animadversion 
on  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts. 

When  the  long  parliament  established  its  authority  in  England 
that  body  determined  to  introduce  its  rule  into  all  the  foreign 
dependencies  of  England.  A  mandate  arrived  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1651,  ordering  the  governor  and  assembly  to  send  their  charter 
to  London  and  wait  for  a  new  patent  from  the  keepers  of  the 
liberties  of  England.  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  replied 
with  a  petition  and  remonstrance,  and  conducted  their  measures 
so  skilfully  that  the  parliament  was  completely  foiled  in  this 
attempt  against  the  liberties  of  the  colony.  The  accession  of 
Cromwell  to  the  supreme  power  was  a  favorable  event  for  New 
England.  He  made  no  attempt  to  molest  the  people  in  their  rights ; 
and  his  exertions  speedily  relieved  the  Connecticut  settlers  from 
all  fears  of  the  Dutch  at  New  Amsterdam.  On  the  conquest  of 
Jamaica  by  the  English,  Cromwell  made  a  proposal  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  Massachusetts  to  transport  them  to  that  island,  that  they 
might  carry  the  sword  of  the  gospel  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
territories  of  popery.  This  offer,  as  well  as  another  proposition 
to  remove  to  Ireland  was  rejected. 

We  have  seen  the  jealous  watchfulness  with  which  the  New 
England  colonists  maintained  their  political  rights,  and  the  sacri- 
fices which  they  had  made  to  secure  the  enjoyment  of  their 
religious  opinions.  Yet,  so  full  of  contradictions  is  the  human 
character,  that  the  same  men  did  not  hesitate  to  display  the  most 
rigid  intolerance  towards  the  dissenters  from  their  own  creed. 
Bigotry  was  cherished  as  the  safeguard  of  religious  truth  by  those 


THE   QUAKERS. 

who  fled  from  their  homes  to  enjoy  liberty  of  conscience  and 
freedom  of  religious  inquiry.  Laws  were  made  against  secta- 
rianism ;  heretics  were  banished ;  a  neglect  of  established  forms 
of  worship  was  punished  as  a  civil  offence.  The  strongest  current 
of  persecution  set  against  the  Anabaptists  and  Quakers.  These 
sectarians  promulgated  doctrines,  which,  as  the  puritans  believed, 
were  of  disorganizing  tendency,  and  were  incompatible  with  the 
safety  of  society.  They  were  fined,  imprisoned,  banished,  and 
some  of  them  hanged. 

These  deplorable  proceedings  have  been  considered  a  disgrace- 
ful blot  on  the  annals  of  New  England,  and  in  truth  like  all  other 
persecutions,  they  are  not  to  be  defended.  Yet,  on  a  closer  scru- 
tiny into  the  temper  and  circumstances  of  the  times,  we  shall  find 
ample  materials  for  the  explanation  of  these  strange  anomalies  in 
the  puritan  character.  The  Quakers  of  that  day  were  not  the 
same  peaceful,  moderate  men,  whom  we  see  at  present.  The 
doctrines  they  preached  were  hostile  to  all  regulated  forms,  order 
and  discipline,  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  Instead  of  preaching  the 
gospel,  they  raised  their  voices  against  everything  that  was  most 
highly  approved  and  revered  in'  the  doctrine  of  the  provincial 
churches.  Their  imprudence,  extravagance  and  fanaticism,  ren- 
dered them  objects  of  general  apprehension  and  horror.  They 
were  first  banished  from  the  colony,  but  swarms  of  them  returned, 
violent  and  impetuous  in  provoking  persecution  and  disturbing 
the  peace  of  society.  They  profanely  interrupted  divine  service, 
and  committed  acts  of  folly,  frenzy  and  indecency,  hardly  credi- 
ble. It  is  no  wonder  that  these  scandalous  outrages  irritated  the 
sober  Puritans,  and  drove  them  to  severe  measures  against  their 
disturbers.  By  degrees  the  wild  extravagances  of  the  Quaker 
spirit  subsided,  and  the  laws  against  them  were  relaxed.  The 
persecution  ceased  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  years,  and  since 
1660,  the  Quakers  have  never  disturbed  the  repose  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  or  been  themselves  molested. 

Free  commerce  had  been  enjoyed  by  the  colonists  under  the 
administration  of  Cromwell ;  but  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
threatened  them  with  an  abridgement  of  their  privileges.  Virginia 
inclined  towards  royalty,  and  made  a  premature  declaration  for 
the  king.  Massachusetts  temporized,  and  received  the  two  regi- 
cides, Whalley  and  Goffe,  who  sought  an  asylum  on  her  shores, — 
a  deed  which  brought  upon  her  the  bitter  reproaches  of  the 
restored  monarch.  When  the  royal  authority  was  established, 
the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  sent  an  address  to  the  king, 
deprecating  any  interference  in  colonial  affairs.  The  answer  was 
a  demand  for  the  arrest  of  Whalley  and  Goffe,  who  immediately 


436  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

absconded,  doubtless  with  the  connivance  of  the  Massachusetts 
authorities.  They  sought  a  more  secluded  asylum  in  Connec- 
ticut, where  they  lived  many  years,  successfully  eluding  the 
researches  of  their  pursuers. 

The  colonists,  learning  that  their  commercial  privileges  had 
been  abridged,  drew  up  a  declaration  of  rights,  amounting  to 
little  short  of  a  declaration  of  hostilities,  in  case  of  an  invasion  of 
their  political'  privileges  by  the  royal  authority.  Agents  were 
despatched  to  England  to  plead  their  cause,  and  their  negotia- 
tions were  so  successful,  that  little  molestation  was  given  them 
for  some  years.  Massachusetts,  however,  never  enjoyed  the  sin- 
cere favor  of  Charles  II.,  and  a  contest  was  carried  on  for  some 
time,  which  at  length,  in  1683,  produced  a  writ  of  quo  warranto, 
by  which  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  was  taken  away.  This 
event  struck  consternation  into  the  people  of  the  province,  who 
were  now  totally  at  the  mercy  of  the  crown. 


Portrait  of  Philip. 

The  most  destructive  Indian  war,  sustained  by  the  infant 
colonies,  began  in  the  year  1675,  by  Philip,  sachem  of  the  Wam- 
panoags,  who  lived  in  Rhode  Island.  For  some  years  he  had 
been  preparing  for  hostilities.  The  warriors,  under  his  own 
immediate  command,  were  about  five  hundred ;  but  by  alliances, 
he  had  increased  his  force  to  three  thousand.  Believing,  as  he 
did,  that  nothing  short  of  the  entire  destruction  of  the  English 
would  rescue  the  Indians  from  total  ruin,  he  exerted  his  utmost 
energies  in  prosecuting  a  war  of  extermination.  Murder,  fire 
and  destruction,  marked  the  route  of  his  followers.  There  was 
scarcely  an  English  family  that  did  not  suffer  in  property,  or  by 
the  loss  of  relatives. 


PHILIP'S  WAR.  437 

The  war  commenced  June,  1675,  in  the  following  manner: 
Sausaman,  an  Indian  friendly  to  the  English,  gave  them  notice 
of  the  hostile  intentions  of  Philip's  Indians.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards murdered  by  his  own  countrymen.  The  fact  being  sub- 
stantiated in  a  court  of  justice,  his  murderers  were  convicted,  and 
suifered  death.  Philip,  thereupon,  prepared  for  war.  He  began 
by  killing  the  cattle  and  rifling  the  houses  of  the  English  settlers. 
One  of  these  sufferers  shot  an  Indian.  The  Indians  retaliated  by 
killing  all  the  English  that  were  in  their  power.  Eight  or  nine 
were  slain  in  one  day,  at  Swanzey  and  its  vicinity.  Skirmishes 
followed  with  various  success.  The  Indians  retreated  into  a 
swamp,  from  which  they  fired  and  killed  several  of  the  English. 
The  former  retired  deeper  into  the  swamp.  The  latter,  finding 
they  attacked  the  Indians  in  the  swamps  under  great  disadvan- 
tages, resolved  to  starve  them;  but  the  Indians  found  means  to 
escape. 

Captain  Hutchinson,  with  twenty  horsemen,  while  pursuing  the 
Indians,  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and  lost  almost  all  his  men. 
'  A  few  escaped,  but  were  closely  pursued  by  the  Indians,  who 
assaulted  the  town  to  which  the  vanquished  had  fled.  The 
pursuing  savages  set  fire  to  every  house  excepting  one,  to  which 
all  the  inhabitants  had  gathered-For  security.  When  they  had 
nearly  succeeded  in  firing  that  also,  Major  Willard  arrived  with 
forty-eight  dragoons,  and  dispersed  them.  The  Hadley  Indians 
were  attacked  at  a  place  called  Sugar-loaf  Hill,  and  about  twenty- 
six  of  them  were  slain,  as  were  also  about  half  of  the  assailants. 
These  Indians  rallied,  and,  obtaining  new  associates,  fell  upon 
Deerfield,  killed  one  man,  and  laid  most  of  the  town  in  ashes. 
On  the  same  day,  Hadley  was  alarmed  by  the  Indians  in  the 
time  of  public  worship,  and  the  people  thrown  into  the  utmost 
confusion ;  but  the  enemy  were  repulsed  by  the  valor  and  good 
conduct  of  an  aged,  venerable  man,  who,  suddenly  appearing  in 
the  midst  of  the  affrighted  inhabitants,  put  himself  at  their  head, 
led  them  to  the  onset,  and  instantly  dispersed  the  enemy.  This 
deliverer  of  Hadley,  supposed  by  some  to  be  an  angel,  was  Gen- 
eral Goflfe,  one  of  the  Judges  of  Charles  the  First,  who  was  at 
that  time  concealed  in  the  town. 

The  Springfield  Indians,  though  previously  friendly  to  the' 
English,  perfidiously  concurred  with  Philip's  Indians  to  burn 
the  town  of  Springfield,  and  actually  proceeded  so  far  as  to  burn 
thirty-two  houses;  but  the  remainder  of  the  town  w,as  saved. 
The  confederation  of  the  New  England  towns  was  now  found  of 
great  service.  The  war,  on  the  part  of  the  Indians,  was  con- 
ducted with  so  much  ability,  vigor  and  perseverance,  as  to  require 
37* 


438  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  united  efforts  of  the  confederated  colonies.  They  severally 
furnished  their  quotas,  and  marched  with  their  combined  forces 
into  the  Narraganset  territory.  The  Indians,  apprised  of  an 
armament  intended  against  them,  had  fortified  themselves  very 
strongly  within  a  swamp.  The  English,  without  waiting  to 
draw  up  in  order  of  battle,  marched  forward  in  quest  of  their 
enemy's  camp.  Some  Indians,  appearing  at  the  edge  of  the 
swamp,  were  no  sooner  fired  upon  by  the  English,  than  they 
returned  the  fire  and  fled.  The  whole  army  now  entered  the 
swamp,  and  followed  the  Indians  to  their  fortress.  It  stood  on  a 
rising  ground,  in  the  midst  of  the  swamp,  and  was  composed  of 
palisades,  which  were  encompassed  by  a  thick  hedge.  It  had  but 
one  practicable  entrance,  which  was  over  a  log,  four  or  five  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  that  aperture  was  guarded  by  a  block- 
house. The  English  captains  entered  it  at  the  head  of  their 
companies.  The  two  first,  Johnson  and  Davenport,  with  many 
of  their  men,  were  shot  dead  at  the  entrance.  Four  other  cap- 
tains, Gardner,  Gallop,  Siely,  and  Marshal,  were  also  killed. 
When  the  troops  had  effected  an  entrance,  they  attacked  the 
Indians,  who  fought  desperately,  and  beat  the  English  out  of 
the  fort.  After  a  hard  fought  battle  of  three  hours,  the  English 
became  masters  of  the  place,  and  set  fire  to  the  wigwams.  In  the 
conflagration  many  Indian  men  and  women  perished.  The  sur- 
viving Indian  men  fled  into  a  cedar  swamp  at  a  small  distance, 
and  the  English  retired  to  their  quarters.  Of  the  English,  there 
were  killed  and  wounded  about  two  hundred  and  thirty.  Of  the 
Indians,  one  thousand  are  supposed  to  have  perished. 

On  the  10th  February,  1676,  several  hundreds  of  the  Indians 
fell  upon  Lancaster;  plundered  and  burned  the  greatest  part  of 
the  town,  and  killed  or  captured  forty  persons.  Two  or  three 
hundred  of  the  Narraganset  and  other  Indians,  not  long  after,  sur- 
prised Medfield,  and  burned  nearly  one  half  of  the  town.  On 
the  25th  of  February,  the  Indians  assaulted  Weymouth,  and 
burned  seven  or  eight  houses  and  barns.  On  the  13th  of  March, 
they  burned  the  whole  town  of  Groton,  excepting  four  garrisoned 
houses;  and  on  the  17th,  they  entirely  burned  Warwick,  with  the 
exception  of  one  house.  On  the  26th  of  March,  they  laid  most  of 
the  town  of  Marlborough  in  ashes.  On  the  same  day,  Captain 
Peirce,  of  Scituate,  who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  governor  and 
council  of  Plymouth  colony,  with  about  fifty  white  men  and 
twenty  friendly,  Indians,  of  Cape  Cod,  was  cut  off  by  the  enemy, 
with  most  of  his  party.  Two  days  afterwards,  the  Indians  fell 
upon  Rehoboth,  and  burned  forty  dwelling  houses  and  about 
thirty  barns,  and  the  day  after,  about  thirty  houses  in  Providence. 


PHILIP'S  WAR.  439 

Early  in  April,  they  did  much  mischief  at  Chelmsford,  Ando- 
ver,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  those  places.  Having,  on  the  17th  of 
the  same  month,  burned  the  few  deserted  houses  at  Marlborough, 
they  immediately  afterward  violently  attacked  Sudbury,  burned 
several  houses  and  barns,  and  killed  ten  or  twelve  of  the  English, 
who  had  come  from  Concord,  to  the  assistance  of  their  neighbors. 
Capt.  Wadsworth,  who  had  been  sent  at  this  juncture  from 
Boston,  with  about  fifty  men,  to  relieve  Marlborough,  learning 
that  the  enemy  had  gone  through  the  woods  towards  Sudbury, 
turned  immediately  back  in  pursuit  of  them.  When  the  troops 
were  within  a  mile  of  the  town,  they  spied,  at  no  great  distance, 
a  party  of  Indians,  apparently  about  one  hundred,  who,  by  retreat- 
ing as  if  through  fear,  drew  the  English  above  a  mile  into  the 
woods ;  when  a  large  body  of  the  enemy,  supposed  to  be  about  five 
hundred,  suddenly  surrounded  them,  and  precluded  the  possi- 
bility of  their  escape.  The  gallant,  leader  and  his  brave  soldiers 
fought  with  desperate  valor,  but  were  completely  defeated.  The 
few  who  were  taken  alive,  were  destined  to  tortures  unknown  to 
their  companions,  who  had  the  happier  lot  to  die  in  the  field  of 
battle. 

About  the  same  time,  the  Indians  burned  nineteen  houses 
and  barns  at  Scituate;  but  they  were  bravely  encountered  and 
repulsed  by  the  inhabitants.  On  the  8th  of  May,  they  burned 
and  destroyed  seventeen  houses  and  five  barns;  and  two  days 
afterwards,  they  burned  seven  houses  and  two  barns  in  that 
town,  and  the  remaining  houses  in  Nantasket. 

Several  large  bodies  of  Indians  having  assembled  on  Connecti- 
cut river,  in  the  vicinity  of  Deerfield,  the  inhabitants  of  Hadfield, 
Hadley  and  Northampton,  combined  to  attack  them.  One  hun- 
dred and  sixty  men  marched  silently  twenty  miles  in  the  dead  of 
night,  and,  a  little  before  the  break  of  day,  surprised  the  Indians, 
whom  they  found  asleep  and  without  guards.  The  first  notice 
that  they  gave  of  their  approach  was  by  a  discharge  of  their 
guns  into  the  wigwams.  Some  of  the  Indians,  in  their  conster- 
nation, ran  directly  into  the  river,  and  were  drowned.  Others 
betook  themselves  to  their  bark  canoes,  and  having  in  their 
hurry  forgotten  their  paddles,  were  hurried  down  the  falls,  and 
dashed  against  the  rocks.  Many  of  them,  endeavoring  to  secrete 
themselves  under  the  banks  of  the  river,  were  discovered  and 
slain.  In  this  action,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  Hale 
fight,  the  Indians  lost  three  hundred  men,  women  and.children ; 
but  recovering  from  their  surprise,  and  attacking  the  rear  of  the 
English  on  their  return,  they  killed  Captain  Turner,  commander 
of  the  expedition,  and  thirty-eight  of  his  men. 


440  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

On  the  30th  of  May,  a  great  body  of  Indians,  supposed  to  be 
six  or  seven  hundred,  appeared  before  Hatfield.  Having  burned 
twelve  houses  and  barns  without  the  fortification,  they  attacked 
the  houses  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  that  were  surrounded  with 
palisadoes;  but  twenty-five  resolute  young  men  of  Hadley  ad- 
venturing over  the  river  and  boldly  charging  the  Indians,  they 
instantly  fled  from  the  town,  with  the  loss  of  twenty-five  of  their 
men. 

Though  Massachusetts  was  the  chief  theatre  of  the  war,  Con- 
necticut, her  sister  colony,  was  active  in  the  suppression  of  the 
common  enemy.  Volunteer  companies  had  been  formed  early  in 
the  year,  principally  from  New  London,  Norwich  and  Stonington, 
which  associated  with  them  a  number  of  Mohegan,  Pequot  and 
Narraganset  tribes.  These  companies  ranged  the  Narraganset 
country  and  harassed  the  hostile  Indians.  Between  the  spring 
and  the  succeeding  autumn,  the  volunteer  captains,  with  their 
flying  parties,  made  ten  or  twelve  expeditions,  in  which  they 
killed  and  captured  two  hundred  and  thirty  of  the  enemy,  took 
fifty  muskets,  and  brought  in  one  hundred  and  sixty  bushels  of 
their  corn.  They  drove  all  the  Narraganset  Indians,  excepting 
those  of  Nimyset,  out  of  their  country. 

The  assembly  of  Connecticut  raised  three  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  who  were  to  be  a  standing  army,  to  defend  the  country  and 
harass  the  enemy.  Major  John  Talcot  was  appointed  to  the 
chief  command.  Early  in  June,  he  marched  from  Norwich,  with 
two  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers,  and  two  hundred  Mohegan  and 
Pequot  Indians,  into  the  Wabaquasset  country ;  but  found  it 
entirely  deserted.  On  the  5th  of  June,  the  army  under  his  com- 
mand marched  to  Chanagongum,  in  the  Nipmuck  country,  where 
they  killed  nineteen  Indians,  and  took  thirty-three  prisoners ;  and 
thence  marched  by  Q,uaboag  to  Northampton.  On  the  12th  of 
June,  four  days  after  their  arrival  at  Northampton,  about  seven 
hundred  Indians  made  a  furious  attack  upon  Hadley ;  but  Major 
Talcot,  with  his  gallant  soldiers,  soon  appeared  for  the  relief  of 
the  garrison,  and  drove  off  the  enemy. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  the  same  troops,  on  their  march  towards 
Narraganset,  surprised  the  main  body  of  the  enemy,  by  the  side 
of  a  large  cedar  swamp,  and  attacked  them  so  suddenly,  that  a 
considerable  number  of  them  were  killed  and  taken  on  the  spot. 
Others  escaped  to  the  swamp,  and  were  immediately  surrounded 
by  the  English,  who,  after  an  action  of  two  or  three  hours,  killed 
and  took  one  hundred  and  seventy  of  the  enemy.  Shortly  after- 
wards, they  killed  and  captured  sixty-seven,  near  Providence  and 


DEATH    OF    PHILIP.  441 

Warwick.  About  the  5th  of  July,  they  returned  to  Connecticut, 
and  on  their  way  took  sixty  prisoners. 

The  enemy,  thus  pursued,  and  hunted  from  one  lurking  place 
to  another,  straitened  for  provisions,  and  debilitated  by  hunger 
and  disease,  became  divided,  scattered  and  disheartened.  In  July 
and  August,  they  began  to  come  in  and  surrender  themselves  to 
the  mercy  of  their  conquerors.  Philip,  who  had  fled  to  the  Mo- 
hawks, having  provoked  that  warlike  nation,  had  been  obliged  to 
abandon  their  country,  and  was  now  with  a  large  body  of  Indians 
lurking  about  Mount  Hope.  The  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth 
soldiers  were  vigilant  and  intrepid  in  pursuit  of  him;  and  on 
the  2d  of  August,  Captain  Church,  with  about  thirty  English 
soldiers,  and  twenty  friendly  Indians,  surprised  him  in  his  quar- 
ters, killed  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  of  his  men,  and  took 
his  wife  and  son  prisoners ;  but  Philip  escaped. 

About  ten  days  after  this  surprise,  an  Indian  deserter  brought 
information  to  Captain  Church  that  Philip  was  at  Mount  Hope 
Neck,  and  offered  to  guide  him  to  the  place  and  help  to  kill  him. 
Church  instantly  set  out  in  pursuit  of  him,  with  a  small  company 
of  English  and  Indians.  On  his  .arrival  at  the  swamp,  he  made  a 
disposition  of  his  men  at  proper  stations,  so  as  to  form  an  ambus- 
cade, putting  an  Englishman  and  an  Indian  together,  behind 
coverts.  These  commenced  a  fire  on  the  enemy's  shelter,  which 
was  on  the  margin  of  the  swamp.  It  was  open,  in  the  Indian 
manner,  on  the  side  next  the  swamp,  to  favor  a  sudden  flight. 
Philip,  at  the  instant  of  the  fire  from  the  English,  seized  his  gun, 
and  fled  towards  the  thickets ;  but  ran  in  a  direction  towards  an 
English  soldier  and  an  Indian,  who  were  at  the  station  assigned 
them  by  Captain  Church.  The  Englishman  snapped  his  gun,  but 
it  missed  fire.  He  then  bade  the  Indian  fire ;  and  he  instantly 
shot  him  dead. 

The  death  of  Philip  was  the  signal  of  complete  victory.  The 
Indians  in  all  the  neighboring  country  now  generally  submitted 
to  the  English,  or  fled  and  incorporated  themselves  with  distant 
and  strange  nations.  In  this  short  but  terrible  war,  about 
six  hundred  of  the  inhabitants  of  New  England,  composing  its 
principal  strength,  were  either  killed  in  battle  or  murdered  by  the 
IndianSf  Twelve  or  thirteen  towns  were  entirely  destroyed,  and 
about  six  hundred  buildings,  chiefly  dwelling  houses,  were  burnt. 
In  addition  to  these  calamities,  the  colonies  contracted  an  enor- 
mous debt,  while,  by  the  loss  of  their  substance,  from  the  ravages 
of  the  enemy,  their  resources  were  essentially  diminished. 

The  fall  of  Philip  was  then  considered  as  the  extinction  of  a 
virulent  and  implacable  enemy.  It  is  now  viewed  as  the  fall  of 

D3 


442 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


a  great  warrior,  a  penetrating  statesman,  and  a  mighty  prince. 
It  then  excited  universal  joy  and  congratulation,  as  a  prelude  to 
the  close  of  a  merciless  war.  It  now  awakens  sober  reflections 
on  the  instability  of  empire,  the  peculiar  destiny  of  the  aboriginal 
race,  and  the  inscrutable  decrees  of  Heaven.  The  patriotism  of 
the  man  was  then  overlooked  in  the  cruelty  of  the  savage ;  and 
little  allowance  was  made  for  the  natural  jealousy  of  the  sover- 
eign, on  account  of  the  barbarities  of  the  warrior.  Philip,  in  the 
progress  of  the  English  settlements,  foresaw  the  loss  of  his  terri- 
tory, and  the  extinction  of  his  tribe ;  and  he  made  one  mighty 
effort  to  prevent  these  calamities.  He  fell ;  and  his  fall  contrib- 
uted to  the  rise  of  the  United  States.  Joy  for  this  event  should 
be  blended  with  regret  for  his  misfortunes,  and  respect  for  his 
patriotism  and  talents. 

In  this  distressing  war,  the  New  Englanders  comforted  them- 
selves with  the  reflection  that  it  was  unprovoked  on  their  part. 
The  worthy  governor,  Winslow,  in  a  letter  dated  May  1  st,  1676, 
observed :  "I  think  I  can  clearly  say  that  before  these  present 
troubles  broke  out,  the  English  did  not  possess  one  foot  of  land  in 
this  colony,  which  was  not  fairly  obtained  by  honest  purchase 
from  the  Indian  proprietors." 


Death  of  Philip. 


CHAPTER    XLVI. 

The  Massachusetts  charter  revoked. — Accession  of  James  II. — His  arbitrary  char- 
acter.— Establishment  of  tyranny  in  New  England. — Administration  of  Andros. 
— Policy  of  James. — Remonstrances  of  the  colonists. — The  charter  of  Rhode 
Island  surrendered. — Andros  at  Hartford. — Attempts  to  seize  the  charter  of 
Connecticut. — Oppressive  government  of  Andros. 


Wadsnorth  concealing  the  charter  of  Connecticut  in  the  oak. 

CHARLES  II.  was  so  eager  to  complete  the  execution  of  his 
design  against  the  liberties  of  Massachusetts,  that  immediately 
after  the  court  of  King's  Bench  had  given  its  decision  against 
the  charter,  in  November,  1684,  he  proceeded  to  arrange  a  new 
government  for  the  colony.  Colonel  Kirke,  a  man  infamous  for 
his  bloody  excesses,  was  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  Maine  and  Plymouth.  No  representative  system 
was  to  exist,  but  a  governor  and  council,  appointed  by  the  king, 
were  to  exercise  the  whole  control.  Had  this  arbitrary  scheme 
been  persisted  in,  the  colonists  would  most  surely  have  taken  up 
arms,  and  the  American  revolution  might  have  been  accelerated 
by  a  century.  Horror  and  dismay  took  possession  of  the  minds 
of  people  at  the  first  tidings  of  this  audacious  design  against 
them ;  but  in  the  midst  of  their  alarm  the  sudden  death  of  the 
king  was  announced  at  Boston.  This  somewhat  relieved  the 
apprehensions  of  the  colonists,  although  they  could  have  scanty 
hopes  of  favor  from  his  bigoted  and  arbitrary  successor,  James  II., 


444  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

who  was  proclaimed  in  the  capital  of  New  England  with  melan- 
choly solemnity. 

James,  indeed,  was  too  much  enamored  of  arbitrary  power  to 
be  deterred  from  the  indulgence  of  it  by  any  obstacle  inferior  to 
invincible  necessity ;  and,  accordingly,  after  some  temporary  ar- 
rangements, without  paying  the  slightest  regard  to  opinions 
supported  only  by  the  pens  of  lawyers,  he  determined  to  establish 
a  complete  tyranny  in  New  England,  by  combining  the  whole 
legislative  and  executive  authority  in  the  persons  of  a  governor 
and  council,  to  be  named  by  himself.  Kirke  had  been  found  too 
useful,  as  an  instrument  of  terror  in  England,  to  be  spared  to 
America.  But  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  who  had  signalized  his 
devotion  to  arbitrary  power,  in  the  government  of  New  York,  was 
now  appointed  captain-general,  and  vice-admiral  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  Maine,  New  Plymouth,  and  certain  dependent 
territories  during  the  pleasure  of  the  king.  He  was  empowered, 
with  the  consent  of  a  board  of  counsellors,  to  make  ordinances 
for  the  colonies,  not  inconsistent  with  the  laws  of  England,  and 
which  were  to  be  submitted  to  the  king  for  his  approbation  or 
dissent,  and  to  impose  taxes  for  the  support  of  government.  He 
was  directed  to  govern  the  people  according  to  the  tenor  of  his 
commission,  of  a  separate  letter  of  instructions  with  which  he 
was  at  the  same  time  furnished,  and  of  the  laws  which  were  then 
in  force  or  might  be  afterwards  enacted.  The  governor  and 
council  were  also  constituted  a  court  of  record;  and  from  their 
decisions  an  appeal  to  the  king  was  to  be  allowed.  The  greater 
part"  of  the  instructions  that  were  communicated  to  Andros  are 
of  a  nature  that  would  do  honor  to  the  patriotism  of  the  king,  if 
the  praise  of  this  virtue  were  due  to  a  barren  desire  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  the  people,  accompanied  with  the  most  effectual 
exertions  to  strip  them  of  every  security  by  which  their  welfare 
might  be  guarded.  Andros  was  directed  to  promote  no  persons  to 
offices  of  trust,  but  colonists  of  fair  character  and  competent 
estate,  and  to  displace  none  without  sufficient  cause;  and  to  re- 
spect and  administer  the  existing  laws  of  the  country,  in  so  far  as 
they  were  not  inconsistent  with  his  commission  or  instructions ;  to 
dispose  of  the  crown  lands  at  moderate  quit  rents;  "to  take 
away  or  to  harm  no  man's  life,  member,  freehold  or  goods,  but 
by  established  laws  of  the  country,  not  repugnant  to  those  of  the 
realm;"  to  discipline  and  arm  the  inhabitants  for  the  defence  of 
the  country,  but  not  to  obstruct  their  attention  to  their  own  private 
business  and  necessary  affairs ;  to  encourage  freedom  of  commerce 
by  all  proper  means ;  to  check  the  excessive  severity  of  masters 
to  their  servants,  and  to  punish  with  death  the  slayers  of  Indians 


JAMES   II.  AND   NEW   ENGLAND.  445 

or  negroes ;  to  allow  no  printing  press  to  exist,  and  to  grant  uni- 
versal toleration  in  religion,  but  special  encouragement  to  the 
Church  of  England.  Except  the  restraint  of  printing,  (which, 
though  enjoined,  appears  not  to  have  been  carried  into  effect,) 
there  are  none  of  these  instructions  that  express  a  spirit  of  des- 
potism; and  yet  the  whole  system  was  silently  pervaded  by  that 
spirit ;  for  as  there  were  no  securities  provided  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  king's  benevolent  directions,  so  there  was  no  check 
established  to  restrain  the  abuse  of  the  powers  with  which  the 
governor  was  entrusted.  The  king  was  willing  that  his  subjects 
should  be  happy,  but  not  that  they  should  be  free,  or  enabled  to 
pursue  a  scheme  of  happiness  independent  of  his  agency  or  con- 
trol ;  and  this  conjunction  of  a  desire  to  promote  human  welfare, 
with  an  aversion  to  the  means  most  likely  to  secure  it,  suggests 
the  explanation,  perhaps  the  apology,  of  an  error  to  which  de- 
spotic sovereigns  are  inevitably  liable.  Trained  in  habits  of 
indulgence  of  their  own  will,  and  in  sentiments  of  respect  for  its 
force  and  efficacy,  they  learn  to  consider  it  as  what  not  only 
ought  to  be,  but  must  be,  irresistible :  and  feel  no  less  secure  of 
ability  to  make  men  happy  without  their  own  concurrence,  than 
of  the  right  to  balk  the  natural  desire  of  mankind  to  be  the  pro- 
viders and  guardians  of  their  own  welfare.  The  possession  of 
absolute  power  renders  self-denial  the  highest  effort  of  virtue; 
and  the  absolute  monarch  who  should  demonstrate  a  just  regard 
to  the  rights  of  his  fellow-creatures,  would  deserve  to  be  honored 
as  one  of  the  most  magnanimous  of  human  beings.  Furnished 
with  the  instructions  which  we  have  seen  for  the  mitigation  of 
his  arbitrary  power,  and  attended  with  a  few  companies  of  sol- 
diers for  its  support,  Andros  arrived  in  Boston ;  and  presenting 
himself  as  the  substitute  for  the  dreaded  and  detested  Kirke, — 
and  commencing  his  administration  with  many  gracious  express- 
ions of  good  will, — he  was  at  first  received  more  favorably  than 
might  have  been  expected.  But  his  popularity  was  short-lived. 
Instead  of  conforming  to  his  instructions,  he  copied,  and  even 
exceeded,  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  his  master  in  England,  and 
committed  the  most  tyrannical  violence  and  oppressive  exactions. 
Dudley,  the  late  president,  and  several  of  his  colleagues,  were 
associated  as  counsellors  of  the  new  administration,  which  was 
thus  loaded,  in  the  beginning  of  its  career,  with  the  weight  of 
their  unpopularity,  and  in  the  end  involved  themselves  in  deeper 
odium  and  disgrace. 

It  was  the  purpose  of.  James  to  consolidate  the  strength  of  all 
the  British  colonies  in  one  united  government ;  and  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut  were  now  to  experience  that  their  destiny  was 
38 


446  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

involved  in  the  fate  of  Massachusetts.  The  inhabitants  of  Rhode- 
Island,  on  learning  the  accession  of  the  king,  immediately  trans- 
mitted an  address,  congratulating  him  on  his  elevation,  acknowl- 
edging themselves  his  loyal  subjects,  and  begging  his  protection 
for  their  chartered  rights.  Yet  the  humility  of  their  supplications 
could  not  protect  them  from  the  consequences  of  the  plans  he  had 
embraced  for  the  general  government  of  New  England.  Articles 
of  high  misdemeanor  were  exhibited  against  them  before  the 
lords  of  the  committee  of  colonies,  charging  them  with  breaches 
of  their  charter,  and  with  opposition  to  the  acts  of  navigation ; 
and  before  the  close  of  the  year  1685;  they  received  notice  of  the 
institution  of  a  process  of  quo  warranto,  against  their  patent. 
Without  hesitation,  they  resolved  that  they  would  not  contend 
with  their  sovereign,  and  passed  an  act,  in  full  assembly,  formally 
surrendering  their  charter  and  all  the  powers  it  contained.  By  a 
fresh  address,  they  "humbly  prostrated  themselves,  their  privi- 
leges, their  all,  at  the  gracious  feet  of  his  majesty,  with  an  entire 
resolution  to  serve  him  with  grateful  hearts."  These  servile 
expressions  dishonored  but  did  not  avail  them;  and  the  king, 
accounting  legal  solemnities  a  superfluous  ceremony  with  persons 
so  devoted  to  his  will,  proceeded,  without  further  delay,  to  impose 
the  yoke  which  the  people  sought  to  evade  by  deserving  it.  His 
eagerness,  however,  to  accomplish  his  object  with  rapidity,  though 
it  probably  inflicted  a  salutary  disappointment  on  this  community 
at  the  time,  proved  ultimately  beneficial  to  their  political  interests, 
by  preserving  their  charter  from  legal  extinction ;  and  this  benefit, 
which  a  similar  improvidence  atforded  to  the  people  of  Connec- 
ticut, was  ascertained  at  the  era  of  the  British  revolution.  In 
consequence  of  the  last  address  that  had  proceeded  from  Rhode 
Island,  Andros  had  been  charged  to  extend  his  administration  to 
that  province ;  and  in  the  same  month  that  witnessed  his  arrival 
at  Boston,  he  visited  Rhode  Island,  when  he  dissolved  the  pro- 
vincial corporation,  broke  its  seal,  and,  admitting  five  of  the 
inhabitants  into  his  legislative  council,  assumed  the  exercise  of 
all  the  functions  of  government. 

Connecticut  had  also  transmitted  an  address  to  the  king  on  his 
accession,  and  vainly  solicited  the  preservation  of  her  privileges. 
When  the  articles  of  misdemeanor  were  exhibited  against  Rhode 
Island,  a  measure  of  similar  import  was  employed  against  the 
governor  and  assembly  of  Connecticut,  who  were  reproached  with 
making  laws  contrary  in  tenor  to  those  of  England ;  of  extorting 
unreasonable  fines ;  of  administering  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  their 
own  corporation,  in  contradistinction  to  the  oath  of  allegiance;  of 
intolerance  in  ecclesiastical  polity,  and  of  denial  of  justice.  These 


JAMES   II.  AND   NEW    ENGLAND.  447 

charges,  which  were  supposed  to  infer  a  forfeiture  of  the  charter, 
were  remitted  to  Sawyer,  the  Attorney  General,  with  directions  to 
expedite  a  writ  of  quo  warranto  against  the  colony.  The  writ 
was  issued,  and  Randolph,  the  general  enemy  of  American  lib- 
erty, offered  his  services  to  carry  it  across  the  Atlantic.  The 
governor  and  the  assembly  of  Connecticut  had  for  some  time 
beheld  the  storm  approaching,  and  knowing  that  resistance  was 
vain,  they  endeavored,  with  considerable  address,  to  elude  what 
they  were  unable  to  repel.  After  delaying  as  long  as  possible 
to  make  any  signification  of  their  intentions,  the  arrival  of  Sir 
Edmund  Andros  at  Boston,  and  his  conduct  in  Rhode  Island, 
convinced  them  that  the  designs  of  the  king  were  to  be  rigor- 
ously pursued,  and  that  they  could  not  hope  to  be  allowed  to 
deliberate  any  longer.  They  wrote  accordingly  to  the  Secretary 
of  State,  expressing  a  strong  desire  to  retain  their  present  consti- 
tution ;  but  requesting,  if  it  were  the  irrevokable  purpose  of  their 
sovereign  to  dispose  otherwise  of  them,  that  they  might  be  incor- 
porated with  Massachusetts,  and  share  the  fortunes  of  a  people 
with  whom  they  had  always  maintained  a  friendly  correspon- 
dence, and  whose  principles  and  manners  they  understood  and 
approved.  This  was  hastily  construed  by  the  British  government 
into  a  surrender  of  the  provincial  constitution ;  and  Andros  was 
commanded  to  annex  this  province  also  to  his  jurisdiction.  Ran- 
dolph, who  seems  to  have  been  qualified,  not  less  by  genius 
than  inclination,  to  promote  the  execution  of  tyrannical  designs, 
advised  the  English  ministers  to  prosecute  the  quo  warranto  to  a 
judicial  issue ;  assuring  them  that  the  government  of  Connecticut 
would  never  consent  to  do,  nor  acknowledge  that  they  had  done, 
what  was  equivalent  to  an  express  surrender  of  the  rights  of  the 
people.  It  was  matter  of  regret  to  the  ministers  and  crown  law- 
yers of  a  later  age,  that  this  politic  suggestion  was  not  adopted. 
But  the  king  was  too  eager  to  snatch  the  boon  that  was  within 
his  reach,  to  wait  the  tedious  formalities  of  the  law;  and  no 
farther  proceedings  ensued  on  the  quo  warranto.  In  conformity 
with  his  orders,  Andros  marched  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops 
to  Hartford,  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  where  he 
demanded  that  the  charter  should  be  delivered  into  his  hands. 

The  people  had  been  extremely  desirous  to  preserve,  at  least,  the 
document  of  rights,  which  the  return  of  better  times  might  enable 
them  to  assert  with  advantage.  The  charter  was  laid  on  the 
table  of  the  assembly,  and  some  of  the  principal  inhabitants 
addressed  Andros  at  considerable  length,  relating  the,  exertions 
that  had  been  made,  and  the  hardships  that  had  been  incurred, 
in  order  to  found  the  institutions  which  he  was  come  to  destroy ; 


448  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

entreating  him  yet  to  spare  them,  or  at  least  to  leave  the  people  in 
possession  of  the  patent,  as  a  testimonial  of  the  favor  and  happi- 
ness they  had  enjoyed.  The  debate  was  earnest  but  orderly,  and 
protracted  till  a  late  hour  in  the  evening.  As  the  day  declined, 
lights  were  introduced  into  the  hall,  which  was  gradually  sur- 
rounded by  a  numerous  concourse  of  the  bravest  and  most 
determined  men  in  the  province,  prepared  to  defend  their  repre- 
sentatives against  the  apprehended  violence  of  Andros  and  his 
armed  followers.  At  length,  finding  that  their  arguments  were 
ineffectual,  a  measure,  supposed  to  have  been  previously  con- 
certed by  the  inhabitants,  was  coolly,  resolutely  and  successfully 
conducted.  The  lights  were  extinguished,  as  if  by  accident ;  and 
Captain  Wadswor.th,  laying  hold  of  the  charter,  disappeared  with 
it,  before  they  could  be  rekindled.  He  conveyed  it  securely 
through  the  crowd,  who  opened  to  let  him  pass,  and  closed 
their  ranks  as  he  proceeded,  and  deposited  it  in  the  hollow  of 
an  ancient  oak  tree,  which  retained  the  precious  deposit  until  the 
era  of  the  English  revolution,  and  was  long  regarded  with  venera- 
tion by  the  people,  as  the  memorial  and  associate  of  a  transaction 
so  interesting  to  their  liberties.  Andros,  finding  all  his  efforts 
ineffectual  to  recover  the  charter,  or  ascertain  the  person  by 
whom  it  had  been  secreted,  contented  himself  with  declaring 
that  its  institutions  were  dissolved  ;  and  assuming  to  himself  the 
exercise  of  supreme  authority,  he  created  two  of  the  principal 
inhabitants  members  of  his  general  legislative  council.  Having 
thus  united  all  the  New  England  States  under  one  comprehensive 
system  of  arbitrary  government,  Andros,  with  the  assistance  of 
his  grand  legislative  council,  selected  from  the  inhabitants  of  the 
several  provinces,  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  enacting  laws 
and  regulations  calculated  to  fortify  his  authority.  An  act  restor- 
ing the  former  taxes,  obtained  the  assent  of  the  council ;  and  yet 
even  this  indispensable  provision  was  obstructed  by  the  reluctance 
with  which  the  counsellors,  though  selected  by  Andros  himself, 
consented  to  become  the  instruments  of  riveting  the  shackles 
of  their  country.  The  only  further  opposition  which  he  expe- 
rienced, proceeded  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  county  of  Essex, 
in  Massachusetts,  who,  insisting  that  they  were  freemen,  refused 
to  pay  the  contingent  assessed  upon  them  of  a  taxation  which 
they  deemed  unconstitutional.  But  their  resistance  was  easily 
overpowered,  and  many  of  them  were  severely  punished.  Andros 
soon  discovered  that  the  revenues  of  the  ancient  government  were 
inadequate  to  the  support  of  his  more  costly  administration ;  and 
while  he  signified  this  defalcation  to  the  king,  he  declared,  at  the 
same  time,  with  real  or  affected  humility,  that  the  country  was  so 


JAMES   II.  AND   NEW    ENGLAND.  449 

much  impoverished  with  the  effects  of  the  Indian  war,  by  recent 
losses  at  sea  and  by  scanty  harvests,  that  an  increase  of  taxation 
could  hardly  be  endured.  But  James,  who  had  exhausted  his 
lenity  in  his  letter  of  instructions,  answered  this  communication 
by  a  peremptory  mandate  to  raise  the  taxes  to  a  level  with  the 
charges  of  administration ;  and  Andros,  thereupon,  either  stifling 
his  tenderness  for  the  people,  or  discarding  his  superfluous  re- 
spect to  the  moderation  of  the  king,  proceeded  to  exercise  his 
power  with  a  rigor  and  injustice  that  rendered  his  government 
universally  odious.  The  weight  of  taxation  was  oppressively 
augmented,  and  the  fees  of  all  public  functionaries  screwed  up  to 
an  enormous  height.  The  ceremonial  of  marriage  was  altered, 
and  the  celebration  of  that  rite,  which  had  hitherto  been  com- 
mitted to  the  magistrates,  was  confined  to  the  ministers  of  the 
church  of  England,  of  whom  there  was  only  one  in  the  province 
of  Massachusetts.  The  fasts  and  thanksgivings  appointed  by 
the  congregational  churches,  were  arbitrarily  suppressed  by  the 
governor,  who  maintained  that  the  regulation  of  such  matters 
belonged  entirely  to  the  civil  power.  He  took  occasion  frequently, 
and  with  the  most  offensive  insolence,  to  remark,  in  presence  of 
the  council,  that  the  colonists  would  find  themselves  greatly  mis- 
taken, if  they  supposed  that  the  privileges  of  Englishmen  followed 
them  to  the  extremity  of  the* earth;  and  that  the  only  difference 
between  their  condition  and  that  of  slaves,  was  that  they  were 
neither  bought  nor  sold.  It  was  declared  unlawful  for  the  colo- 
nists to  assemble  in  public  meetings,  or  for  any  one  to  quit  the 
province  without  a  passport  from  the1  governor;  and  Randolph, 
now  at  the  summit  of  his  wishes,  was  not  ashamed  to  boast,  in 
letters  to  his  friends,  that  the  rulers  of  New  England  were  "  as 
arbitrary  as  the  great  Turk."  While  Andros  mocked  the  people 
with  a  semblance  of  trial  by  jury,  he  contrived,  by  intrigue  and 
partiality  in  the  selection  of  jurymen,  to  convict  and  wreak  his 
vengeance  upon  every  person  who  offended  him,  as  well  as  to 
screen  the  misdeeds  of  his  own  dependents  from  the  punishment 
they  deserved.  And,  as  if  to  heighten  the  discontent  excited  by 
such  tyrannical  insolence,  he  took  occasion  to  question  the  validity 
of  the  existing  titles  to  landed  property,  pretending  that  the  rights 
acquired  under  the  ancient  government  were  tainted  with  its 
vices  and  obnoxious  to  its  fate.  New  grants  or  patents  from  the 
governor,  it  was  announced,  were  requisite  to  mend  the  defective 
titles  to  lands ;  and  writs  of  intrusion  were  issued  against  all  who 
refused  to  apply  for  such  patents,  and  to  pay  the  large  fees  that 
were  charged  for  them.  Most  of  the  landed  proprietors  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  this  extortion,  in  order  to  save  their 
38*  E3 


450 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


estates  from  confiscation, — an  extremity  which,  however,  was 
brave$  by  one  individual,  Colonel  Shrimpton,  who  preferred  the 
loss  of  his  property  to  the  recognition  of  a  principle  which  he 
deemed  both  oppressive  and  dishonorable  to  this  country.  The 
king,  indeed,  had  now  encouraged  Andros  to  consider  the  people 
whom  he  governed  as  a  society  of  felons  or  rebels ;  for  he  trans- 
mitted to  him  express  directions  to  grant  his  majesty's  most 
gracious  pardon  to  as  many  of  the  colonists  as  should  apply  for 
it.  But  none  had  the  meanness  to  solicit  the  grace  that  exclu- 
sively befitted  the  guilty.  The  only  act  of  the  king  that  was 
favorably  regarded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony,  was  his 
declaration  of  indulgence,  which  excited  so  much  discontent  in 
Britain,  even  among  the  Protestant  dissenters,  who  shared  its 
benefit.  Notwithstanding  the  intolerance  that  has  been  imputed 
to  New  England,  this  declaration  produced  general  satisfaction 
there,  though  some  of  the  inhabitants  had  discernment  enough  to 
perceive  that  the  sole  object  of  the  king  was  the  gradual  intro- 
duction of  the  Catholic  church  into  Britain. 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

Sir  William  Phipps. — His  origin  and  fortunes. — Attempts  unsuccessfully  to 
restore  the  charter. — Discontent  of  the  New  Englanders. — Indian  hostilities. — 
Exasperation  of  the  people  against  Andros. — Insurrection  at  Boston. — Andros 
deposed,  and  the  ancient  government  restored. —  War  with  the  French  and 
Indians. —  Conquest  of  Acadie  by  Sir  William  Phipps. — Expedition  against 
Quebec. — Miscarriage  of  the  attempt. — Endeavors  of  the  colonists  to  regain  the 
ancient  charter. —  Opposition  of  King  William. — The  new  charter  and  aug- 
mented jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts. — End  of  the  Plymouth  colony. — Phipps, 
the  colonial  governor. — ///  success  of  his  administration. — Expedition  to  Pema- 
quid. —  Unpopularity  of  Phipps. 


Deposition  of  Sir  Edmund  Andros. 

SIR  William  Phipps,  whose  fruitless  interposition  had  been 
exerted  in  behalf  of  the  deputation  from  Massachusetts  at  the 
court  of  England,  was  himself  a  native  of  this  province;  and 
notwithstanding  a  scanty  education  and  obscure  birth,  had 
ascended,  by  the  mere  force  of  superior  genius,  to  a  conspicuous 
rank,  and  gained  a  high  reputation  for  spirit,  capacity  and  suc- 
cess. He  followed  the  employment  of  a  shepherd  at  his  native 
place,  till  he  was  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  was  afterwards 
apprenticed  to  a  ship-carpenter.  When  he  was  freed  from  his 
indentures,  he  pursued  a  seafaring  life,  a/id  attained*  the  station 
of  captain  of  a  merchant  vessel.  An  account,  which  he  happened 
to  peruse  of  a  Spanish  ship  loaded  with  bullion,  wrecked  near  the 


452  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Bahama  Islands,  about  fifty  years  before,  inspired  him  with  the 
bold  design  of  extricating  the  buried  treasure  from  the  bowels  of 
the  deep;  and,  transporting  himself  'to  England,  he  stated  his 
scheme  so  plausibly,  that  the  king  was  struck  with  it,  and,  in 
1683,  sent  him  with  a  vessel  to  make  the  attempt.  It  proved 
unsuccessful,  and  all  his  urgency  could  not  induce  James  to 
engage  in  a' repetition  of  it.  But  the  Duke  of  Albermarle,  resum- 
ing the  project,  equipped  a  vessel  for  the  purpose,  and  gave  the 
command  of  it  to  Phipps,  who  now  succeeded  in  accomplishing 
his  project,  and  achieved  the  recovery  of  specie,  to  the  amount  of 
at  least  three  hundred  thousand  pounds,  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.  Of  this  treasure  he  obtained  a  portion  sufficient  for  his 
own  enrichment,  with  a  still  greater  meed  of  consideration  and 
applause.  The  king  was  exhorted  by  some  of  his  courtiers  to 
confiscate  the  whole  of  the  specie  thus  recovered,  on  pretence 
that  he  had  not  received  a  fair  representation  of  the  project ;  but 
he  declared  that  the  representation  had  been  perfectly  fair,  and 
that  nothing  but  his  own  misgivings  and  the  timorous  counsels 
and  mean  suspicions  of  those  courtiers  themselves,  had  deprived 
them  of  the  riches  which  this  honest  man  had  sought  to  procure 
for  him.  He  conceived  a  high  regard  for  Phipps,  and  conferred 
on  him  the  rank  of  knighthood.  Sir  "William  employed  his  influ- 
ence at  court  for  the  benefit  of  his  country:  and  his  patriotism 
seems  never  to  have  harmed  him  in  the  opinion  of  the  king. 
Finding  that  he  could  not  prevail  so  as  to  obtain  the  restoration  of 
the  chartered  privileges,  he  solicited  and  received  the  appointment 
of  high  sheriff  of  New  England,  in  the  hope  that,  by  remedying 
the  abuses  that  were  committed  in  the  impannelling  of  juries,  he 
might  create  a  barrier  against  the  tyranny  of  Andros.  But  the 
governor  and  his  creatures,  incensed  at  this  interference,  hired 
ruffians  to  attack  his  person,  and  soon  compelled  him  to  quit  the 
province  and  take  shelter  in  England.  James,  shortly  before  his 
own  abdication,  among  the  other  attempts  he  made  to  conciliate 
his  subjects,  offered  Phipps  the  government  of  New  England;  but 
he  refused  to  accept  this  appointment  from  a  falling  tyrant, 
and  under  a  system  which,  instead  of  seeking  any  longer  to  miti- 
gate, he  hoped  speedily  to  see  entirely  overthrown. 

The  discontent  of  the  people  of  New  England  continued 
meanwhile  to  increase,  insomuch  that  every  act  of  government, 
however  innocent,  or  even  laudable,  was  viewed  through  the 
perverting  medium  of  a  fixed  and  inveterate  jealousy.  In  order 
to  discredit  the  former  provincial  authorities,  Androp  and  Ran- 
dolph had  sedulously  inculcated  the  notion  that  the  Indians  had 
hitherto  been  treated  with  a  cruelty  and  injustice,  to  which  all  the 


ADMINISTRATION   OF   ANDROS.  453 

hostilities  of  these  savages  ought  reasonably  to  be  imputed ;  and 
had  vaunted  their  own  ability  to  pacify  and  propitiate  them  by 
gentleness  and  equity.  But  this  year  their  theory  and  their  policy 
were  alike  disgraced  by  the  furious  hostilities  of  the  Indians  on 
the  eastern  frontiers  of  New  England.  The  movements  of  these 
savages  were  excited,  on  this,  as  on  former  occasions,  by  the 
insidious  artifices  of  the  French,  whose  suppleness  of  character 
and  demeanor,  contrasted  with  the  grave,  unbending  spirit  of  the 
English,  gave  them  in  general  a  great  advantage  in  the  competi- 
tion for  the  favor  of  the  Indians;  and  who  found  it  easier  to 
direct  and  employ,  than  to  check  or  eradicate  the  treachery  and 
ferocity  of  their  savage  allies.  The  English  colonists  offered 
to  the  natives  terms  of  accommodation,  which  at  first  they  seemed 
willing  to  accept;  but  the  encouragement  of  the  French  soon 
prevailed  with  them  to  reject  all  friendly  overtures,  and  their 
native  fierceness  prompted  them  to  signalize  this  declaration 
by  a  series  of  unprovoked  and  unexpected  massacres.  Andros 
published  a  proclamation,  requiring  that  the  murderers  should  be 
delivered  up  to  him ;  but  the  Indians  treated  him  and  his  procla- 
mation with  contempt.  In  the  depth  of  winter  he  found  himself 
obliged  to  march  with  a  considerable  force  against  these  enemies ; 
and  though  he  succeeded  in  occupying  and  fortifying  positions 
which  enabled  him  somewhat  to  restrain  their  future  incursions, 
he  inflicted  but  little  injury  upon  them,  and  lost  a  great  many  of 
his  own  men,  who  perished  in  vain  attempts  to  follow  the  Indians 
into  their  fastnesses  in  the  most  rigorous  season  of  the  year.  So 
strong  and  so  indiscriminating  was  the  dislike  he  had  excited 
among  the  people  of  New  England,  that  this  expedition  was 
unjustly  ascribed  to  a  deliberate  purpose  to  destroy  the  troops 
whom  he  conducted,  by  cold  and  famine.  Every  reproach,  how- 
ever groundless,  stuck  fast  to  the  hated  characters  of  Andros  and 
Randolph. 

At  length  the  smothered  rage  of  the  people  broke  forth.  In  the 
spring  some,  vague  intelligence  was  received,  by  letters  from  Vir- 
ginia, of  the  proceedings  of  the  Prince  "of  Orange,  in  England. 
The  ancient  magistrates  and  principal  inhabitants  of  the  province, 
though  they  ardently  wished  and  secretly  prayed  that  success 
might  attend  the  prince's  enterprise,  yet  determined,  in  so  great  a 
cause,  to  incur  no  unnecessary  hazard,  and  quietly  await  a  revo- 
lution which  they  believed  that  no  movement  of  theirs  could 
either  promote  or  retard.  But  New  England  was  destined  to 
accomplish,  by.  her  own  efforts,  her  own  liberation;  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Massachusetts  were  now  to  exercise  the  gallant 
privilege,  which,  nearly  a  century  after,  and  in  a  conflict  still  more 


454  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

arduous,  their  children  again  were  ready  to  assert  of  being  the 
foremost  in  resisting  oppression,  and  vindicating  the  rights  and 
honor  of  their  country.  The  cautious  policy  and  prudential  dis- 
suasions from  violence  that  were  employed  by  the  wealthier  and 
more  aged  colonists,  were  contemned  by  the  great  body  of  the 
people,  whose  spirit  and  courage  prompted  them  to  achieve  the 
deliverance  which  they  were  less  qualified,  by  foresight  and 
patience,  to  await.  Stung  with  the  recollection  of  past  injuries, 
their  patriotic  ardor,  on  the  first  prospect  of  relief,  could  not  be 
restrained.  In  seasons  of  revolution,  the  wealthy  and  eminent 
mingle  with  their  public  spirit  a  less  generous  concern  for  their 
valuable  private  interests,  and  their  prospect  of  sharing  in  official 
dignities.  The  poor  have  no  rich  private  fortunes  in  their  posses- 
sion ;  no  dazzling  preferments  within  their  reach ;  and  consequently 
less  restraint  on  the  full  flow  of  their  social  affections.  All  at 
once,  and  apparently  without  any  preconcerted  plan,  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  forth  in  the  town  of  Boston ;  the  drums  beat  to  arms ; 
the  people  flocked  together ;  and  in  a  few  hours  the  revolt  became 
universal,  and  the  energy  of  the  people  so  overpowering,  that 
every  purpose  of  resisting  their  will  was  abandoned  by  the 
government.  The  scruples  of  the  more  wealthy  and  cautious 
inhabitants  were  completely  overcome  by  the  obvious  necessity 
of  interfering  to  calm  and  regulate  the  fervor  of  the  populace. 

Andros,  Dudley,  and  others,  to  the  number  of  fifty  of  the  most 
obnoxious,  fled  into  the  citadel  on  Fort  Hill;  but  the  citizens 
stormed  the  fortress,  and  they  were  seized  and  imprisoned.  On 
the  first  intelligence  of  the  tumult,  Andros  sent  a  party  of  soldiers 
to  apprehend  Simon  Bradstreet ;  a  measure  that  served  only  to 
suggest  to  the  people  who  their  chief  ought  to  be,  and  to  antici- 
pate the  unanimous  choice  by  which  this  venerable  man  was 
reinstated  in  the  office  he  had  held  when  his  country  was  deprived 
of  her  liberties.  Though  now  bending  under  the  weight  of  ninety 
years,  his  intellectual  powers  had  undergone  but  little  decay ;  "he 
retained,"  says  Cotton  Mather,  "  a  vigor  and  wisdom  that  would 
have  recommended  a  younger  man  to  the  government  of  a  greater 
colony."  As  the  tidings  of  the  revolt  spread  through  the  province, 
the  people  eagerly  flew  to  arms,  and  hurried  to  Boston  to  cooper- 
ate with  their  insurgent  countrymen.  To  the  assembled  crowds 
a  proclamation  was  read  from  the  balcony  of  the  court-house, 
detailing  the  grievances  of  the  colony,  and  imputing  the  whole  to 
the  tyrannical  abrogation  of  the  charter.  A  committee  of  safety 
was  appointed  by  general  consent ;  and  an  assembly  of  represen- 
tatives being  convened  soon  after,  this  body,  by  a  unanimous 
and  with  the  hearty  concurrence  of  the  whole  province, 


AFFAIRS    IN    NEW    ENGLAND    IN    1690.  455 

declared  their  ancient  charter  and  its  constitution  to  be  resumed ; 
reappointed  Bradstreet  and  all  the  other  magistrates  who  had 
been  in  office  in  the  year  1686 ;  and  directed  those  persons,  in  all 
things,  to  conform  to  the  provisions  of  the  charter,  "  that  this 
method  of  government  may  be  found  among  us,  when  orders  shall 
come  from  higher  powers  in  England."  They  announced  that 
Andros  and  the  counsellors  who  had  been  imprisoned  along  with 
him,  were  detained  in  custody  to  abide  the  directions  that  might, 
be  received  concerning  them  from  his  highness  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  the  English  parliament.  What  would  be  the  extent 
of  the  revolution  that  was  in  progress  in  the  parent  state,  and  to 
what  settlement  of  affairs  it  would  finally  conduct,  was  yet  un- 
known in  the  colonies.  The  example  of  Massachusetts  was 
followed  by  the  other  New  England  provinces,  and  news  shortly 
after  having  been  received  of  the  establishment  of  William  and 
Mary  on  the  throne,  they  were  proclaimed  at  Boston,  with  great 
solemnity  and  rejoicing.  The  king  and  queen  wrote  a  letter, 
addressed  to  "the  colony  of  Massachusetts,"  sanctioning  their 
proceedings,  and  authorizing  them  to  continue  their  provisional 
government  till  measures  could  be  taken  to  establish  it  upon  a 
permanent  basis.  Andros  was  sent  to  England  for  trial,  in  1690. 
In  the  midst  of  these  proceedings,  war  broke  out  between  Eng- 
land and  France.  The  rflpture  between  the  two  parent  states 
extended  itself  to  their  possessions  in  America ;  and  the  colonies 
of  New  England  and  New  York  were  now  involved  in  bloody 
and  desolating  warfare  with  the  forces  of  the  French  in  Canada 
and  their  Indian  auxiliaries  and  allies.  The  hostilities  that  were 
.directed  against  New  York  belong  to  another  branch  of  this  his- 
tory. In  concert  with  the  French,  various  attacks  were  made  by 
considerable  bodies  of  the  Indians,  in  the  conclusion  of  the  present 
year,  on  the  settlements  and  forts  of  New  Hampshire  and  Maine ; 
and  proving  successful  in  some  instances,  they  were  productive 
of  the  most  horrid  extremity  of  savage  cruelty.  Aware  that 
these  depredations  originated  in  Canada  and  Acadia,  the  general 
court  of  Massachusetts  prepared,  during  the  winter,  an  expedition 
against  Port  Royal  and  Quebec.  The  command  of  it  was  en- 
trusted to  Sir  William  Phipps,  who,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  late 
arbitrary  government,  had  returned  to  New  England,  in  the  hope 
of  being  able  to  render  some  service  to  his  countrymen.  Eight 
small  vessels,  with  seven  or  eight  hundred  men,  sailed  under  his 
command  in  the  following  spring,  and  almost  without  opposition 
took  possession  of  Port  Royal,  and  of  the  whole  province  of  Aca- 
dia ;  and  within  a  month  after  its  departure,  the  fleet  returned, 
loaded  with  plunder  enough  to  defray  the  whole  expense  of  the 


456  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

expedition.     But  Count  Frontignac,  the   governor  of  Canada, 
retorted  by  sharp  and  harassing  attacks  on  the  remote  settlements 
of  New  England;    and  stimulating  the  activity  of  his  Indian 
allies,  kept  the  frontiers  in  a  state  of  incessant  alarm,  by  their 
predatory  incursions.     Letters  had  been  written,  by  the  general 
court  of  Massachusetts,  to  king  William,  urging  the  importance 
of  the  conquest  of  Canada,  and  soliciting  his  aid  in  an  expedition 
for  that  purpose ;  but  he  was  too  much  occupied  in  Europe  to 
extend  his  exertions  to  America ;  and  the  general  court  determined 
to  prosecute  the  enterprise  without  his  assistance.     New  York 
and  Connecticut  engaged  to  furnish  a  body  of  men,  who  were  to 
march  overland  to  attack  Montreal,  while  the  troops  of  Massa- 
chusetts should  repair  by  sea  to  Quebec.     The  fleet  destined  for 
this   expedition  consisted  of   thirty-five  vessels,  the  largest  of 
which  carried  forty-four  guns ;  and  the  number  of  troops  on  board 
amounted  to  two  thousand.     The  command  of  this  armament 
was  entrusted  to  Sir  William  Phipps,  who,  in  the  conduct  of  the 
enterprise,  demonstrated  his  usual  courage,  and  every  military 
qualification,  except  that  which  experience  alone  can  confer,  and 
without  which,  in  a  warfare  with  a  civilized  enemy,  all  others 
commonly  prove  unavailing.      The   troops  of  Connecticut  and 
New  York,  retarded  by  defective  arrangements,  and  disappointed 
of  the  assistance  of  the  friendly  Indians  who  had  engaged  to  fur- 
nish them  with  canoes  for  crossing  the  rivers  they  had  to  pass, 
were  compelled  to  retire  without  attacking  Montreal;  and  in  con- 
sequence the  whole  force  of  Canada  was  concentrated  to  resist 
the  attack  of  Phipps.     His  armament  arrived  before  Quebec  so 
late  in  the  season,  that  only  an  immediate  assault  could  have 
enabled  him  to  carry  the  place ;  but  by  unskilful  delay,  the  time 
for  such  an  attempt  was  irretrievably  lost.     The  English  were 
worsted  in  various  sharp  encounters,  and  compelled  at  length  to 
make  a  precipitate  retreat;  and  the  fleet,  after  sustaining  great 
damage  in  the  voyage  homeward,  returned  to  Boston.     Such  was 
the  unfortunate  issue  of  an  enterprise  which  involved  Massachu- 
setts in  an  enormous  expense,  and  cost  the  lives  of  at  least  a 
thousand  of  her  people.     The  French  had  so  strongly  foreboded 
its  success,  that  they  scrupled  npt  to  ascribe  its  discomfiture  to  the 
immediate  interposition  of  Heaven,  in  confounding  the  devices  of 
the  enemy,  and  depriving  them  of  common  sense ;  and,  under 
this  impression,  the  citizens  of  Quebec  established  an  annual  pro- 
cession in  commemoration  of  their  deliverance.     That  the  conduct 
of  Phipps,  however,  had  been  no  way  obnoxious  to  censure,  may 
be  safely  inferred  from  the  fact  that  a  result  so  disastrous  brought 
no  blame  upon  him,  and  deprived  him  in  no  degree  of  the  favor 


NEW   ENGLAND.  457 

of  his  countrymen.  And  yet  the  disappointment,  in  addition  to 
the  mortification  which  it  inflicted,  was  attended  with  very  injuri- 
ous consequences.  The  general  court  of  Massachusetts  had  not 
even  anticipated  the  possibility  of  miscarriage,  and  had  expected 
to  derive  from  the  success  of  the  expedition,  the  same  reimburse- 
ment of  expenses,  of  which  their  former  enterprises  had  been 
productive.  "During  the  absence  of  the  forces,"  says  Cotton 
Mather,  with  an  expression  too  whimsical  for  a  matter  of  so 
much  solemnity,  "the  wheel  of  prayer  of  them  in  New  England 
had  been  kept  continually  going  round;"  and  this  attempt  to  re- 
inforce the  expedition  by  spiritual  cooperation,  had  been  pursued 
in  combination  with  an  entire  neglect  of  provisions  applicable  to 
the  possibility  of  an  unsuccessful  result.  The  returning  army, 
finding  the  government  unprepared  to  satisfy  their  claims,  were 
on  the  point  of  mutinizing  for  their  pay;  and  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  issue  bills  of  credit,  which  the  troops  consented  to  accept 
in  place  of  money.  The  colony  was  now  in  a  very  depressed 
state.  Hoping  to  turn  to  religious  account  the  calamities  which 
they  were  unable  to  avoid,  the  government  endeavored  to  pro- 
mote the  increase  of  piety  and  the  reformation  of  manners;  and 
pressed  upon  the  ministers  and  the  people  the  duty  of  strongly 
resisting  that  worldliness  of  mind,  which  the  necessity  of  con- 
tending violently  for  tempo'ral  things  is  apt  to  engender.  The 
attacks  of  the  Indians  on  the  eastern  frontiers  were  attended  with 
a  degree  of  success  and  barbarity  that  diffused  general  terror; 
and  the  colonists  were  expecting  in  this  quarter  to  be  driven  from 
their  settlements,  when,  all  at  once,  those  savages,  of  their  own 
accord,  proposed  a  peace  of  six  months,  which  was  accepted  by 
the  provincial  government  with  great  willingness  and  devout 
gratitude.  As  it  was  clearly  ascertained  that  the  hostile  proceed- 
ings of  the  Indians  were  continually  fostered  by  the  intrigues,  and 
rendered  more  formidable  by  the  counsel  and  assistance  of  jthe 
French  authorities  in  Canada,  the  conquest  of  this  province  began 
to  be  considered  by  the  people  of  New  England  as  indispensable 
to  their  safety  and  tranquillity.  In  the  hope  of  prevailing  with 
the  king  to  sanction  and  embrace  this  enterprise,  as  well  as  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  the  other  deputies  in  the  no  less  interesting 
application  for  the  restoration  of  the  provincial  charter,  Sir 
William  Phipps,  soon  after  his  return  from  Quebec,  by  desire  of 
his  countrymen,  repaired  to  England. 

King  William  was  unwilling  to  restore  the  old  charter.     A  new 

instrument  was  drawn  up,  incorporating  Massachusetts,  Maine, 

Plymouth  and  Nova  Scotia  into  one  jurisdiction.     The  governor 

and  some  other  officers  were  appointed  by  the  crown.    The 

39  F3 


45S  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

representatives  were  chosen  by  the  people,  but  the  governor  had 
a  negative  on  the  choice  of  the  counsellors,  and  could  convoke, 
adjourn,  or  dissolve  the  legislature  at  pleasure.  He  also  nominated 
all  military  officers,  and,  with  the  consent  of  his  council,  all  the 
judges  and  law  officers.  He  had,  moreover,  a  veto  on  the  acts  of 
the  legislature,  and  every  law  was  to  be  sent  to  England  for  the 
royal  approbation.  Such  was  the  new  government  of  Massachu- 
setts, which  excited  great  discontent,  and  led  the  way,  by  constant 
struggles  between  the  colonial  and  the  regal  power,  to  the  war  of 
independence.  The  British  ministers  were  aware  how  unwel- 
come these  innovations  were  to  the  people  of  Massachusetts,  and 
in  order  to  soften  the  measure  at  the  outset,  procured  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  native  American,  Sir  William  Phipps,  for  governor  of 
the  province.  As  he  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  inhabitants, 
his  appointment  had  some  effect  in  softening  their  ill  humor. 

Yet  his  administration,  on  the  whole,  was  unprosperous ;  for 
although  he  might  give  his  sanction,  as  governor,  to  popular 
laws,  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  guard  them  from  being  rescinded 
by  the  crown ;  and  this  fate  soon  befel  a  law  that  was  passed  by 
the  provincial  assembly,  declaring  the  colonists  exempt  from  all 
taxes  but  such  as  should  be  imposed  by  their  own  representatives, 
and  asserting  their  right  to  share  all  the  privileges  of  Magna 
Charta.  He  found  the  province  involved  in  a  distressing  war 
with  the  French  and  Indians,  and  in  the  still  more  formidable, 
calamity  of  that  strange  delusion  which  has  been  termed  the  New 
England  witchcraft,  and  which  will  be  described  at  length  in  the 
next  chapter.  When  the  Indians  were  informed  of  the  elevation 
of  Sir  William  Phipps  to  the  office  of  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
they  were  struck  with  amazement  at  the  fortunes  of  the  man, 
whose  humble  origin  they  perfectly  well  knew,  and  with  whom 
they  had  familiarly  associated  but  a  few  years  before  in  the 
obscurity  of  his  primitive  condition.  Impressed  with  a  high 
opinion  of  his  courage  and  resolution,  and  a  superstitious  dread 
of  that  fortune  that  seemed  destined  to  surmount  every  obstacle, 
and  prevail  over  every  disadvantage,  they  would  willingly  have 
made  peace  with  him  and  his  countrymen,  but  were  induced  to 
continue  the  war  by  the  artifices  and  intrigues  of  the  French.  A 
few  months  after  his  arrival,  the  governor,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
army,  marched  to  Pemaquid,  on  the  Penobscot  river,  and  there 
caused  to  be  erected  a  fort  of  considerable  strength,  calcula- 
ted by  its  situation  to  form  a  powerful  protection  to  the  province, 
to  overawe  the  neighboring  tribes  of  Indians,  and  interrupt  their 
mutual  communication.  The  beneficial  effect  of  this  operation 
was  experienced  in  the  following  year,  when  the  Indians  sent 


. 

WITCHCRAFT.  459 

ambassadors  to  the  fort  at  Pemaquid,  and  there  at  length  con- 
cluded, with  English  commissioners,  a  treaty  of  peace,  by  which 
they  renounced  forever  the  interests  of  the  French,  and  pledged 
themselves  to  perpetual  amity  with  the  inhabitants  of  New 
England.  The  colonists,  who  had  suffered  severely  from  the 
recent  depredations  of  these  savages,  and  were  still  laboring 
under  the  burdens  entailed  on  them  by  former  wars,  were  not 
slow  to  embrace  the  first  overtures  of  peace  and  yet  they  mur- 
mured, with  great  discontent  and  ill  humor,  at  the  measure  to 
which  they  were  principally  indebted  for  the  deliverance  they  had 
so  ardently  desired.  Th,e  expense  of  building  the  fort,  and 
maintaining  its  garrison  and  stores,  occasioned  an  addition  to  the 
existing  taxes,  which  provoked  their  impatience.  The  party  who 
had  opposed  submission  to  the  new  charter,  eagerly  promoted 
every  complaint  against  the  operation  of  a  system  which  they 
regarded  with  rooted  aversion;  and  labored  so  successfully  on 
this  occasion  to  vilify  the  person  and  government  of  Sir  William 
Phipps,  in  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen,  that  his  popularity  sus- 
tained a  shock  from  which  it  never  afterwards  entirely  recovered. 
The  people  were  easily  induced-  to  regard  the  increase  of  taxation 
as  the  effect  of  the  recent  abridgement  of  their  political  privileges, 
and  to  believe  that  if  they^had  retained  their  ancient  control  over 
the  officers  of  government,  the  administration  of  their  affairs 
might  have  been  more  economically  conducted.  But  another 
cause,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  must  now  more 
attentively  consider,  rendered  the  minds  of  the  colonists,  at  this 
time,  unusually  susceptible  of  gloomy  impressions,  and  of  sus- 
picions equally  irritating  and  unreasonable. 


CHAPTER    XLVIII. 

Witchcraft  in  Europe. — First  symptoms  of  this  belief  in  America. —  The  Boston 
witchcraft. — The  Salem  witchcraft. — Propagation  of  the  delusion. — Influence 
and  credulity  of  the  clergy. — Particulars  of  the  various  trials  and  executions. — 
Illegality  of  the  judicial  proceedings. — Absurdities  uttered  by  the  witnesses. — 
Cotton  Mather. — Increase  of  the  delusion. — Consternation  of  the  people. — Revo- 
lution in  the  public  mind,  and  cessation  of  the  trials. — Inexplicable  character 
of  these  occurrences. 


WITCHCRAFT  had  been  a  matter  of  serious  belief  in  Europe  from 
time  immemorial.  In  1484,  Pope  Innocent  issued  a  bull,  directing 
the  inquisitors  to  be  vigilant  in  searching  out  and  punishing  all 
who  were  guilty  of  this  crime.  In  1515,  more  than  five  hundred 
persons  were  burned  at  Geneva,  for  witchcraft,  in  three  months. 
Above  a  thousand  were  put  to  death  in  the  diocese  of  Como 
within  a-  single  year,  and  above  one  hundred  thousand,  in  Ger- 
many alone,  were  executed  for  this  crime,  during  the  persecutions 
consequent  upon  the  papal  bull.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.,  statutes  against  this  offence  were  enacted  in  England, 
and  within  the  space  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  thirty  thousand  individuals  suffered  death  on  this 
account.  As  late  as  1647,  more  than  a  hundred  executions  in 
England  attested  the  general  belief  in  this  crime  still  existing  in 
that  enlightened  country.  Witches  were  hanged  in  England  as 
late  as  1716,  and  in  Scotland  till  1722. 


WITCHCRAFT.  461 

The  early  settlers  of  New  England  could  hardly  be  expected  to 
be  free  from  this  portion  of  the  current  superstition  of  the  age ; 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  opinion  of  their  countrymen  in  the 
Old  World,  they  regarded  it  with  great  abhorrence  and  indig- 
nation. In  America,  however,  as  in  England,  there  were  not 
wanting  men  of  sense  and  discernment  whose  understanding  was 
above  this  vulgar  error.  In  the  year  1693,  as  we  shall  see  pres- 
ently, Robert  Calef,  a  merchant  of  Boston,  was  bold  enough  to 
contradict  the  reigning  opinions  on  this  delicate  subject.  His 
courageous  and  manly  reasoning,  and  the  pungent  sarcasm  of  his 
language,  provoked  the  hottest  ire  of  the  New  England  clergy, 
with  Cotton  Mather  at  their  head.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that, 
more  than  half  a  century  after  this,  the  learned  and  acute  jurist, 
Blackstone,  asserted,  in  the  hall  of  a  British  university,  that  the 
existence  of  witchcraft  and  sorcery  was  a  truth  to  which  every 
nation  in  the  world  had  borne  testimony ! — an  opinion  which  he 
has  given  to  the  world  in  his  well  known  commentaries  on  the 
laws  of  England. 

Holding  these  long-established  notions,  the  colonists  of  New 
England  naturally  looked  upon  -the  savages  as  worshippers  of 
evil  spirits,  and  their  priests  or  powows  as  necromancers.  The 
first  mention  of  witchcraft  occurs  about  1645,  but  no  executions 
took  place  till  1 650,  when  tfiree  persons  suffered  death  at  Boston, 
all  protesting  their  innocence.  About  the  same  time,  or  a  little 
later,  there  were  trials  for  this  offence  in  New  York,  but  no  per- 
sons were  executed.  A  period  of  nearly  thirty  years  elapsed 
from  the  first  executions  in  Boston,  without  the  occurrence  of  any 
new  case.  But  in  1688,  witchcraft  again  attracted  notice,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  publication  of  a  book  containing  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  previous  cases  and  arguments,  tending  to  show  the 
reality  of  the  crime.  The  effect  of  this  work  was  immediately 
apparent.  Four  of  the  children  of  John  Goodwin,  a  serious  and 
respectable  man  in  the  north  part  of  Boston,  were  suspected  of 
being  bewitched.  These  children  were  intelligent,  pious  and 
moral;  the  eldest  was  not  above  fourteen.  She  had  accused  a 
washer-woman  with  purloining  some  of  the  family  linen.  The 
mother  of  this  woman  was  an  Irish  female,  of  bad  character,  and 
abused  the  girl  in  harsh  terms;  soon  after  which,  the  girl  fell 
into  fits,  which  were  thought  to  be  produced  by  diabolical  means. 
One  of  her  sisters  and  two  brothers  followed  her  example,  and 
according  to  the  story,  were  tormented  in  the  same  part  of  their 
body  at  the  same  time,  although  they  were  kept  separate.  All 
their  complaints  were  in  the  day-time,  and  they  slept  comfortably 
all  night ;  but  this  was  only  an  additional  marvel  in  the  popular 
39* 


462  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

estimation.  They  were  struck  speechless  at  the  sight  of  the 
Assembly's  Catechism,  Cotton's  Milk  for  Babes,  and  sundry  other 
books  of  the  same  stamp ;  but  could  read  profane,  popish,  quaker 
and  episcopalian  books,  without  any  trouble.  At  times  they  lost 
their  sight,  hearing  and  speech.  Their  tongues  would  be  drawn 
down  their  throats,  and  then  stuck  out  upon  their  chins.  Their 
joints  would  be  dislocated,  and  they  would  utter  piteous  outcries 
of  burnings,  incisions,  beating,  &c..  and  show  their  wounds. 

These  occurrences  created  a  general  alarm  in  Boston,  and  the 
ministers  kept  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer,  at  the  house  of  the 
sufferers ;  after  which  the  youngest  child  made  no  more  com- 
plaints. The  others  continued  to  be  afflicted,  and  the  magistrates 
judged  it  time  to  interpose.  The  Irish  woman  underwent  an 
examination,  but  would  neither  confess  nor  deny,  and  appeared 
to  be  out  of  her  senses.  The  physicians  decided  that  she  was  of 
sound  mind,  and  she  was  hanged,  declaring  that  the  children 
should  not  be  relieved  from  their  complaints.  The  eldest  was 
taken  into  Cotton  Mather's  family,  where,  after  some  time,  she  fell 
again  into  her  convulsions,  but  the  matter  went  no  further  in  this 
instance.  All  the  children  subsequently  returned  to  their  ordi- 
nary behavior. 

The  great  tragedy  in  this  deplorable  delusion  was  acted  at 
Salem.  It  began  in  1692,  in  the  house  of  Samuel  Parris,  a 
minister  of  that  place.  His  daughter,  niece,  and  two  other  girls, 
all  of  tender  age,  began  to  make  similar  complaints  to  those 
mentioned  in  the  case  of  Goodwin's  children.  The  physicians, 
not  knowing  how  to  explain  the  facts,  instead  of  suspecting 
foolish  tricks  in  the  children,  pronounced  them  bewitched.  An 
Indian  woman  in  the  family  tried  some  experiments,  which  she 
pretended  to  have  learned  among  her  own  people,  to  find  out  the 
witch.  The  children  heard  of  this,  and  we  cannot  be  surprised 
that  their  next  proceeding  was  to  cry  out  against  the  poor  Indian, 
and  pretend  that  she  was  pinching,  pricking  and  tormenting  them. 
Straightway  they  fell  into  fits ;  but  Tituba,  the  Indian,  resolutely 
denied  that  she  was  a  witch,  although  she  confessed  that  she  knew 
how  to  discover  one.  Private  fasts  were  kept  at  the  minister's 
house,  and  as  the  alarm  increased,  these  became  public,  and  at 
length  a  general  fast  was  proclaimed  throughout  the  colony. 

At  this  distance  of  time  the  increase  of  this  wretched  delusion 
may  be  easily  explained ;  but  at  the  period  of  which  we  are 
speaking,  natural  means  and  ordinary  motives  were  not  likely  to 
be  assigned  as  the  causes  of  events  which  could  be  ascribed  to 
superhuman  agency.  The  great  notice  which  people  took  of  the 
children,  with  the  sympathies  of  the  persons  who  visited  them, 


WITCHCRAFT.  463 

tended  not  only  to  confirm  them  in  their  impositions,  but  to  draw 
others  into  the  same  frauds.  The  number  of  the  bewitched  soon 
increased,  and  the  contagion  spread  from  children  to  grown 
people.  These,  too,  had  their  spasms  and  convulsions,  and  laid 
their  charges,  not  only  against  Tituba,  but  two  other  women, 
named  Osborn  and  Good,  one  of  whom  was  crazy,  and  the  other 
bed-ridden.  Tituba  at  length  confessed  herself  a  witch,  and  the 
other  women  her  confederates.  The  three  were  put  in  jail. 
Three  weeks  afterwards,  two  other  women,  of  good  character 
and  church-members,  named  Corey  and  Nurse,  were  charged 
with  witchcraft.  On  their  approach  the  children  fell  into  fits; 
but  the  women  denied  everything,  and  were  imprisoned.  The 
charge  then  fell  upon  a  child  of  five  years  old,  the  daughter  of 
the  above-mentioned  Sarah  Good,  who  had  haunted  and  bitten 
the  bewitched  persons ;  in  evidence  of  which  the  print  of  small 
teeth  were  exhibited  on  their  arms.  The  infatuation  increased, 
and  those  whose  duly  it  was  to  check  it,  used  their  utmost 
exertions  to  spread  the  alarm  more  widely.  Parris  preached  an 
inflammatory  sermon  from  the  text,  "Have  I  not  chosen  you 
twelve,  and  one  of  yon  is  a  devil?"  At  this,  Sarah  Cloyse,  sister 
to  one  of  the  accused,  rose  and  left  the  meeting,  which  of  course 
caused  her  to  be  charged  with  witchcraft,  and  imprisoned.  About 
the  same  time,  Elizabeth  Procter  incurred  the  same  charge:  and 
her  husband  having  the  hardihood  to  accompany  his  wife  to  the 
examination,  fell  under  a  similar  accusation,  which  ultimately 
cost  him  his  life. 

The  public  attention  was  now  absorbed  in  the  subject.  The 
deputy  governor,  with  five  other  magistrates,  went  to  Salem  in 
April.  Sarah  Cloyse  and  Elizabeth  Procter  underwent  an  exam- 
ination. Parris,  who  officiated  on  the  occasion,  appears  to  have 
excited  all  the  charges.  The  first  witness,  John,  the  Indian, 
husband  to  Tituba,  was  rebuked  as  a  grievous  liar.  Sarah 
Cloyse  was  accused  of  having  been  at  the  witches'  sacrament. 
Struck  with  horror  and  amazement  at  this  absurd  charge,  she 
fainted  away.  The  possessed  impostors  cried  out,  "  Her  spirit  is 
gone  to  prison,  to  her  sister  Nurse  ! "  The  niece  of  Parris  charged 
Elizabeth  Proctor  with  attempting  to  persuade  her  to  sign  the 
devil's  book;  to  which  she  calmly  replied,  "Dear  child,  it  is  not 
so, — there  is  another  judgment,  dear  child."  This  availed  noth- 
ing in  her  favor,  and  the  accusers,  turning  towards  her  husband, 
declared  that  he,  too,  was  a  wizard.  All  three  were  thrown  into 
prison.  No  wonder  that  the  whole  country  was  in  p.  conster- 
nation, when  persons  of  sober  life  and  unblemished  character 
were  committed  to  prison  upon  evidence  like  this.  Nobody 


464  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

was  safe;  and  the  most  effectual  way  to  avoid  an  accusation 
was  to  become  an  accuser.  Accordingly  the  number  of  the 
bewitched  increased  every  day,  and  the  number  of  the  accused 
in  proportion. 

Hitherto  no  one  of  the  accused,  except  Tituba,  had  confessed ; 
and  hints  were  thrown  out  that  by  confession  they  might  save 
themselves.  This  had  its  effect,  and  a  woman  named  Hobbs, 
owned  everything  charged  against  her,  and  was  left  unharmed. 
Thus  it  was  that  the  monstrous  doctrine  began  to  be  promulgated 
that  the  gallows  was  to  be  set  up,  not  for  those  who  professed 
themselves  witches,  but  for  those  who  rebuked  the  delusion, — not 
for  the  guilty,  but  for  the  unbelieving.  But  in  all  cases  of  epi- 
demic madness,  nothing  is  more  offensive  to  the  popular  taste  than 
moderation  and  scepticism.  As  might  be  expected,  confessions 
rose  in  importance,  as  being  the  only  avenue  of  escape.  Exami- 
nations and  commitments  followed  daily,  and  the  land  was  shaken 
with  such  terror  and  alarm  as  cannot  be  easily  described.  The 
purest  life,  the  strictest  integrity,  the  most  solemn  assertions  of 
innocence,  were  of  no  avail.  Husband  was  torn  from  wife, 
parent  from  children,  brother  from  sister,  and  in  some  cases  the 
unhappy  victims  saw  in  their  accusers  their  nearest  and  dearest 
friends.  In  one  instance  a  wife  and  daughter  accused  the  hus- 
band and  father,  to  save  themselves ;  and  in  another,  a  girl,  seven 
years  old,  testified  against  her  mother. 

Two  individuals  appear  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in 
strengthening  and  upholding  these  lamentable  delusions, — Parris, 
above  mentioned,  and  Cotton  Mather ;  the  latter,  a  compound  of 
ignorance  and  learning,  of  bigotry,  spiritual  pride  and  inquisitorial 
malice.  Parris  was  present  at  all  the  examinations  of  the  accused, 
taking  the  matter  into  his  own  hands,  putting  leading  questions, 
and  artfully  entrapping  the  witnesses  into  contradictions,  by 
which  they  became  confused,  and  were  charged  as  guilty  of  the 
imputed  offence.  In  some  cases  confessions  were  extorted  by  the 
most  cruel  methods.  Two  young  men  persisted  in  maintaining 
'  their  innocence,  till  they  were  tied  together  neck  and  heels,  and 
then  they  accused  their  own  mother.  Margaret  Jacobs  being  art- 
fully beguiled  into  a  confession,  accused  Mr.  Burroughs,  -minister 
of  Salem,  and  afterwards  her  own  grandfather.  Burroughs  was 
condemned  to  be  hanged,  on  which  she  was  struck  with  horror 
and  remorse,  and  recanted  her  confession,  choosing  rather  to  lose 
her  life  than  to  persist  in  accusing  an  innocent  person.  She 
begged  forgiveness  of  Burroughs  before  his  execution,  and  retracted 
all  she  had  said  against  her  grandfather ;  but  this  did  not  save  his 
life. 


WITCHCRAFT.  465 

The  prisoners  had  been  increasing  from  the  middle  of  February 
until  June.  The  jails  of  Essex  and  the  neighboring  counties  were 
full.  In  May,  the  new  charter  and  the  royal  governor,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Phipps,  arrived  at  Boston.  The  governor,  a  firm  believer 
in  witchcraft,  finding  the  prisons  filled  with  victims  charged  with 
this  offence,  and  urged  on  by  the  seeming  emergency  of  the  occa- 
sion, issued  his  special  commission,  constituting  the  persons  named 
in  it,  a  court  for  Suffolk,  Essex  and  Middlesex.  This  court,  which 
was  an  illegal  tribunal,  because  the  governor  had  no  shadow  of 
authority  to  establish  it,  consisted  of  seven  judges,  namely :  Wil- 
liam Stoughton,  the  lieutenant-governor,  chief  justice  Nathaniel 
Saltonstal,  who  refused  to  act,  and  was  replaced  by  Jonathan 
Curwin,  John  Richards,  Bartholomew  Gedney,  Wait  Winthrop, 
Samuel  Sewall  and  Peter  Sergeant.  The  date  of  their  commis- 
sion was  June  2d,  1692,  and  on  the  same  day  the  court  convened 
at  Salem.  It  was  a  popular  tribunal ;  there  was  not  a  lawyer 
concerned  in  its  proceedings.  Stoughton  and  Sewall  had  been 
educated  clergymen ;  Withrop  and  Gedney,  as  physicians ;  Rich- 
ards was  a  merchant ;  Sergeant  was  a  man  of  influence  in  the 
colony.  The  general  course  of  proceedings  at  these  trials  was 
quite  consistent  with  the  character  of  the  court  and  the  nature  of 
the  offence.  After  pleading  -to  the  indictment,  if  the  prisoner 
denied  his  guilt,  the  afflicted  persons  were  first  brought  into  court 
to  swear  as  to  who  afflicted  them.  Then  those  of  the  accused 
who  voluntarily  confessed,  were  called  upon  to  tell  what  they 
knew  of  the  accused.  Proclamation  was  then  made  for  all  who 
could  give  any  testimony,  however  foreign  to  the  charge,  to  come 
into  court,  and  whatever  any  one  volunteered  to  tell,  was  admit- 
ted as  evidence.  The  next  process  was  to  search  for  "  witch 
marks," — the  doctrine  being  that  the  devil  affixed  his  mark  to 
those  in  alliance  with  him,  and  that  this  spot  on  the  body  became 
callous  and  dead.  This  duty  was  performed  by  a  jury  of  men 
or  women,  according  to  the  sex  of  the  prisoner.  A  wart  or  mole 
was  often  conclusive  evidence,  when  the  other  proof  was  doubtful. 
It  was  a  strong  sign  of  witchcraft  to  make  an  error  in  the  Lord's 
prayer,  which  the  accused,  on  their  examination,  were  required  to 
repeat,  and  if  they  committed  a  single  slip  of  the  tongue,  even  in 
the  pronouncing  of  a  syllable,  it  was  fatal  to  them. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  absurdities  that  were  uttered  as  testimony 
against  the  accused,  we  will  cite  the  following  from  the  trial  of 
Bridget  Bishop.  One  witness  testified  that  in  the  course  of  some 
little  controversy  with  the  prisoner  about  her  fowls,  he' went  to 
bed  well  one  night,  awoke  by  moonlight,  and  saw  the  clear  like- 
ness of  this  woman  grievously  oppressing  him,  in  which  misera- 

o3 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

ble  condition  she  held  him,  unable  to  help  himself,  till  near  day. 
He  told  her  of  this,  but  she  utterly  denied  it,  and  threatened  him 
very  much.  Quickly  after  this,  being  at  home  on  a  Lord's  day, 
with  the  doors  shut  about  him,  he  saw  a  black. pig  approach  him, 
and  on  endeavoring  to  kick  it,  the  spectre  vanished  away.  Im- 
mediately after,  sitting  down,  he  saw  a  black  thing  jump  in  at 
the  window  and  come  and  stand  before  him.  The  body  was  like 
that  of  a  monkey,  the  feet  like  a  cock's,  but  the  face  much  like  a 
man's.  He  being  so  extremely  affrighted  that  he  could  not  speak, 
this  monster  spoke  to  him  and  said,  "  I  am  a  messenger  sent  unto 
you,  for  I  understand  that  you  are  in  some  trouble  of  mind,  and  if 
you  will  be  ruled  by  me  you  shall  want  for  nothing  in  this  world." 
Whereupon,  he  endeavored  to  clap  his  hands  upon  it,  but  he  could 
feel  no  substance,  and  it  jumped  out  of  the  window  again,  but 
immediately  came  in  by  the  porch,  though  the  doors  were  shut, 
and  said,  "  You  had  better  take  my  counsel."  He  then  struck  at 
it  with  a  stick,  but  hit  only  the  groundsel.  The  arm  with  which 
he  struck  was  presently  disabled,  and  the  spectre  vanished  away. 
He  presently  went  out  at  the  back  door,  and  spied  this  Bridget 
Bishop  in  her  orchard,  going  towards  her  house,  "but  he  had  not 
power  to  set  one  foot  forward  unto  her."  Upon  this,  returning 
into  the  house,  he  was  immediately  accosted  by  the  monster  he 
had  seen  before,  which  goblin  was  going  to  fly  at  him ;  whereat 
he  cried  out,  "  The  whole  armor  of  God  be  between  me  and  you ! " 
So  it  sprung  back  and  flew  over  the  apple-tree,  shaking  many 
apples  off  in  its  passage.  In  making  the  leap  it  flung  dirt  with 
its  feet  against  the  stomach  of  the  man,  whereupon  he  was  struck 
dumb,  and  so  continued  for  three  days  together ! 

Two  other  witnesses  testified  that  being  employed  by  the  pris- 
oner to  help  take  down  the  cellar  wall  of  the  old  house  wherein 
she  formerly  lived,  they  did,  in  holes  of  the  said  old  wall,  find 
several  poppets,  made  up  of  rags  and  hog's  bristles,  with  headless 
pins  in  them,  the  points  being  outward,  "whereof  the  prisoner 
could  now  give  no  account  unto  the  court  that  was  reasonable  or 
tolerable." 

On  evidence  of  this  sort,  she  was  convicted  of  witchcraft,  and 
sentenced  to  be  hanged,  which  sentence  was  carried  into  execution 
on  the  10th  of  June.  "  As  she  was  under  guard,"  says  Cotton 
Mather,  "passing  by  the  great  and  spacious  meeting-house  of 
Salem,  she  gave  a  look  towards  the  house ;  and  immediately  a 
demon,  invisibly  entering  the  meeting-house,  tore  down  a  part  of 
it;  so  that  though  there  was  no  person  to  be  seen  there,  yet  the 
people,  at  the  noise,  running  in,  found  a  board,  which  was  strongly 


NEW    ENGLAND.  467 

fastened  with  several  nails,  transported  into  another  quarter  of 
the  house." 

There  was  one  species  of  evidence  which,  was  of  great  effect 
in  these  prosecutions,  and  which  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  or 
rebut.  Witnesses  were  allowed  to  testify  to  certain  acts  of  the 
accused  when  they  were  not  present  in  the  body,  tormenting 
their  victims  by  apparitions  and  spectres,  which  pinched  them, 
robbed  them  of  their  goods,  caused  them  to  languish  and  pine 
away,  and  pricked  them  with  sharp  pins ;  the  bewitched  persons 
often  producing  the  identical  pins  with  which  this^  was  done.  It 
was  thought  that  an  invisible  and  impalpable  fluid  darted  from 
the  eyes  of  the  witch  and  penetrated  the  brain  of  the  person  be- 
witched. A  touch  by  the  witch  attracted  back  the  malignant  fluid, 
and  the  sufferers  recovered  their  senses.* 

After  the  condemnation  of  Bridget  Bishop,  the  court  adjourned 
to  the  30th  of  June,  and  the  governor  and  council  thought  proper, 
in  the  meantime,  to  take  the  opinion  of  several  ministers  on  the 
state  of  affairs.  This  opinion,  drawn  up  by  Cotton  Mather,  con- 
tained many  cautions  against  precipitancy,  but  concluded  with  a 
strong  recommendation  of  "speedy  and  vigorous  prosecution  of 
such  as  have  rendered  themselves  obnoxious."  This  recommen- 
dation unfortunately  receiyed  vastly  more  attention  than  the 
cautions  which  preceded  it.  The  prosecutions  were  carried  on 
with  all  possible  vigor.  At  the  next  session  of  the  court,  five 
women  were  brought  to  trial,  condemned  and  executed.  There 
was  some  difficulty  in  the  case  of  Rebecca  Nurse,  one  of  the 
number ;  she  was  a  member  of  the  church,  and  bore  a  good  char- 
acter. The  jury  pronounced  her  not  guilty.  The  accusers  made 
a  great  clamor,  and  the  court  expressed  much  dissatisfaction. 
They  said  the  jury  must  have  disregarded  the  words  the  prisoner 
used  when  two  female  witnesses  appeared  against  her,  namely, 
"they  used  to  come  among  us," — which  the  court  interpreted  to 
refer  to  a  witch  meeting.  The  jury  again  retired,  "but  could  not 
tell  how  to  take  her  words  against  her  "  till  she  had  explained 
them.  The  prisoner,  being  informed  of  "the  use  which  had  been 
made  of  her  words,  gave  in  her  declaration  to  the  court  that  she 
meant  only  that  the  witnesses  were  prisoners  as  well  as  herself, 
and  that,  being  hard  of  hearing  and  full  of  grief,  she  found  it 
difficult  to  explain  herself.  After  her  condemnation,  the  governor 
showed  a  disposition  to  grant  her  a  reprieve,  but  this  was  met  by 
a  violent  opposition.  An  organized  committee  in  Salem,  whose 

*  It  has  been  suggested  that  many  of  the  alleged  marvels  attending  these  case* 
resemble  the  appearances  said  to  be  displayed  at  the  exhibitions  of  mesmerism. 


46S  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

special  object  it  was  to  carry  on  these  prosecutions,  was  said  to 
have  defeated  the  reprieve  in  this  case.  The  unfortunate  woman 
was  taken  in  chains  to  the  meeting-house,  on  the  next  communion 
day,  to  be  excommunicated  by  Mr.  Noyes,  her  minister,  and  she 
was  hanged  on  the  19th  of  July.  "  But  her  life  and  conversation 
had  been  such,  that  the  remembrance  thereof,  in  a  short  time 
after,  wiped  off  all  the  reproach  occasioned  by  the  civil  or  ecclesi- 
astical sentence  against  her  ! " 

At  the  trial  of  Sarah  Good,  it  is  said  that  one  of  the  afflicted 
persons  fell  into  a  fit,  and  after  recovery  cried  out,  "  that  the 
prisoner  had  stabbed  her  and  broke  her  knife  in  doing  it,"  and  a 
piece  of  the  knife  was  found  upon  the  afflicted  person.  But  a 
young  man  declared  that,  the  day  before,  he  broke  that  very  knife 
and  threw  away  the  piece  in  presence  of  the  afflicted  person. 
The  court  took  so  much  notice  of  this  impostor  as  to  bid  her  tell 
no  more  lies,  but  still  proceeded  to  use  her  as  a  witness  against 
other  prisoners.  When  Sarah  Good  came  to  be  executed,  Noyes, 
her  minister,  urged  her  to  confess,  telling  her  she  was  a  witch, 
and  knew  she  was  a  witch.  She  replied,  "You  are  a  liar;  I  am 
no  more  a  witch  than  you  are  a  wizard ;  and  if  you  take  away 
my  life,  God  will  give  you  blood  to  drink."  For  many  \ears 
afterwards  the  people  of  Salem  had  a  tradition  that  the  curse  of 
this  poor  woman  was  verified, — Mr.  Noyes  having  been  choked 
to  death  with  blood. 

At  the  next  adjournment  of  the  court,  on  the  5th  of  August, 
six  persons  were  brought  to  trial.  John  Proctor  and  his  wife, 
and  John  Willard,  of  Salem  village,  George  Jacobs,  of  Salem, 
Martha  Currier,  of  Andover,  and  George  Burroughs,  of  Wells,  in 
the  province  of  Maine.  Willard  had  been  an  officer  employed  in 
arresting  witches;  but  becoming  sensible  of  the  imposition,  he 
declined  the  service.  For  this  he  was,  maliciously  denounced, 
prosecuted  and  condemned.  Proctor  begged  for  another  court  to 
be  tried  in,  knowing  he  was  foredoomed  by  the  one  at  which  he 
was  arraigned;  his  prayer  was  disregarded,  and  his  conviction 
followed  immediately.  Burroughs  was  confronted  by  witnesses 
who  pretended  to  be  dumb.  The  chief  justice  asked,  "Who 
hinders  these  witnesses  from  giving  their  testimonies?" — "I  sup- 
pose the  devil,"  answered  Burroughs.  "How  comes  the  devil," 
asked  the  judge,  "  so  loath  to  have  any  testimony  borne  against 
you?"  This  question  was  considered  decisive  against  him.  The 
delusion  or  malice  of  the  witnesses,  on  this  and  other  trials,  is 
unaccountable.  Different  persons  testified  solemnly  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  Burroughs  to  them,  during  the  night,  accompanied 
with  spectres  in  winding-sheets, — a  "little  black-headed  man  in 


WITCHCRAFT. 


469 


dark  apparel,  with  a  book  written  in  lines  as  red  as  blood ;"  black 
cats  and  other  necromantic  accompaniments.  Burroughs  was 
hanged,  notwithstanding  his  eloquent  protestations  of  innocence, 
which  went  to  the  hearts  of  all  the  spectators.  It  is  useless  to 
add  to  this  melancholy  catalogue  of  sufferers.  Already  twenty 
persons  had  been'  put  to  death,  and  fifty  or  sixty  had  been  tor- 
tured into  confession  of  witchcraft.  The  consternation  of  the 
people  was  universal. 

It  was  impossible  for  these  fanatical  atrocities  to  be  longer 
endured,  or  such  monstrous  absurdities  longer  to  find  belief. 
The  jails  were  full,  hundreds  were  under  suspicion,  the  law  de- 
manded more  victims,  but  the  popular  feeling,  stronger  than 
judicial  authority,  revolted  against  this  unreasonable  and  bloody 
business.  Fraud  and  imposture  began  to  be  visible  behind  the 
veil  of  mystery  which  had  hitherto  shrouded  these  matters  in 
darkness.  Where  were  these  horrors  to  end?  Corrupt  means 
had  been  used  to  tempt  people  to  become  accusers,  and  charges 
were  made  against  the  most  virtuous  and  exalted  characters 
in  the  country.  People  exclaimed  "Who  can  think  himself  safe, 
if  these  things  are  allowed  to  continue?"  It  was  clearly  seen  that 
the  trials  were  not  fair,  but  served  only  as  a  form  for  condemning 
the  accused.  Such  a -state  of  things  could  not  long  continue,  and 
at  length  the  juries  refused  to  convict.  The  force  of  public  senti- 
ment was  too  powerful,  and  Stoughton,  the  chief  justice,  finding 
it  in  vain  to  procure  any  further  convictions,  retired  from  the 
bench. 

The  change  in  the  public  mind  was  soon  complete  and  universal. 
Lamentations  and  bitter  repentance  followed  these  horrid  pro- 
ceedings, among  all  who  had  acted  a  part  in  the  tragedy.  The 
indignation  of  the  people  was  deep  and  strong  against  those  who 
had  been  particularly  active  in  these  enormities.  Parris,  the 
minister,  who  had  been  the  chief  agent  in  the  beginning  of  this 
frenzy,  and  who,  beyond  all  question,  made  use  of  the  popular 
feeling  to  gratify  his  own  malignity  against  individuals  whom  he 
disliked,  was  compelled  to  leave  his  people.  Cotton  Mather,  by 
artful  appeals  and  publications,  in  which  he  seemed  to  suppress 
the  truth,  succeeded  for  a  while  in  deceiving  the  public  as  to  the 
encouragement  he  had  given  to  the  proceedings  at  Salem.  Yet, 
still  eager  to  "lift  up  a  standard  against  the  infernal  enemy," 
he  got  up  a  case  of  witchcraft  in  his  own  parish;  but  the 
imposture  was  promptly  exposed  by  the  unlettered,  yet  sensible 
and  intelligent,  Robert  Calef,  whom  Mather  stigmatizes  as  a 
malignant  calumniator,  and  a  "coal  from  hell."  Mather  was 
severely  judged,  even  by  his  own  generation,  for  his  share  in  these 
40 


470  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

proceedings,  and  his  own  diary  shows  that  he  did  not  altogether 
escape  the  compunctions  of  conscience.  The  members  of  the  juries 
which  had  acted  in  these  cases,  published  solemn  declarations  of 
regret  for  what  they  had  done,  and  begged  the  forgiveness  of  the 
people.  Many  of  the  witnesses  confessed  their  error,  and  the 
general  court  made  all  the  reparation  possible  to  the  sufferers. 
None  of  the  persons,  however,  who  had  so  unscrupulously  sworn 
away  the  lives  of  their  neighbors,  were  ever  brought  to  trial ; 
there  was  no  disposition  to  renew  the  remembrance  of  these 
deplorable  scenes. 

Such  were  the  occurrences  which  form  one  of  the  most  curious 
chapters  in  the  history  of  the  human  mind.  After  making  every 
allowance  for  the  spirit  of  religious  fanaticism,  popular  delusion, 
and  panic,  the  subject  in  some  respects  still  remains  inexplicable. 
The  moral  phenomena  which  attended  it  have  never  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  Time  has  rather  obscured  than  thrown  light 
upon  it ;  and  after  all  our  scrutinies,  we  must  place  the  New  Eng- 
land witchcraft  among  those  well-attested  historical  facts  which 
most  strongly  excite  our  curiosity,  but  for  which  it  is  impossible 
to  account.  Fraud  and  imposture,  no  doubt,  were  mixed  up  in 
it,  and  popular  credulity  and  panic  frenzy  certainly  had  an  abun- 
dant share  in  the  propagation,  of  the  excitement.  But  it  is  no 
less  certain  that  it  was  not  all  fraud  and  imposition,  and  that  it 
was  indebted  to  other  means  than  mere  credulity  and  fright  for  its 
influence.  Deeds  were  done  and  appearances  exhibited,  which  it 
is  impossible  to  explain  upon  any  principles  of  natural  philosophy 
then  or  now  known.  We  do  not  hold  that  every  marvellous  talc 
of  the  New  England  witchcraft  is  true,  and  at  the  same  time  we 
cannot  reject  the  incontrovertible  testimony  which  establishes 
some  of  the  most  unaccountable  of  these  facts.  Rejecting  alike 
the  extremes  of  credulity  and  scepticism,  we  must  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  is  among  the  strangest  facts  in  psychology. 
and  that  it  still  remains  shrouded  in  a  mystery  which  the  pro~ 
foundest  scrutiny  has  been  unable  to  remove. 


CHAPTER   XLIX. 

Political  state  of  New  England  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. — State  of 
morals  and  religion. — Decline  of  the  puritanical  rigor. — Literature  of  New 
England. — The  primitive  historians. — Characteristics  of  their  writings. —  Works 
of  Cotton  Mather. — Early  growth  of  letters  in  New  England. — State  of  educa- 
tion.— Prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  people. 

AT  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  people  of  New  Eng- 
land were  united  among  themselves,  and  enriched  with  an  ample 
stock  of  experience  of  both  good  and  evil.  When  Lord  Bellamont 
arrived  in  Massachusetts,  as  governor,  in  1699,  the  recent  heats 
and  animosities  had  entirely  subsided ;  he  found  the  inhabitants 
generally  disposed  to  harmony  and  tranquillity,  and  he  contribu- 
ted to  cherish  this  disposition,  by  a  policy  Deplete  with  wisdom, 
integrity  and  moderation.  The.  virtue  that  had  so  signally  dis- 
tinguished the  original  settlers  of  New  England,  was  now  seen  to 
shine  forth  among  their  descendants  with  a  lustre  less  dazzling, 
but  with  an  influence  in  some  respects  more  amiable,  refined  and 
humane,  than  had  attended  its  original  display. 

One  of  the  causes,  perhaps,  that  conduced  to  the  restoration  of 
harmony  and  the  revival  of  piety  among  this  people,  was  the 
publication  of  various  histories  of  the  New  England  settlements, 
written  with  a  spirit  and  fidelity  well  calculated  to  commend  to 
the  minds  of  the  colonists  the  just  results  of  their  national  expe- 
rience. The  subject  was  deeply  interesting:  and,  happily,  the 
treatment  of  it  was  undertaken  by  writers  whose  principal  object 
was  to  render  this  interest  subservient  to  the  promotion  of  piety 
and  virtue.  Though  New  England  might  be  considered  as  yet  in 
a  state  of  political  infancy,  it  had  passed  through  a  great  variety 
of  fortunes.  It  had  been  the  adopted  .country  of  many  of  the 
most  excellent  men  of  the  age  in  which  its  colonization  began, 
and  the  native  land  of  others  who  had  inherited  the  character  of 
their  ancestors,  and  transmitted  it  in  unimpaired  vigor  and  with 
additional  renown.  The  history  of  man  never  exhibited  an  effort 
of  more  resolute  and  enterprising  virtue  than  the  original  migration 
of  the  puritans  to  this  distant  and  desolate  region ;  nor  have  the 
annals  of  colonization  ever  supplied  another  instance  of  the 
foundation  of  a  commonwealth,  and  its  advancement,  through  a 
period  of  weakness  and  danger,  to  strength  and  security,  in 


472  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

which  the  principal  actors  have  left  behind  them  a  reputation 
more  illustrious  and  unsullied,  with  fewer  memorials  calculated 
to  pervert  the  moral  sense  or  awaken  the  regret  of  mankind. 
The  relation  of  their  achievements  had  a  powerful  tendency  to 
animate  hope  and  perseverance  in  brave  and  virtuous  enterprise. 
They  could  not  indeed  boast,  as  the  founders  of  the  settlement  of 
Pennsylvania  have  done,  that,  openly  professing  non-resistance 
of  injuries,  and  faithfully  adhering  to  that  profession,  they  had 
so  fully  merited  and  obtained  the  Divine  protection,  by  an  exclu- 
sive dependence  on  it,  as  to  disarm  the  ferocity  of  barbarians, 
and  conduct  the  establishment  of  their  commonwealth  without 
violence  and  bloodshed.  But  if  they  were  involved  in  numerous 
wars,  it  was  the  singular  and  honorable  characteristic  of  them  all, 
that  they  were  invariably  the  offspring  of  self-defence  against  the 
unprovoked  malevolence  of  their  adversaries,  and  that  not  one 
of  them  was  undertaken  from  motives  of  conquest  or  plunder. 
Though  they  considered  these  wars  as  necessary  and  justifiable, 
they  sincerely  deplored  them ;  and  more  than  once  the  most  dis- 
tressing doubts  were  expressed,  at  the  close  of  these  hostilities,  if 
it  were  lawful  for  Christians  to  press  even  the  right  of  self-defence 
to  such  fatal  extremity.  They  behaved  to  the  Indian  tribes*with 
as  much  good  faith  and  justice  as  they  could  have  shown  to  a 
powerful  and  civilized  people,  and  were  incited,  by  the  manifest 
inferiority  of  those  savage  neighbors,  to  no  other  acts  than  a  series 
of  magnanimous  and  lawful  endeavors  to  instruct  their  ignorance 
and  improve  their  condition. 

The  histories  that  were  now  published  were  the  compositions 
of  the  friends,  associates  and  successors  of  the  original  colonists, 
and' written  with  an  energy  of  just  encomium,  that  elevated  every 
man's  ideas  of  his  ancestors  and  his  country,  and  of  the  duties 
which  arose  from  these  natural  or  patriotic  relations,  and  excited 
universally  a  generous  sympathy  with  the  characters  and  senti- 
ments of  the  fathers  of  New  England.  The  writers,  nevertheless, 
were  too  conscientious,  and  too  enlightened,  to  confound  the 
virtues  with  the  defects  of  the  character  they  described;  and 
while  they  dwelt  apologetically  upon  the  causes  by  which  perse- 
'cution  had  been  provoked,  they  lamented  the  infirmity  that 
(under  any  degree  of  provocation)  had  betrayed  good  men  into 
conduct  so  oppressive  and  unchristian. 

These  representations  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  beneficial 
effect  upon  the  people  of  New  England.  They  saw  that  the 
glory  of  their  native  land  was  associated  with  principles  that 
could  never  coalesce  with  or  sanction  intolerance ;  and  that  every 
instance  of  persecution  with  which  their  annals  were  stainecU 


LITERATURE   IN   NEW    ENGLAND.  473 

was  a  dereliction  of  those  principles,  and  an  impeachment  of  their 
country's  claims  to  the  admiration  of  mankind.  Inspired  with 
the  warmest  attachment  to  the  memory,  and  the  highest  respect 
for  the  virtues  of  their  ancestors,  they  were  forcibly  admonished, 
by  the  errors  into  which  they  had  fallen,  to  suspect  and  repress  in 
themselves  those  infirmities  from  which  even  virtues  of  so  high 
an  order  had  been  found  to  afford  no  exemption.  From  this  time 
the  religious  zeal  of  the  people  of  New  England  was  no  longer 
perverted  by  intolerance,  or  disgraced  by  persecution;  and  the 
influence  of  Christianity,  in  mitigating  enmity  and  promoting 
kindness  and  indulgence,  derived  a  freer  scope  from  the  growing 
conviction,  that  the  principles  of  the  gospel  were  utterly  irrecon- 
cilable with  violence  and  severity ;  and  that,  revealing  to  every 
man  his  own  infirmity  much  more  clearly  than  that  of  any  other 
human  being,  they  were  equally  adverse  to  confidence  in  himself 
and  to  condemnation  of  others.  Cotton  Mather,  who  recorded 
and  reproved  the  errors  of  the  first  colonists,  lived  to  witness  the 
success  of  his  monitory  representations,  in  the  charity  and  libef- 
ality  of  their  descendants. 

New  England,  having  been  colonized  by  men  not  less  eminent 
for  learning  than  piety,  was  distinguished,  at  an  early  period,  by 
the  labors  of  her  scholars,  and  the  dedication  of  her  literature  to 
the  nurture  of  religious  sentiment  and  principle.  The  theological 
works  of  John  Cotton,  Hooker,  the  Mathers,  and  other  New  Eng- 
land divines,  have  always  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  esteem  and 
popularity,  not  only  in  New  England  but  in  every  protestant 
country  of  Europe.  The  annals  of  the  various  states,  and  the 
biography  of  their  founders,  were  written  by  cotemporary  histo- 
rians with  a  minuteness  which  was  very  agreeable  and  interest- 
ing to  the  first  generation  of  their  readers,  and  to  which  the 
writers  were  prompted,  in  some  measure  at  least,  by  the  conviction 
they  entertained  that  their  country  had  been  honored  with  the 
signal  favor  and  especial  guidance  and  direction  of  Divine  Prov- 
idence. This  conviction,  while  it  naturally  betrayed  those  writers 
into  the  fault  of  prolixity,  enforced  by  the  strongest  sanctions  the 
accuracy  and  fidelity  of  their  narrations.  Recording  what  they 
considered  the  special  dealings  of  God  with  a  people  peculiarly 
his  own,  they  presumed  not  to  disguise  the  infirmities  of  their 
countrymen;  nor  to  magnify  the  Divine  grace  in  the  infusion 
of  human  virtues,  above  the  Divine  patience  in  enduring  human 
frailty  and  imperfection.  Nay,  the  errors  and  failings  of  the 
illustrious  men,  whose  lives  they  related,  gave  additional  weight 
to  the  impression,  which  above  all  they  desired  to  convey,  that 
the  colonization  of  New  England  was  an  extraordinary  work  of 

H3 


474  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

Heaven ;  that  the  counsel  and  virtue  by  which  it  had  been  con- 
ducted and  achieved  were  not  of  human  origin;  arid  that  the 
glory  of  God  had  been  displayed,  no  less  in  imparting  the  strength 
and  wisdom,  than  in  controlling  the  weakness  and  perversity  of 
the  instruments  which  he  condescended  to  employ.  The  most 
considerable  of  these  historical  works  is  the  Magnalia  Christi 
Americana,  or  history  of  New  England,  by  Cotton  Mather.  Of 
this  work  the  arrangement  is  exceedingly  faulty ;  and  its  vast 
bulk  must  continue  to  render  its  exterior  somewhat  repulsive  to 
modern  readers.  The  continuity  of  the  narrative  is  frequently 
broken  by  the  introduction  of  long  discourses,  epistles,  and  theo- 
logical reflections  and  dissertations ;  biography  is  intermixed  with 
history ;  and  events  of  local  or  temporary  interest  are  related  with 
tedious  superfluity  of  detail.  It  is  not  so  properly  a  single  or 
continuous  historical  narration,  as  a  collection  of  separate  works, 
illustrative  of  the  various  scenes  of  New  England  history,  under 
the  heads  of  Remarkable  Providences — Remarkable  Trials,  and 
numberless  other  subdivisions.  A  plentiful  intermixture  of  puns, 
anagrams  and  other  barbarous  conceits,  exemplifies  a  peculiarity, 
— the  offspring  partly  of  bad  taste,  and  partly  of  superstition, — 
which  was  very  prevalent  among  the  prose  writers,  and  especially 
the  theologians  of  that  age.  Notwithstanding  these  defects,  the 
work  will  amply  repay  the  labor  of  every  reader.  The  biograph- 
ical portions,  in  particular,  possess  the  highest  excellence.  Cotton 
Mather  was  the  author  of  a  great  many  other  works,  some  of 
which  have  been  highly  popular  and  eminently  useful.  One  of 
them  bears  the  title  of  Essays  to  do  Good,  and  contains  a  lively 
and  forcible  representation, — conveyed  with  more  brevity  than 
the  author  usually  exemplifies, — of  the  opportunities  which  every 
rank  and  every  relation  of  human  life  will  present  to  a  devout 
mind  of  promoting  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  mankind. 
Dr.  Franklin,  in  the  latter  years  of  his  active  and  useful  life, 
declared  that  all  the  good  he  had  ever  done  for  his  country  or  his 
fellow-creatures  must  be  ascribed  to  the  impressions  produced  on 
his  mind  by  perusing  that  little  work  in  his  youth.  History  and 
divinity  were  the  chief  but  not  the  only  subjects  which  exercised 
the  labors  of  the  scholars  of  New  England.  John  Sherman,  an 
eminent  puritan  divine,  who  was  one  of  the  first  emigrants  from 
Britain  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  died  in  1685,  obtained  a  high 
and  just  renown  as  a  mathematician  and  astronomer.  He  left  at 
his  death,  a  large  manuscript  collection  of  astronomical  calcula- 
tions; and  for  several  years  published  an  almanac,  which  was 
interspersed  with  pious  reflections  and  admonitions. 


NEW  ENGLAND  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.    475 

A  traveller  who  visited  Boston  in  1686,  mentions  a  number  of 
booksellers  there  who  had  already  made  fortunes  by  their  trade. 
The  learned  and  ingenious  author  of  the  History  of  Printing  in 
America,  has  given  a  catalogue  of  the  works  published  by  the 
first  New  England  printers,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Consid- 
ering the  circumstances  and  numbers  of  the  people,  the  catalogue 
is  amazingly  copious.  One  of  the  printers  of  that  age  was  an 
Indian,  the  son  of  one  of  the  first  Indian  converts. 

The  education  and  habits  of  the  people  of  New  England  prepared 
them  to  receive  the  full  force  of  those  impressions  which  their 
national  literature  was  fitted  to  produce.  In  no  country  have 
the  benefits  of  education  been  more  highly  prized  or  more  generally 
diffused.  Institutions  for  the  education  of  youth  were  coeval  with 
the  foundation  of  the  first  provincial  community,  and  were  pro- 
pagated with  every  accession  to  the  population  and  every  exten- 
sion of  the  settlements.  Education  was  facilitated  in  New  England 
by  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  its  colonization  was  conducted. 
In  many  other  parts  of  America  the  planters  dispersed  themselves 
over  the  face  of  the  country;  each  residing  on  his  own  farm,  and 
in  choosing  the  spot  where  his"  house  was  to  be  placed,  guided 
merely  by  considerations  of  agricultural  convenience.  The  ad- 
vantages resulting  from  this  mode  of  inhabitation,  were  gained  at 
the  expense  of  such  dispersion  of  dwellings  as  obstructed  the 
erection  of  churches  and  schools,  and  the  enjoyment  of  social 
intercourse.  But  the  colonization  of  New  England  was  conducted 
in  a  manner  much  more  favorable  to  the  improvement  of  human 
character  and  manners. 

Perhaps  no  country  in  the  world  was  ever  more  distinguished 
than  New  England  was  at.  this  time  for  the  general  prevalence  of 
those  sentiments  and  habits  that  render  communities  respectable 
and  happy.  Sobriety  and  industry  pervaded  all  classes  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  laws  against  immoralities  of  every  description 
were  extremely  strict,  and  not  less  strictly  executed ;  and  being 
cordially  supported  by  public  opinion,  they  were  able  to  render 
every  vicious  and  profligate  excess  alike  dangerous  and  discredit- 
able to  the  perpetrator.  We  are  assured,  by  a  well  informed 
writer,  that  at  this  period  there  was  not  a  single  beggar  in  all 
New  England ;  and  a  gentleman  of  unquestioned  veracity,  who 
had  resided  there  seven  years,  declared  that,  during  all  that  period, 
he  had  never  heard  a  profane  oath,  nor  witnessed  an  instance  of 
inebriety.  Labor  was  so  valuable,  land  so  cheap,  and  the  elective 
franchise  so  widely  extended,  that  every  industrious  man  might 
acquire  a  stake  in  the  soil,  and  a  voice  in  the  civil  administration 
of  his  country.  The  general  diffusion  of  education  caused  the 


470 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


national  advantages,  which  were  vigorously  improved,  to  be 
justly  appreciated ;  and  a  steady  and  ardent  patriotism  knit  the 
hearts  of  the  people  to  each  other  and  to  their  country. 

The  state  of  society  in  New  England,  the  circumstances  and 
habits  of  the  people,  tended  to  form  among  their  leading  men  a 
character  more  solid  than  brilliant, — not,  as  some  have  imagined, 
to  discourage  the  cultivation  qr  exercise  of  talent,  but  to  repress 
its  idle  display,  and  train  it  to  its  legitimate  and  respectable  end. 
of  giving  efficacy  to  wisdom,  prudence  and  virtue.  Yet  this 
state  of  society  was  by  no  means  inconsistent  either  with  polite- 
ness of  manners  or  with  innocent  hilarity.  Lord  Bellamont  was 
agreeably  surprised  with  the  graceful  and  courteous  demeanor  of 
the  gentlemen  and  clergy  of  Connecticut,  and  confessed  that  he 
found  the  aspect  and  address,  which  he  had  thought  peculiar  to 
nobility,  in  a  land  where  this  aristocratical  distinction  was  un- 
known. From  Dunton's  account  of  his  residence  in  Boston, 
1686,  it  appears  that  the  inhabitants  of  Massachusetts  were  at 
that  time  distinguished  in  a  very  high  degree  by  their  cheerful 
vivacity,  their  hospitality  and  courtesy. 


CHAPTER   L. 

Indian  wars  in  the  south. — The  Tuscaroras. — Plot  against  the  North  Carolina 
settlers. — Massacre  at  Roanoke. — BarnwelVs  expedition. — Influence  of  the  French 
and  Spaniards  in  exciting  Indian  hostilities.— Characteristics  of  Indian  warfare. 
— Conspiracy  of  the  Yamassees. — Attack  on  the  colony  of  South  Carolina.— 
Defeat  of  the  Yamassees  and  their  expulsion  into  Florida. 


Massacre  at  Roanoke. 

IN  the  year  1712,  the  Tuscarora  Indians  in  North  Carolina, 
alarmed  at  the  increasing  population  of  the  whites,  formed  a  plan 
for  cutting  them  off  by  a  general  and  instantaneous  massacre. 
Twelve  hundred  bow-men  were  concerned  in  this  horrid  plot.  All 
of  them  had  agreed  to  begin  their  murderous  operations  on  the  same 
night.  When  that  night  came,  they  entered  the  planters'  houses; 
demanded  provisions,  affected  to  be  displeased  with  them,  and 
then  murdered  men,  women  and  children,  without  mercy  or  dis- 
tinction. To  prevent  the  alarm  spreading  through  the  settlement, 
they  ran  from  house  to  house,  slaughtering  the  scattered  families 
wherever  they  went.  None  of  the  colonists,  during  that  fatal 
night,  knew  what  had  befallen  their  neighbors,  until  the  assailants 
reached  their  own  doors.  .?,,!}( 

The  destruction  at  Roanoke  was  great.  One  hundred  and 
thirty- seven  of  the  settlers  were  put  to  death  in  a  few  hours. 


47S  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Tij  )se  who  escaped  were  collected  together,  and  guarded  hy 
the  militia,  until  assistance  was  received  from  their  neighbors. 
Colonel  Barnwell,  of  South  Carolina,  was  detached  with  six  hun- 
dred militia  and  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  Indians,  to  their  relief. 
He  had  to  march  through  an  intermediate  wilderness  of  two  hun- 
dred miles.  On  his  arrival  he  attacked  the  Indians  of  North 
Carolina  with  great  resolution  and  success.  Of  them  three  hun- 
dred were  killed  and  one  hundred  taken  prisoners.  The  survivors 
sued  for  peace ;  but  many  of  them  abandoned  the  country,  and 
uniting  with  the  five  nations,  made  the  sixth  of  that  confederacy. 
These  several  Indian  wars  seem  to  have  been  systematic  attempts 
of  the  aborigines  to  rid  their  country  of  the  new  comers.  The 
rapidly  increasing  population,  and  regular  encroachments  of  the 
latter  on  the  former,  gave  a  serious  alarm  to  the  ancient  lords  of 
the  soil,  who  discovered,  when  it  was  too  late,  that  their  destruc- 
tion was  likely  to  result  from  their  having  too  readily  permitted 
strangers  to  take  possession  of  their  lands.  These  and  other  less 
important  wars  were  purely  Indian;  but,  from  about  the  year 
1690,  the  Indians,  in  addition  to  private  and  personal  sources  of 
contention,  were  stirred  up  to  hostilities  against  their  white  neigh- 
bors, by  the  French  and  Spaniards,  whose  colonies  were*con- 
tiguous.  The  morality  of  civilized  Christian  kings  did  not 
restrain  them  from  employing  the  heathen  savages  of  the  wilder- 
ness to  harass  and  destroy  the  settlements  and  Christian  subjects 
of  each  other. 

The  particulars  of  the  early  Indian  wars  have  already  been 
given  sufficiently  in  detail.  A  general  view  of  the  subject  may 
now  be  proper.  These  wars  took  place,  more  or  less,  along  the 
whole  western  frontier  of  the  colonies,  from  New  Hampshire  to 
Georgia,  and  from  the  year  1690,  to  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763. 
Through  that  wide  range,  and  for  that  long  period  of  seventy-three 
years,  with  occasional  intermissions,  Indian  hostilities,  fomented  by 
the  French  at  the  north  and  the  Spaniards  in  the  south,  disturbed 
the  peace  and  stinted  the  growth  of  the  English  colonies.  The 
mode  in  which  these  wars  were  waged  was  very  different  from 
that  usual  among  civilized  nations.  The  Indians  were  seldom  or 
never  seen  before  they  did  execution.  They  appeared  not  in  the 
open  field,  but  achieved  their  exploits  by  surprise,  chiefly  in  the 
morning,  keeping  themselves  hid  behind  logs  and  bushes,  near 
the  paths  in  the  woods,  or  the  fences  contiguous  to  the  doors  of 
houses.  Their  lurking  holes  could  be  known  only  by  the  report 
of  their  guns.  They  rarely  assaulted  a  house,  unless  they  knew 
there  would  be  little  resistance.  It  has  been  afterwards  known 
that  they  had  lain  in  ambush  for  days  together,  watching  the 


INDIAN    WARS.  479 

motions  of  the  people  at  their  work,  without  daring  to  discover 
themselves. 

Their  cruelty  was  chiefly  exercised  upon  children  and  such 
aged,  infirm,  or  corpulent  persons,  as  could  not  bear  the  hardships 
of  a  journey  through  the  wilderness.  If  they  took  a  woman  far 
advanced  in  pregnancy,  their  knives  were  plunged  into  her 
bowels.  An  infant,  when  it  became  troublesome,  had  its  brains 
dashed  out  against  the  next  tree  or  stone.  Sometimes,  to  torment 
the  wretched  mother,  they  would  whip  and  beat  the  child  till 
almost  dead,  and  then  throw  it  to  her,  to  comfort  and  quiet  it. 
If  the  mother  could  not  readily  still  its  crying,  the  hatchet  was 
buried  in  its  skull.  A  prisoner,  wearied  with  his  burden,  was 
often  despatched  the  same  way.  If  a  captive  appeared  sad 
and  dejected,  he  was  sure  to  meet  with  insult ;  but  if  he  could 
sing,  and  dance,  and  laugh  with  his  masters,  he  was  caressed 
as  a  brother. 

Famine  was  a  common  attendant  on  these  captivities.  The 
Indians,  when  they  caught  any  game,  devoured  it  all  at  one 
sitting;  and  then,  girding  themselves  round  the  waist,  travelled 
without  sustenance,  till  chance  threw  more  in  their  way.  The 
captives,  unused  to  such  canine  repasts  and  abstinences,  could  not 
support  the  surfeit  of  the  one  nor  the  craving  of  the  other.  The 
obvious  hardships  of  travelling,  half  naked  and  barefoot,  through 
pathless  deserts,  over  craggy  mountains,  and  deep  swamps, 
through  frost,  rain  and  snows;  exposed  by  day  and  night  to 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  and  in  summer  to  the  venomous 
stings  of  those  numberless  insects  with  which  the  woods  abound ; 
the  restless  anxiety  of  mind,  the  retrospect  of  past  scenes  of 
pleasure,  and  the  daily  apprehension  of  death,  either  by  famine 
or  the  savage  enemy,  were  a  few  of  the  horrors  of  an  Indian 
captivity. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  have  been  instances  of  justice,  gener- 
osity and  tenderness,  during  these  wars,  which  would  have  done 
honor  to  a  civilized  people.  A  kindness  shown  to  an  Indian  was 
remembered  as  long  as  an  injury.  They  would  sometimes  carry 
children  on  their  arms  and  shoulders ;  feed  their  prisoners  with 
the  best  of  their  provisions;  and  pinch  themselves  rather  than 
that  their  captives  should  want  food.  When  sick  or  wounded, 
they  would  afford  them  comfort  and  means  for  their  recovery. 
But  the  most  favorable  circumstance  in  an  Indian  captivity, 
was  their  decent  behavior  to  women.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  any  woman  who  fell  into  their  hands  was  ever  .treated  with 
the  least  immodesty;  but  testimonies  to  the  contrary  are  very 
frequent.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  the  fact  is  certain ;  and 


480  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

it  was  a  most  happy  circumstance  for  female  captives,  that,  amid 
all  their  distresses,  they  had  no  reason  to  fear  from  a  savage  foe 
the  perpetration  of  a  crime  which  has  too  frequently  disgraced, 
not  only  the  personal,  but  national  character  of  those  who  make 
large  pretensions  to  civilization  and  humanity.  ''*  t 

In  the  war  between  France  and  England,  from  1690  to  1697, 
the  French,  who  were  then  proprietors  of  Canada,  instigated  the 
Indians  to  hostilities  against  the  English  colonists.  Such  of 
the  latter  as  inhabited  the  eastern  part  of  New  England,  were 
severely  harassed,  and  many  of  them  were  killed.  Similar  events 
took  place  in  the  war  between  the  same  European  powers,  which 
began  in  1702,  and  ended  in  1713.  Excited  by  similar  influ- 
ences, a  more  extensive  and  mischievous  warfare  was  carried  on 
between  the  Indians  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  middle  colonies, 
in  the  war  between  the  same  powers  which  ended  in  1763. 
Hitherto,  Indian  excursions  had  proceeded  from  Canada,  and 
were  directed  against  the  frontier  settlers  of  New  York  or  New 
England ;  but  from  the  year  1754,  when  the  French  established 
themselves  at  Fort  Duquesne,  on  the  Ohio,  parties  of  French  and 
Indians,  advancing  from  that  post,  carried  havoc  and  desolation, 
for  four  years,  over  the  western  settlements  of  the  middle  colonies, 
to  the  extent  of  many  hundred  miles,  and  to  so  great  a  degree, 
that  Carlisle,  in  Pennsylvania,  Frederick  town,  in  Maryland,  and 
the  Blue  Ridge,  in  Virginia,  were,  in  the  year  1756,  exposed  as  a 
frontier. 

The  distresses  of  the  inhabitants  exceeded  all  description.  If 
they  went  into  stockade  forts,  they  suffered  from  want  of  pro- 
visions, were  often  surrounded  and  sometimes  cut  off.  By  fleeing, 
they  abandoned  the  conveniences  of  home  and  the  means  of  sup- 
port. If  they  continued  on  their  farms,  they  lay  down  every 
night  under  the  apprehension  of  being  murdered  before  morning. 
But  this  was  not  the  worst.  Captivity  and  torture  were  fre- 
quently their  portion.  To  all  these  evils,  women,  aged  persons, 
and  children,  were  equally  liable  with  men  in  arms, — for  savages 
make  no  distinction.  Extermination  is  their  object.  The  settle- 
ments in  advance  were  abandoned,  broken  up,  or  drenched  in 
blood,  from  the  repeated  and  sudden  incursions  of  light  parties  of 
Indians,  headed  by  Frenchmen,  who,  after  perpetrating  extensive 
mischief  in  a  few  days,  saved  themselves  by  rapidly  retreating  to 
the  Ohio. 

A  similar  policy,  on  a  smaller  scale,  had  influenced  the 
Spaniards,  while  they  possessed  Florida ;  from  which  they  excited 
the  neighboring  Indians  to  harass  the  most  southern  colonies. 

In  the  year  1715,  the  Yamassees,  a  numerous  and  powerful  tribe 


INDIAN    WARS.  4NI 

of  Indians,  inhabiting  a  considerable  territory  on  the  northeast 
side  of  Savannah  river,  then  and  now  known  by  the  name  of 
Indian  land,  formed,  under  Spanish  influence,  a  general  conspi- 
racy ;  in  which  every  Indian  tribe,  from  Florida  to  Cape  Fear 
river,  was  said  to  have  joined.  The  object  was  the  extermination 
of  the  English  settlements.  On  the  15th  of  April,  at  the  dawn  of 
day,  the  Indians  fell  on  the  defenceless  settlers,  unapprehensive 
of  danger,  and  in  a  few  hours  massacred  above  ninety  persons  in 
Pocotaligo.  One  man  escaped  to  Port  Royal,  and  alarmed  the 
town.  The  inhabitants  of  it  generally  fled  to  Charleston.  While 
the  Yamassees  were  laying  waste  the  southern  frontiers  of  Caro- 
lina, other  tribes  from  the  northward  were  perpetrating  similar 
devastations  in  that  quarter.  The  southern  division  of  the 
enemy  consisted,  by  computation,  of  six  thousand  bow-men; 
and  the  northern  between  six  hundred  and  a  thousand.  The 
planters,  thus  taken  by  surprise,  were  so  dispersed,  that  they 
could  not  assemble  together,  nor  act  in  concert.  They  mostly 
fled  to  Charleston.  The  intelligence  they  brought,  magnified  the 
danger,  so  as  to  induce  doubts  of  the  safety  even  of  the  capital ; 
for  at  that  time  it  contained  on'  the  muster-roll,  no  more  than 
twelve  hundred  men  fit  to  bear  arms.  A  party  of  four  hundred 
Indians  came  to  Goose  Creek,  about  twenty  miles  from  Charles- 
ton. Every  family  there  had  fled  to  town,  with  the  exception  of 
seventy  white  men  and  forty  negroes,  who,  having  surrounded 
themselves  with  a  slight  breastwork,  resolved  on  defence.  After 
they  had  resisted  for  some  time,  they  incautiously  agreecl  to  terms 
of  peace.  The  faithless  savages,  being  admitted  within  their 
works,  butchered  the  garrison. 

The  invaders  spread  destruction  through  the  parish  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  and  advancing  as  far  as  Stono,  burned  the  church, 
and  every  house  on  the  plantations,  by  the  way.  Similar  ravages 
were  committed  in  several  other  places.  In  this  time  of  general 
calamity,  Governor  Craven,  of  South  Carolina,  acted  with  spirit. 
He  proclaimed  martial  law,  laid  an  embargo  on  all  vessels  in  the 
harbor,  and  marched  out  of  town  at  the  head  of  the  militia,  to 
attack  the  Yamassee  invaders.  He  guarded  himself  against  their 
mode  of  fighting  from  thickets  and  from  behind  trees ;  and  took 
every  precaution  to  prevent  a  surprise.  He  knew  full  well  that 
his  followers  must  either  conquer,  or  die  most  probably  by  torture. 
The  fate  of  the  province  depended  on  the  success  of  his  arms. 
The  event  of  the  expedition  would  decide  whether  Carolina 
should  remain  a  British  province,  or  be  annexed  to  "Florida,  in 
the  occupation  of  the  aborigines.  There  was  no  back  country 
then  settled  with  friendly  white  inhabitants,  to  whom  the  settlers 
41  i3 


482  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

might  fly  for  refuge,  or  from  whom  they  might  look  for  relief. 
Virginia  was  the  nearest  place  from  which  effectual  aid  could  be 
expected. 

As  Governor  Craven  marched  through  the  country,  straggling 
parties  of  the  Indians  fled  before  him,  till  he  reached  Saltcatchers, 
where  they  had  pitched  their  camp.  Here  a  sharp  and  bloody 
contest  took  place.  The  Indians  fought  from  behind  trees  and 
bushes,  alternately  retreating  and  returning  to  the  charge.  The 
militia,  with  the  governor  at  their  head,  kept  close  to  the  enemy, 
improved  every  advantage,  and  drove  them  from  their  lurking- 
places.  The  pursuit  was  continued  till  the  invaders  were  expelled 
from  Carolina,  and  forced  to  retreat  over  Savannah  river.  The 
number  of  the  militia  lost  in  this  expedition,  or  of  the  Indians 
killed  therein,  is  not  known ;  but,  in  the  course  of  the  war,  four 
hundred  of  the  inhabitants  of  Carolina  were  murdered  by  the 
invading  savages. 

The  Yamassees,  after  their  defeat  and  expulsion  from  Carolina, 
went  directly  to  the  Spanish  garrison  at  St.  Augustine,  where  they 
were  received  with  so  much  hospitality  and  kindness,  and  had 
such  ample  encouragement  given  them  to  settle  in  Florida,  as 
confirmed  the  suspicions  previously  entertained,  that  theft  late 
conspiracy  was  contrived  by  Spaniards,  and  carried  on  by  their 
encouragement. 

Thus,  in  almost  every  period  anterior  to  the  revolution,  there 
were  occasional  hostilities,  and  a  constant  expectation  of  them 
kept  up  between  the  white  settlers  and  the  Indians.  The  arms 
of  the  colonists  were  not  suffered  to  rust.  This  state  of  things 
excited  anxiety,  but  at  the  same  time  promoted  alertness.  Re- 
moved, as  the  colonists  were,  from  the  military  scenes  of  Europe, 
in  case  of  permanent  domestic  tranquillity,  they  would  have  been 
indifferently  prepared  for  the  revolutionary  contest.  In  their 
wars  with  the  Indians,  the  colonists  were  taught  their  first 
military  lessons ;  but  before  they  had  completed  the  infantile 
period  of  their  political  existence,  they  had  ample  means  of 
instruction. 

In  the  hundred  and  fifty-six  years  which  intervened  between 
the  first  English  settlement  in  North  America,  and  the  complete 
expulsion  of  the  French  from  it,  there  were  constant  bickerings 
between  their  respective  colonies,  and  frequent  wars  between  the 
parent  nations.  As  far  as  territorial  rights  depended  on  prior 
discovery,  the  English  had  the  advantage;  but  as  far  as  they 
flowed  from  occupancy,  the  French  were  in  some  respects  supe- 
rior, and  in  all  nearly  equal.  The  settlement  of  Jamestown  and 
Quebec,  the  first  capitals  of  both,  are  so  nearly  contemporary  as 


INDIAN    WARS. 


483 


to  be  within  fifteen  months  of  each  other.  Six  years  had  not 
elapsed  from  the  first  settlement  of  either,  when  hostilities  com- 
menced in  the  New  World,  between  the  two  rival  nations  of  the 
Old,  whose  wars,  for  centuries,  had  furnished  nearly  half  the 
materials  for  the  history  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER     LI. 

Progress  of  the  French  settlements. — Review  of  the  policy  of  the  French  ana 
English. —  The  five  nations  invade  Canada,  and  sack  Montreal. — Plans  of  the 
English  for  the  invasion  of  Canada. — Peace  of  Ry$wick. — Mutual  restoration 
of  conquests. — Indian  war  in  New  Hampshire. — LovewelVs  fight. — End  of  the 
savage  hostilities  in  New  Hampshire. 


LovervelVs  Fight. 


THE  French,  restored  to  all  their  claims  on  the  northern  part  of 
the  American  continent,  proceeded  with  spirit  in  making  settle- 
ments. To  the  aborigines  they  paid  particular  attention,  and 
were  successful,  beyond  all  others,  in  securing  their  affections. 
While  Englishmen  generally  kept  at  a  distance  from  the  sons  of 
the  forest,  Frenchmen,  by  conforming  to  their  customs,  inter- 
marrying with  them,  and  coinciding  with  their  views,  obtained 
an  astonishing  ascendency  over  their  untutored  minds.  Peace 
was  of  short  duration  between  these  nations,  whose  interests  so 
materially  clashed ;  for  each  wished  to  be  the  predominant  power 
in  North  America.  Wars  succeeded  wars,  as  will  be  more  par- 
ticularly related,  and  treaties  succeeded  treaties ;  but  nothing  was 
accomplished  which  tended  to  peace.  After  years  of  hostilities, 
the  losses  on  both  sides  exceeded  the  profits.  Neither  had  such  a 
decided  superiority,  as  to  give  the  law  to  the  other ;  arid  the 


FRENCH    EXPEDITION   AGAINST   NEW    YORK.  485 

general  termination  of  their  wars  was  a  reciprocal  restitution  of 
conquests.  In  these  unprofitable  contests,  the  colonies  of  both 
nations,  as  appendages  to  their  respective  parent  states,  followed  as 
they  were  led,  and  partook  in  the  follies,  losses  and  expenses  of  the 
countries  from  which  they  respectively  sprung.  If  the  French 
power  had  never  been  revived  after  its  prostration,  at  the  end  of 
the  17th  century,  the  colonies  would  have  had  little  necessity  for 
keeping  on  their  armor.  They  would  have  known  nothing  of 
the  mechanism  of  armies,  or  of  the  modes  which  experience  has 
proved  to  be  best  adapted  for  drawing  forth,  organizing  and  sup- 
porting the  yeomanry  of  their  country,  for  military  purposes;  but 
in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  English  colonists,  in 
contending  with  their  French  neighbors,  had  sufficient  experience 
of  war  to  be  alert  in  their  own  defence ;  and  yet  were  not  so 
much  nor  so  often  iftvolved  as  to  be  materially  stinted  in  their 
growth.  They  were  thus,  by  the  wars  of  Europeans  carried  on 
in  America,  prepared  for  the  great  revolutionary  contest  for  inde- 
pendence, A  review  of  these  early  colonial  contests  requires  our 
next  attention. 

In  the  war  between  France  arid  England,  which,  after  several 
years'  continuance,  ended  in  1697,  the  conquest  of  New  York  and 
of  Boston  online  one  side,  and  of  Quebec  and  of  Canada  on 
the  other,  were  projected.  Neither  succeeded,  though  repeated 
attempts  were  made  .by  both  parties  to  accomplish  their  wishes. 
In  the  year  1688,  a  French  fleet  sailed  from  Rochefort,  which, 
with  the  aid  of  land  forces,  destined  to  march  from  Canada,  was 
intended  for  the  attack  of  New  York.  While  this  expedition  was 
preparing,  the  Five  Nations  of  Indians  suddenly  landed  twelve 
hundred  men  on  the  island  of  Montreal,  and  killed  one  thousand 
of  the  French  inhabitants,  who  thought  themselves  perfectly 
secure.  These  Indians  continued  their  incursions  into  Canada, 
with  such  horrid  effect,  that  many  of  the  inhabitants  were  killed; 
and  a  scarcity  ensued,  from  the  inability  of  the  survivors  to  cul- 
tivate their  fields.  This  state  of  things  saved  New  York  from  an 
attack  in  preparation,  for  which  considerable  progress  had  been 
made.  These  incursions  into  Canada,  by  the  Indians  attached  to 
the  British  interest,  were  severely  retaliated,  by  parties  of  Indians 
and  French  penetrating  from  Canada  into  the  English  settle- 
ments. One  of  these,  after  a  tedious  march  through  an  uninhab- 
ited country,  covered  with  snow,  arrived,  in  February,  1 690,  about 
midnight,  at  the  village  of  Schenectady,  near  Albany.  The 
invaders,  dividing  themselves  into  small  parties',  invested  every 
house  at  the  same  time.  While  the  inhabitants  were  asleep , 
without  any  apprehension  of  danger,  their  doors  were  suddenly 
41* 


486  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

forced  open,  and  an  indiscriminate  massacre  commenced.  Sixty- 
seven  persons  were  put  to  death,  and  twenty-seven  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  rest  fled  naked  through  deep  snow  to  Albany. 
Of  these,  twenty-five  lost  their  limbs,  from  the  effects  of  cold. 

Similar  bloody  excursions,  often  repeated,  induced  a  general 
eagerness  among  the  contiguous  colonies  to  effect  the  conquest  of 
Canada,  which  they  considered  as  the  source  from  which  all  the 
evils  of  Indian  warfare  originated.  Commissioners  from  these 
colonies  met  at  New  York,  and  fixed  on  a  plan  of  operations  for 
that  purpose.  A  fleet  of  thirty-five  vessels,  as  has  been  already 
related  in  the  history  of  New  England,  commanded  by  Sir 
William  Phipps,  sailed  from  Nantasket  for  Quebec,  on  the  19th 
of  August,  1692.  This  fleet  was  to  be  assisted  by  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  who  were  to  march,  by  the  way  of  Lake  Champlain, 
from  Connecticut  and  New  York,  to  Montreal.  The  fleet  arrived 
before  Quebec,  in  October,  when  it  was  too  late  to  do  anything, 
otherwise  than  by  an  immediate  assault,  to  which  their  force  was 
unequal.  The  land  army,  after  advancing  to  the  lake,  was 
obliged  to  retreat,  from  the  want  of  canoes  and  provisions.  The 
projected  invasion  was  frustrated,  because  there  was  no  common 
superintending  power,  to  give  union  and  system  to  the  plan  of 
combined  attack. 

King  William,  after  earnest  solicitation,  determined  to  aid 
Massachusetts  in  accomplishing  the  object, of  her  wishes.  The 
plan  \vas  to  send  a  British  fleet  and  army,  to  reduce  Martinique, 
afterwards  to  proceed  to  Boston,  and  cooperate  with  the  forces  of 
Massachusetts  in  the  reduction  of  Canada.  By  the  llth  of  June, 
when  the  British  fleet  and  army  had  reached  Boston,  from  the 
West  Indies,  they  were  so  reduced  by  the  disease  common  to  that 
tropical  climate,  that  thirteen  hundred,  out  of  twenty-pne  hundred 
soldiers,  were  buried.  The  enterprise  against  Canada,  was,  there- 
fore, from  necessity,  deferred.  In  1696,  the  invasion  and  conquest 
of  Canada  was  again  contemplated  by  Massachusetts,  and  the 
assistance  of  England  again  solicited.  In  the  same  year,  the 
French  formed  an  expedition  against  Boston;  but  both  projects 
proved  abortive. 

The  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  1697,  for  the  present  composed  these 
contentions ;  but  was  very  far  from  extinguishing  the  eagerness 
of  either  power  for  enlarging  their  possessions  in  the  New  World. 
By  this  peace,  France  and  England  reciprocally  agreed  to  restore  to 
each  other  all  conquests  made  during  the  contest.  Nothing  being 
settled  as  to  the  boundaries  of  their  American  territories,  war  soon 
recommenced.  Indian  incursions  into  the  New  England  colonies, 
immediately  followed.  These,  as  usual,  excited  a  general  wish 


"WARS    WITH    THE    INDIANS. 


487 


for  the  conquest  of  Canada.  An  address  to  Queen  Anne,  request- 
ing her  to  aid  an  expedition  for  that  purpose,  was  voted  by  the 
general  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1708.  This  was  well  received, 
and  expeditions  were  projected,  in  the  years  1709,  1710  and  1711, 
for  the  reduction  of  Canada,  and  other  adjacent  French  posses- 
sions; but,  from  the  difficulty  of  concert  in  combined  operations 
between  sea  and  land  forces  from  England,  and  troops  to  be 
raised  by  distinct  American  legislatures,  together  with  bad  weather 
and  a  hazardous  coast,  nothing  more  was  effected  than  the  reduc- 
tion of  Port  Royal,  in  Nova  Scotia,  or  Annapolis,  as  it  was  after- 
wards called. 


In  1722,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Indians  and  the  people 
of  New  Hampshire.  The  French  Jesuits  had  established  them- 
selves among  the  savages  in  this  quarter,  and  their  pompous  and 
imposing  religious  ceremonies  had  made  a  much  stronger  impres- 
sion upon  them  than  the  simple  form  of  worship  usual  among  the 
Congregationalists  of  New  England.  The  Indians  had  a  Catholic 
church  at  Penobscot  and  another  at  Norridgewock,  where  a  Jesuit, 
named  Sebastian  Ralle,  resided.  He  was  a  man  of  talents,  learn- 
ing and  address,  and  had  obtained  a  strong  influence  over  the 
savage  tribe.  With  this  man  the  governor  of  Canada  held  a 
close  correspondence,  and  by  his  means  the  Indians  were  encour- 
aged in  their  hostilities  against  the  New  England  settlers.  At 
the  first  appearance  of  war,  a  party  of  English  marched  to 
Norridgewock,  to  seize  Ralle,  as  he  was  well  known  to  be  the 


488  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

instigator  of  these  troubles.  The  Jesuit  escaped,  hut  his  papers 
were  taken,  which  disclosed  the  whole 'of  his  intrigues. 

The  next  year  the  Indians  attacked  the  English  settlements. 
Dover  and  several  other  places  were  burnt,  and  many  persons 
massacred.  Several  companies  of  men  were  raised  among  the 
frontier  settlements,  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  One  of 
these  volunteer  companies,  under  the  command  of  Captain  John 
Lovewell,  of  Dunstable,  was  greatly  distinguished,  first  by  their 
success,  and  afterwards  by  their  misfortunes.  This  company 
consisted  of  thirty  men.  On  their  first  excursion  to  the  northward 
of  Winnipiseogee  Lake,  they  discovered  an  Indian  wigwam, 
in  which  were  a  man  and  a  boy.  They  killed  and  scalped 
the  man,  and  brought  the  boy  alive  to  Boston,  where  they 
received  the  reward  promised  by  law,  and-  a  handsome  gra- 
tuity besides. 

By  this  success,  his  company  was  augmented  to  seventy. 
They  marched  again,  and  visiting  the  place  where  they  had 
killed  the  Indian,  found  his  body  as  they  had  left  it  two  months 
before.  Their  provision  falling  short,  thirty  of  them  were  dis- 
missed by  Ipt,  and  returned.  The  remaining  forty  continued 
their  march,  till  they  discovered  a  track  which  they  followed. 
They  saw  a  smoke  just  before  sunset,  by  which  they  judged  that 
the  enemy  were  encamped  for  the  night.  They  kept  themselves 
concealed  till  after  midnight,  when  they  silently  advanced,  and 
discovered  ten  Indians  asleep  around  a  fire,  by  the  side  of  a  frozen 
pond.  Lovewell  determined  to  make  sure  work ;  and  placing  his 
men  conveniently,  ordered  part  of  them  to  fire,  five  at  a  time,  as 
quick  after  each  other  as  possible,  and  another  part  to  reserve 
their  fire.  He  gave  the  signal  by  firing  his  own  gun,  which 
killed  two  of  the  Indians.  The  men  firing,  according  to  order, 
killed  five  more  on  the  spot.  Two  of  the  other  three,  as  they 
started  up  from  their  sleep,  were  instantly  shot  dead  by  the 
reserve.  The  other,  though  wounded,  attempted  to  escape,  by 
crossing  the  pond ;  but  was  seized  by  a  dog,  and  held  fast,  till 
they  killed  him.  Thus,  in  a  few  minutes,  the  whole  company 
was  destroyed,  and  an  attempt  against  the  frontiers  of  New 
Hampshire  prevented.  These  Indians  were  marching  from 
Canada,  well  furnished  with  guns  and  ammunition.  They  had 
also  a  number  of  spare  blankets,  moccasins,  and  snow  shoes, 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  prisoners  whom  they  expected  to 
take.  The  pond,  where  this  exploit  was  performed,  has  since 
been  called  Love  well's  pond. 

This  company,  with  the  ten  scalps  stretched  upon  hoops, 
and  elevated  on  poles,  entered  Dover  in  triumph,  and  proceeded 


WARS   WITH    THE   INDIANS.  489 

thence  to  Boston,  where  they  received  from  the  public  treasury, 
the  bounty  of  one  hundred  pounds  for  each. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  Lovewell  marched,  in  April,  1725, 
intending  to  attack  the  village  of  Pigwacket.  His  company  at 
that  time  consisted  of  forty-six,  including  a  chaplain  and  surgeon. 
They  halted,  and  built  a  stockade  fort,  for  a  place  of  retreat  in 
case  of  misfortune.  Here  the  surgeon  was  left  with  a  sick  man, 
and  eight  of  the  company  for  a  guard.  The  number  was  now 
reduced  to  thirty-four.  These  advanced  to  the  northward,  and 
were  attacked  about  ten  o'clock.  Captain  Lovewell  arid  eight 
more  were  killed.  Several  of  the  Indians  fell ;  but,  being  supe- 
rior in  number  they  endeavored  to  surround  the  party;  who, 
perceiving  their  intention,  retreated,  hoping  to  be  sheltered  by  a 
point  of  rocks.  In  this  forlorn  place,  they  took  their  station. 
On  their  right  was  the  mouth  of  a  brook,  at  that  time  unfordable ; 
on  their  left  was  the  rocky  point ;  their  front  was  partly  covered 
by  a  deep  bog,  and  partly  uncovered ;  and  the  pond  was  in  their 
rear.  The  enemy  galled  them  in  front  and  flank,  and  had  them 
so  completely  in  their  power,  that  if  they  had  improved  their 
advantage,  the  whole  company  must  either  have  been  killed,  or 
obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion;  for  they  were  destitute  of  pro- 
visions, and  their  escape  was  impracticable.  Under  the  conduct 
of  Lieutenant  .Wyman,  they  kept  up  their  fire,  and  showed  a  reso- 
lute countenance  all  the  remainder  of  the  day,  during  which  their 
chaplain,  Jonathan  Frie,  Ensign  Robbins,  and  one  more  were 
mortally  wounded.  The  Indians  invited  them  to  surrender,  by 
holding  up  ropes  to  them;  and  endeavored  to  intimidate  them 
by  hideous  yells ;  but  they  determined  to  die  rather  than  yield ; 
and  by  their  well-directed  fire,  the  number  of  the  savages  was 
thinned,  and  their  cries  became  fainter.  Just  before  night  they 
quitted  their  advantageous  ground.  The  shattered  remnant  of 
this  brave  company,  collecting  themselves  together,  found  three 
of  their  number  unable  to  remove  from  the  spot ;  eleven  wounded, 
but  able  to  march ;  and  nine  who  had  received  no  hurt.  It  was 
melancholy  to  leave  their  dying  companions  behind;  but  there 
was  no  possibility  of  removing  them.  "  One  of  them,  Ensign 
Hobbins,  desired  his  associates  to  lay  his  gun  by  him,  charged, 
that  if  the  Indians  should  return  before  his  death,  he  might  be 
able  to  kill  one  more.  After  the  rising  of  the  moon,  they  quitted 
the  fatal  spot,  and  directed  their  march  towards  the  fort,  where 
the  surgeon  and  guard  had  been  left.  To  their  great  surprise, 
they  found  it  deserted.  From  this  place,  they  endeavored  to  get 
home.  Lieutenant  Farwell  and  the  chaplain,  who  had  the  jour- 
nal of  the  march  in  his  pocket,  perished  in  the  woods.  The 

j3 


490  THE  UNITED 'STATES. 

others,  after  enduring  the  most  severe  hardships,  came  in,  one 
after  another,  and  were  not  only  received  with  joy,  but  recom- 
pensed for  their  valor  and  sufferings.  A  generous  provision  was 
also  made  for  the  widows  and  children  of  the  slain. 

Colonel  Tyng,  with  a  company  from  Dunstable,  went  to  the 
spot ;  and  having  found  the  bodies  of  the  twelve,  buried  them, 
and  carved  their  names  on  the  trees  where  the  battle  was  fought. 

This  was  one  of  the  most  fierce  and  obstinate  battles  which 
had  been  fought  with  the  Indians.  They  had  not  only  the  ad- 
vantage of  numbers,  but  of  placing  themselves  in  ambush,  and 
of  choosing  with  deliberation  the  moment  of  attack.  These 
circumstances  gave  them  a  degree  of  ardor  and  impetuosity. 
The  fall  of  Lovewell  and  of  one  quarter  of  his  men  in  the  first 
onset,  was  discouraging ;  but  the  survivors  knew  the  situation  to 
which  they  were  reduced,  and  that  their  distance  from  the  fron- 
tier cut  off  all  hope  of  safety  from  flight.  In  these  circumstances, 
prudence  as  well  as  valor  dictated  a  continuance  of  the  engage- 
ment ;  and  a  refusal  to  surrender,  until  the  enemy,  awed  by  their 
brave  resistance,  and  weakened  by  their  own  loss,  yielded  them 
the  honor  of  the  field.  . 

The  Indians  shortly  afterwards  requested  peace.  In  the  rhean- 
time,  some  of  the  enemy  were  disposed  for  further  mischief.  They 
shot  Benjamin  Evans,  wounded  William  Evans,  and  cut  his 
throat ;  John  Evans  received  a  slight  wound  in  the  breast,  which, 
bleeding  plentifully,  deceived  them.  Thinking  him  dead,  they 
stripped  and  scalped  him.  He  bore  the  painful  operation  without 
discovering  any  signs  of  life.  Though  all  the  time  in  his  perfect 
senses,  he  continued  the  feigned  appearance  of  death,  till  they 
had  turned  him  over  and  struck  him  several  blows  with  their 
guns,  and  left  him  for  dead.  After  they  were  gone  off,  he  rose 
and  walked  naked  and  bloody  towards  the  garrison;  but  on 
meeting  his  friends  by  the  way,  he  fell  in  a  fainting  fit  on  the 
ground.  Nevertheless,  he  recovered  and  survived  fifty  years. 

This  was  the  last  effort  of  the  Indians  in  New  Hampshire.  In 
three  months,  the  treaty  which  they  desired  was  signed  at  Boston ; 
and  the  next  spring  ratified  at  Falmouth.  A  peace  was  concluded 
in  the  usual  form,  which  was  followed  by  restraining  all  private 
traffic  with  the  Indians,  and  establishing  truck  houses  in  conve- 
nient places,  where  they  were  supplied  with  the  necessaries  of  life 
on  advantageous  terms. 


CHAPTER   LII. 


with  the  savage  tribes.  —  Renewal  of  hostilities  with  the  Indians  and 
French.  —  The  New  England  frontiers  ravaged.  —  Relaxation  of  the  cruelty  of 
savage  warfare.  —  Assault  and  capture  of  St.  Francis,  by  Major  Rogers.  —  Cap- 
ture of  J^ouisburgh,  by  the  New  England  forces 


Capture  of  Louisburgh. 

THOUGH  none  of  the  other  colonies  of  New  England  bore  any 
share  in  the  expenses  or  calamities  of  the  war,  yet  New  Hamp- 
shire suffered  less  than  in  former  conflicts.  Their  militia,  at  this 
time,  was  completely  trained  for  active  service.  Every  man,  of 
forty  years  of  age,  had  seen  more  than  twenty  years  of  war. 
They  had  been  used  to  handle  their  arms  from  the  age  of  child- 
hood, and  most  of  them,  by  long  practice,  were  excellent  marks- 
men and  good  hunters.  They  knew  the  lurking-places  of  the 
enemy,  and  possessed  a  degree  of  hardiness  and  intrepidity, 
which  can  be  acquired  only  by  familiarity  with  danger  and 
fatigue.  They  had  also  imbibed,  from  their  infancy,  a  strong 
antipathy  to  the  savages.  This  was  strengthened,  in  time  of  war, 
by  their  repeated  acts  of  blood  and  desolation,  and  not  obliterated 
by  the  intercourse  which  they  had  with  them  in  time  of  peace. 
As  the  Indians  frequently  resorted  to  the  frontier  towns  in  time 
of  scarcity,  it  was  common  for  them  to  visit  the  families  whom 
they  had  injured  in  time  of  war ;  to  recount  the  circumstances  of 


492  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

death  and  torture  which  had  been  practised  on  their  friends ;  and 
when  provoked  or  intoxicated,  to  threaten  a  repetition  of  such 
cruel  deeds,  in  future  wars.  To  bear  such  treatment  required 
more  than  ordinary  patience.  It  is  not  improbable  that  secret  mur- 
ders were  sometimes  the  consequence  of  such  harsh  declarations. 
Certain  it  is,  that  when  any  person  was  arrested  for  killing  an 
Indian,  in  time  of  peace,  he  was  either  forcibly  rescued  from  the 
hands  of  justice,  or  if  brought  to  trial,  invariably  acquitted ;  it 
being  often  impossible  to  impannel  a  jury,  some  of  whom  had 
not  suffered  by  the  Indians,  either  in  their  persons,  families,  or 
property. 

Twenty  years  of  peace  followed,  in  which  the  population  and 
settlements  of  New  Hampshire  were  considerably  extended.  War 
being  declared  by  England  against  France,  in  1744,  an  Indian 
war  with  the  contiguous  English  colonies  followed  in  its  train. 
Defensive  measures  were  adopted  on  the  frontiers.  Besides  the 
forts,  which  were  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  there  were 
private  houses,  enclosed  with  ramparts  or  palisades  of  timber,  to 
which  the  people  who  remained  on  the  frontiers,  retired.  These 
private  garrisoned  houses  were  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the 
owners.  The  danger  to  which  the  distressed  people  were*  con- 
stantly exposed,  did  not  permit  them  to  cultivate  their  lands  to 
any  advantage.  They  were  frequently  alarmed  when  at  labor  in 
their  fields,  and  obliged  to  repel  an  attack,  or  make  a  retreat. 
Their  crops  were  often  injured,  and  sometimes  destroyed,  either 
by  their  cattle  getting  into  the  fields  when  the  enemy  had  broken 
the  fences,  or  because  they  were  afraid  to  venture  out  to  collect 
and  secure  the  harvest.  Their  cattle  and  horses  were  frequently 
killed  by  the  enemy,  who  cut  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and  took 
out  the  tongues,  which  they  preserved  for  food  by  drying  them  in 
smoke.  Sometimes  they  were  afraid  even  to  milk  their  cows, 
though  they  kept  them  in  pastures  as  near  as  possible  to  the  forts. 
When  they  went  abroad  they  were  always  armed ;  but  frequently 
they  were  shut  up,  for  weeks  together,  in  a  state  of  inactivity. 

The  history  of  a  war  on  the  frontiers  can  be  little  else  than  a 
recital  of  the  exploits,  the  sufferings,  the  escapes  and  deliverances 
of  individuals,  of  single  families,  or  small  parties.  The  first 
appearance  of  the  enemy  on  the  western  frontier,  was  at  the 
Great  Meadow,  sixteen  miles  from  fort  Dummer.  Two  Indians 
took  William  Phipps,  as  he  was  hoeing  his  corn.  When  they  had 
carried  him  half  a  mile,  one  of  them  went  down  a  steep  hill  to 
fetch  something  which  had  been  left.  In  his  absence,  Phipps, 
with  his  own  hoe,  knocked  down  the  Indian  who  was  with  him, 
then  seizing  his  gun,  shot  the  other  as  he  ascended  the  hill. 


NEW    ENGLAND — INDIAN   WARS.  493 

Three  others  of  the  same  party  shortly  after  came  up,  and  killed 
him.     The  Indian  whom  he  knocked  down,  died  of  his  wound. 

Throughout  the  summers  of  1745  and  1746,  the  Indians  were 
scattered  in  small  parties,  on  all  the  frontiers.  They  broke  up 
settlements,  killed  several  individuals,  and  captured  more,  either 
in  their  houses,  or  when  going  to  mill,  milking  their  cattle,  or 
working  in  the  woods  or  fields.  During  this  scene  of  devastation 
and  captivity,  there  were  no  instances  of  deliberate  murder  or 
torture  exercised  on  those  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians. 
Even  the  old  custom  of  making  the  prisoners  run  the  gauntlet, 
was  in  most  cases  omitted.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  an  univer- 
sal testimony  from  the  captives  who  returned,  in  favor  of  the 
humanity  of  their  captors.  When  feeble,  they  assisted  them  in 
travelling;  and  in  cases  of  distress  from  want  of  provisions, 
shared  with  them  an  equal  proportion. 

There  was  a  striking  difference  between  the  manner  in  which 
this  war  was  conducted  on  the  part  -of  the  English,  and  on  the 
part  of  the  French.  The  latter  kept  out  small  parties,  continually 
engaged  in  killing,  scalping  and  taking  prisoners,  who  were  sold 
in  Canada,  and  redeemed  by  their  friends  at  great  expense.  By 
this  mode  of  conduct,  the  French  made  their  enemies  pay  the 
whole  charge  of  their  predatory  excursions,  besides  reaping  a 
handsome  profit  to  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English 
attended  only  to  the  defence  of  the  frontiers.  No  parties  were 
sent  to  harass  the  settlements  of  the  French.  If  the  whole  coun- 
try of  Canada  could  not  be  subdued,  nothing  less  would  be 
attempted.  Men  were  continually  kept  in  pay,  and  in  expectation 
of  service ;  but  they  spent  their  time  either  in  garrisons  or  camps, 
or  in  guarding  provisions.  Though  large  rewards  were  promised 
for  scalps  and  prisoners,  scarcely  any  were  obtained,  unless  by 
accident.  The  French  encouraged  and  paid  their  Indians  for 
English  scalps;  but  the  English  offered  no  premiums  for  the 
scalps  of  Frenchmen  or  Canadians. 

This  war  was  not  decisive,  and  the  causes  which  kindled  it 
were  not  removed.  One  of  its  effects  was  peculiarly  injurious. 
It  produced  a  class  of  men,  who,  having  been  for  a  time  released 
from  laborious  occupations,  and  devoted  to  the  parade  of  military 
life,  did  not  readily  obey  the  calls  of  industry.  To  such  men 
peace  was  burdensome;  and  the  more  so  because  they  had  not 
the  advantage  of  half-pay.  Short  was  the  interval  between  this 
and  the  succeeding  war.  The  peace  took  place  in  1749 ;  and  in 
1754,  there  was  a  call  to  resume  the  sword.  Th,e  time  was  now 
come  when  a  decisive  war  must  settle  the  long  pending  controversy, 
whether  France  or  England  should  be  the  predominant  power  in 
42 


494  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

North  America.  Hostilities  had  no  sooner  commenced  between 
France  and  England,  in  the  western  woods  of  Virginia,  than  the 
Indians  renewed  their  attack  on  the  frontiers  of  New  Hampshire. 
In  the  summer  of  1754,  scenes,  similar  to  those  that  have  been 
described,  recommenced.  In  this  war,  especially  the  first  year  of 
it,  Canada  was  filled  with  prisoners,  scalps  and  private  plunder, 
with  public  stores,  and  provisions ;  much  of  which  had  been  taken 
from  New  Hampshire. 


View  on  Lake  Champlain. 

When  the  British  army  had  obtained  a  decided  superiority  over 
the  French,  it  was  determined  to  chastise  the  Indians,  who  had 
committed  so  many  devastations.  Major  Robert  Rogers,  was 
despatched  from  Grown  Point,  by  General  Amherst,  in  October, 
1759,  with  about  200  rangers,  to  destroy  the  Indian  village  of  St. 
Francis.  After  a  fatiguing  march  of  twenty-one  days,  he  came 
within  sight  of  the  place,  which  he  discovered  from  the  top  of  a 
tree.  He  halted  his  men  at  the  distance  of  three  miles ;  and  in  the 
evening,  with  two  of  his  officers,  entered  the  village  in  disguise. 
The  Indians  were  engaged  in  a  grand  dance,  and  he  passed  through 
them  undiscovered.  Having  formed  his  men  into  parties,  and 
posted  them  to  advantage,  he  made  a  general  assault  just  before 
day,  whilst  the  Indians  were  asleep.  They  were  so  completely 
surprised,  that  little  resistance  could  be  made.  Some  were  killed 
in  their  houses ;  and  of  those  who  attempted  to  flee,  many  were 
shot  or  tomahawked  by  parties  placed  at  the  avenues.  The 
dawn  of  day  disclosed  a  horrid  scene ;  and  an  edge  was  given  to 
the  fury  of  the  assailants,  by  the  sight  of  several  hundred  scalps 
of  their  countrymen,  elevated  on  poles  and  waving  in  the  air. 
This  village  had  been  enriched  with  the  plunder  of  the  frontiers 


REDUCTION    OF   LOUISBURG.  495 

and  the  sale  of  the  captives.  The  houses  were  well  furnished, 
and  the  church  was  adorned  with  plate.  The  suddenness  of  the, 
attack  and  the  fear  of  a  pursuit,  did  not  allow  much  time  for 
pillage;  but  the  rangers  brought  off  about  two  hundred  guineas 
in  money ;  a  silver  image  weighing  ten  pounds ;  a  large  quantity 
of  wampum  and  clothing.  Having  set  fire  to  the  village,  Rogers 
made  his  retreat.  Of  the  rangers,  one  man  only  was  killed,  and 
six  were  wounded.  In  their  retreat,  they  were  pursued  and  lost 
seven  men.  They  kept  in  a  body  for  about  ten  days,  and  then 
scattered.  Some  found  their  way  to  "Number  Four,"  after  hav- 
ing suffered  much  by  hunger  and  fatigue.  Others  perished  in  the 
woods,  and  their  bones  were  found  near  Connecticut  river,  by  the 
people,  who,  after  several  years,  began  plantations  at  the  upper 
Cohos.  , 

In  the  year  1745,  a  daring  enterprise  was  projected  in  Boston 
against  Louisburg,  a  strong  fortress  belonging  to  the  French, 
on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton.  This  was  proposed  by  Shirley, 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  approved  by  the  general  court 
of  that  province.  Louisburg  was  the  Dunkirk  of  North  America. 
Five  millions  of  dollars  had  been  employed  in  its  fortifications. 
It  was  of  great  importance  to  France,  and  also  to  England,  med- 
itating, 'as  both  did,  the  extension  of  their  American  possessions. 
Upwards  of  five  thousand  men  were  raised  in  the  New  England 
colonies,  and  put  under  the  command  of  William  Pepperell,  a 
respectable  merchant  in  Massachusetts.  This  force  arrived  at 
Canso  early  in  April,  1745.  A  British  marine  force  from  the 
West  Indies,  commanded  by  Commodore  Warren,  acted  in  concert 
with  these  land  forces.  The  siege  was  conducted  with  such  spirit 
and  address,  that,  on  the  17th  of  June,  the  fortress  capitulated. 
The  reduction  of  Louisburg,  by  colonial  troops,  gave  to  European 
powers  enlarged  ideas  of  the  value  of  American  possessions.  The 
war,  henceforward,  became  more  important.  Great  projects  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  the  belligerent  powers.  The  recovery  of 
Louisburg,  the  reduction  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  total  devastation  of 
the  seacoast,  and  even  the  complete  conquest  of  New  England, 
were  contemplated  by  the  French.  With  this  view,  a  powerful 
fleet,  and  an  army  of  three  thousand'  men,  under  the  command  of 
Duke  d'Anville,  sailed,  in  1746,  for  the  American  coast.  There 
was  no  British  fleet  at  hand  to  resist  this  force.  The  distress  of 
the  colonies  was  great,  and  their  apprehensions  of  danger  were 
excited  to  a  high  pitch,  when  Providence  wrought  their  deliverance. 
The  French  ships  were  visited  by  such  fatfkl  sickness,  that 
thirteen  hundred  of  their  crew  died  at  sea.  Their  whole  fleet  was 
also  dispersed  by  a  violent  tempest.  Some  of  the  ships  were  lost, 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


and  those  which  escaped,  returned  singly  to  France.  The  whole 
expedition  was  defeated  without  the  firing  of  a  single  gun.  Great 
Britain,  not  less  sanguine,  counted  on  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  the  continent  of  America;  and  that  Canada,  with  the 
adjacent  French  possessions,  would  soon  be  British  provinces. 
Preparations  were  made  for  executing  these  gigantic  projects; 
but  they  came  to  nothing.  No  further  important  transaction 
took  place  in  America,  till  the  war  ended,  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  in  1748.  By  this,  it  was  stipulated  that  all  conquests 
made  during  the  war  should  be  restored.  The  British  colonists 
had  the  mortification  to  see  Louisburg  returned  to  the  French, 
its  former  owners. 

The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  left  all  controversies  between 
France  and  England,  on  the  subject  of  boundaries,  undecided. 
France  continued  in  possession  of  Canada  in  the  north,  and  the 
Mississippi  in  the  south ;  and  her  settlements  approximated  each 
other,  by  the  extension  of  new  establishments  northerly,  up  the 
Mississippi,  and  southwardly,  down  the  lakes  and  the  Ohio.  In 
this  state  of  things  disputes  grew  so  naturally  out  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  country  had  been  settled,  that  they  could  otily  be 
adjusted  by  the  sword,  or  by  an  accommodating  policy,  not 
usual  among  kings.  The  claims  of  each  stood  on  such  plausi- 
ble grounds,  as  might  have  induced  both  nations  to  believe 
they  were  right.  The  European  powers  having  parcelled  out 
the  American  territory  among  themselves,  on  the  idea  that  the 
rights  of  the  natives  were  of  no  account,  could  substitute  no 
claims  of  their  own,  but  such  as  necessarily  clashed  with  each 
other.  As  they  established  the  position  that  those  who  first  dis- 
covered and  took  possession  of  any  savage  country,  became  its 
rightful  proprietors,  the  extent  of  the  territory  thus  acquired  by 
discovery  and  possession,  could  not  be  exactly  ascertained ;  for 
only  a  small  part  of  it  could  be  reduced  to  actual  occupation. 
Contests  accordingly  arose  among  all  the  first  settlers,  respecting 
the  extent  of  their  several  possessions. 


CHAPTER    LIII. 

Claims  of  the  French  to  the  country  on  the  Ohio. — Progress  of  the  English 
settlements  in  this  direction. — Formation  of  the  Ohio  Company. — The  French 
strengthen  their  frontiers. —  Washington's  embassy  to  the- Ohio. — Hostilities  on 
the  frontier. — Campaign  on  the  Great  Meadows. — The  Albany  plan  of  Union. — 
Expedition  and  defeat  of  Braddock. —  Campaign  of  Niagara. — Expedition 
against  Croivn  Point. — Oswego  taken  by  the  French. — Campaign  of  1758. — 
Reduction  of  Louisburg. — Operations  in  Canada. — Frontenac  captured. — The 
French  abandon  Fort  Du  Quesne. — Peace  with  the  Ohio  Indians.— Success  of 
the  British  arms  in  Canada. —  Capture  of  Quebec  by  General  Wolfe.  —  General 
character  of  the  war  in  America. — Policy  and  objects  of  the  contending  powers. — 
General  result  of  the  contest. 


Washington's  embassy  to  the  Ohio. 

THE  English  colonies,  originally  planted  on  the  seacoast, 
advanced  westwardly,  and  their  rights  were  supposed  to  extend 
in  that  direction,  across  the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  ocean.  The  French,  possessing  Canada  in  the  north,  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  south,  and  stretching  their 
settlements  from  north  to  south,  necessarily  crossed  those  of  the 
English,  extending  from  east  to  west.  These  interfering  claims 
gave  to  each  a  plausible  title  to  tfce  country ;  and*  they  were  of 
vast  importance,  inasmuch  as  they  had  relation  to  all  that  delight- 
ful region,  which  lies  between  the  Allegany  mountains  and 
42* 


498  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  Mississippi.  Both,  considering  their  respective  rights  aa 
vindicated  by  the  new  law  of  nations,  rushed  into  a  fierce  and 
bloody  war,  extending  in  its  progress  from  the  Ohio  to  the 
Ganges,  for  lands  which  belonged  to  neither,  and  which,  in  twenty 
years  after  the  termination  of  hostilities,  passed  away,  by  com- 
mon consent,  from  both ;  and  were  vested  in  a  new  power,  whose 
national  existence,  by  a  mysterious  Providence,  grew  out  of  their 
contention. 

This  controversy  about  Ohio  lands  was  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant which  had  ever  taken  place  on  the  North  American  continent. 
The  prize  contended  for  was  of  immense  value,  and  drew  forth 
the  energies  of  both  nations.  The  white  population  of  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  was  at  that  period  about  twenty  for  one  of  the 
French,  but  the  latter  was  united  under  a  single  military  governor, 
who  could  give  an  uniform  direction  to  the  physical  force  of  the 
country,  which  was  under  his  sole  command.  The  government 
was  military,  and  the  people  could  be  called  into  the  field  when- 
ever their  service  was  required.  The  French  also  had  great 
influence  over  the  Indians,  and  were  uncommonly  successful  in 
securing  their  affections.  % 

The  New  England  governments  sometimes  acted  in  concert; 
but  th.e  other  English  colonies  were  in  the  habit  of  pursuing 
different  interests,  under  distinct  legislatures,  and  being  dispersed 
over  a  large  extent  of  territory,  were,  for  the  most  part,  unused  to 
military  operations.  Under  these  circumstances,  two  of  the  great- 
est powers  in  the  Old  World  entered  into  bloody  competition  for 
ascendency  in  the  New. 

The  collision  of  the  exclusive  claims  of  France  and  England 
in  the  same  country,  was  accelerated  in  the  following  manner. 
About  the  year  1749,  George  II.  made  a  grant  of  six  hundred 
thousand  acres  of  land  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ohio,  to 
certain  persons  in  Westminster,  London,  and  Virginia,  who  had 
associated  under  the  title  of  the  Ohio  Company.  At  this  time 
France  was  in  possession  of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  as  well  as  of  Canada,  and  wished  to 
form  a  communication  between  these  two  extremities  of  her  terri- 
tories in  North  America.  She  was,  therefore,  alarmed  at  the 
scheme  in  agitation  by  the  Ohio  Company,  inasmuch  as  the  land 
granted  to  them  lay  between  her  northern  and  southern  settle- 
ments. Remonstrances  against  the  British  encroachments,  as 
they  were  called,  having  been  made  in  vain  by  the  governor  of 
Canada,  the  French  at  length  geized  some  British  subjects,  who 
were  trading  among  the  Twightees, — a  nation  of  Indians  near  the 
Ohio, — as  intruders  on  the  land  of  his  most  Christian  majesty,  and 


WASHINGTON'S  EMBASSY  TO  THE  OHIO.  499 

sent,  them  to  a  fort  on  the  south  side  of  lake  Erie.  The  Twightees, 
by  way  of  retaliation  for  capturing  British  traders,  whom  they 
deemed  their  allies,  seized  three  French  traders  and  sent  them  to 
Pennsylvania. 

The  French,  persisting  in  their  claims  to  the  country  on  the 
Ohio,  as  part  of  Canada,  strengthened  themselves  by  erecting 
new  forts  in  its  vicinity,  and  at  length  began  to  seize  and  plunder 
the  British  traders  found  on  or  near  that  river.  Repeated  com- 
plaints of  these  violences  being  made  to  the  governor  of  Virginia, 
it  was  at  length  determined  to  send  a  suitable  person  to  the 
French  commandant  near  the  Ohio,  with  a  letter,  to  demand  the 
reason  of  his  hostile  proceedings,  and  to  insist  on  his  evacuating  a 
fort  he  had  lately  built.  Major  Washington,  being  then  little  more 
than  twenty-one  years  of  age,  offered  his  service,  which  was 
accepted.  The  distance  to  the  French  settlements  was  more  than 
four  hundred  miles ;  and  one  half  the  route  led  through  a  wilder- 
ness, inhabited  only  by  Indians.  He  received  his  commission 
October  31,  1753,  and  commenced  his  journey,  with  seven  attend- 
ants. On  the  way  his  horses  failed.  He,  nevertheless,  proceeded  on 
foot,  with  a  gun  in  his  hand,  and. a  pack  on  his  back.  On  the  12th 
of  December,  he  found  the  French  commandant  at  a  fort  on  the 
river  Le  BoBuf,  and  tendered  to  him  Governor  Dinwiddie's  letter 
of  remonstrance.  In  a  few  days  he  received  the  commandant's 
answer,  and  on  his  return,  delivered  it  to  Governor  Dinwiddie,  at 
Williamsburg,  about  the  middle  of  January,  1754.  This  answer 
was  of  such  a  nature  as  induced  the  Virginia  assembly  to  raise  a 
regiment,  to  support  the  claims  of  his  Britannic  majesty,  over  the 
territory  in  dispute.  Of  this,  Mr.  Fry  was  appointed  colonel, 
and  Washington  lieutenant-colonel.  The  latter,  in  April,  1754, 
advanced  with  two  companies  of  the  regiment  as  far  as  the 
Great  Meadows,  and  in  this  vicinity,  came  up  with,  and  sur- 
prised, in  the  night,  a  party  of  Frenchmen,  who  were  advanc- 
ing towards  the  English  settlements.  The  commanding  officer, 
Mr.  Jumonville,  was  killed ;  one  person  escaped ;  and  all  the 
rest  surrendered.  Shortly  afterwards  .Colonel  Fry  died,  and 
Washington  became  commander  of  the  regiment.  He  collected 
the  whole  at  Great  Meadows,  and  was  there  joined  by  two  inde- 
pendent companies.  With  this  force,  he  erected  a  small  stockade 
fort,  which  was  afterwards  called  Fort  Necessity.  A  small  gar- 
rison was  left  there ;  and  Colonel  Washington  advanced  with 
the  main  body  to  dislodge  the  French  from  Fort  Du  Quesne,  which 
they  had  recently  erected  at  the  confluence  of  Jhe  Monongahela 
and  Allegany  rivers.  On  his  way,  he  was  informed  by  friendly 
Indians,  that  the  French  had  strongly  reinforced  Fort  Du  Quesne, 


500  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  were  advancing  in  force  towards  the  English  settlements.  A 
council  of  war  recommended  a  retreat  to  the  Great  Meadows, 
and  to  make  a  stand  at  a  fort  lately  erected  there.  Shortly  aftei 
they  reached  that  place,  and  before  they  had  time  to  fortify  them- 
selves, they  were  attacked  by  Monsieur  de  Villier,  at  the  head  of 
a  considerable  force.  Colonel  Washington  made  a  brave  defence, 
behind  the  small,  unfinished  work,  called  Fort  Necessity ;  but  at 
length  surrendered  on  articles  of  capitulation,  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  garrison  should  inarch  out  with  the  honors  of 
war,  and  be  permitted  to  retain  their  arms  and  baggage,  and  to 
march  unmolested  into  the  inhabited  parts  of  Virginia. 

From  the  eagerness  discovered  by  both  nations  for  these  lands, 
it  occurred  to  all  that  a  rupture  between  France  and  England 
could  not  be  far  distant.  It  was  also  evident  to  the  rulers  of  the 
latter  that  the  colonies  would  be  the  most  convenient  centre  of 
operation  for  repressing  French  encroachments.  To  draw  forth 
the  colonial  resources,  in  an  uniform  system  of  operations,  became 
an  object  of  public  attention.  To  digest  a  plan  for  this  purpose, 
a  general  meeting  of  the  governors  and  most  influential  members 
of  the  provincial  assemblies  was  held  at  Albany.  The  commis- 
sioners at  this  congress  were  unanimously  of  opinion  that  an 
union  of  the  colonies  was  necessary,  and  they  proposed  a  plan  to 
the  following  effect:  "that  a  errand  council  should  be  formed  of 

O  o 

members  to  be  chosen  by  the  provincial  assemblies,  which  coun- 
cil, together  with  a  governor,  to  be  appointed  by  the  crown,  should 
be  authorized  to  make  general  laws,  and  also  to  raise  money  from 
all  the  colonies  for  their  common  defence."  The  leading  members 
of  the  provincial  assemblies  were  of  opinion  that,  if  this  planv 
were  adopted,  they  could  defend  themselves  from  the  French, 
without  any  assistance  from  Great  Britain.  This  plan,  when 
sent  to  England,  was  not  acceptable  to  the  ministry;  and,  in  lieu 
thereof,  they  proposed  that  the  governors  of  all  the  colonies, 
attended  by  one  or  two  members  of  their  respective  councils, 
which  were,  for  the  most  part  of  royal  appointment,  should,  from 
time  to  time,  concert  measures  for  the  whole  colonies ;  erect  forts, 
and  raise  troops,  with  a  power  to  draw  upon  the  British  treasury 
in  the  first  instance ;  but  to  be  ultimately  reimbursed,  by  a  tax  to 
be  laid  on  the  colonies  by  act  of  parliament.  This  was  as  much 
disrelished  by  the  colonies  as  the  former  plan  had  been  by  the 
British  ministers.  The  principle  of  some  general  power,  oper- 
ating on  the  whole  of  the  colonies  was  still  kept  in  mind,  though 
dropped  for  the  present. 

The  ministerial  plan,  laid  down  above,   was  transmitted  to 
Governor  Shirley;  and  by  him  communicated  to  Dr.  Franklin, 


EXPEDITION   AND    DEFEAT    OF    BRADDOCK.  501 

and  his  opinion  thereon  requested.  That  sagacious  patriot  sent 
to  the  governor  an  answer,  in  writing,  with  remarks  upon  the 
proposed  plan,  in  which,  by  his  strong  reasoning  powers,  on  the 
first  view  of  the  new  subject,  he  anticipated  the  substance  of  a 
controversy  which,  for  twenty  years,  employed  the  tongues,  pens 
and  swords  of  both  countries. 

The  policy  of  repressing  the  encroachments  of  the  French  on 
the  British  colonies  was  generally  approved  both  in  England  and 
America.  It  was,  therefore,  resolved  to  take  effectual  measures  for 
driving  them  from  the  Ohio,  and  also  for  reducing  Niagara,  Crown 
Point  and  the  other  posts,  which  they  held  within  the  limits 
claimed  by  the  king  of  Great  Britain. 

To  effect  the  first  purpose,  General  Braddock  was  sent  from 
Ireland  to  Virginia,  with  two  regiments ;  and  was  there  joined  by 
so  many  more  as  amounted  in  the  whole  to  twenty-two  hundred 
men.  He  was  a  brave  man,  but  destitute  of  the  other  qualifica- 
tions of  a  great  officer.  His  haughtiness  disgusted  the  Americans, 
and  his  severity  made  him  disagreeable  to  the  regular  troops. 
He  particularly  slighted  the  country  militia  and  the  Virginia 
officers.  Colonel  Washington,  who  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  the 
general,  begged  his  permission  to  go  before  him,  and  scour  the 
woods  with  .provincial  troops,  who  were  well  acquainted  with 
that  service;  but  this  was  refused.  The  general,  with  twelve 
hundred  men,  pushed  on  incautiously,  till  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade 
of  French  and  Indians,  July  9th,  1755.  An  invisible  enemy  com- 
menced a  heavy  and  well-directed  fire  on  his  uncovered  troops.  The 
van  fell  back  on  the  main  body ;  and  the  whole  was  thrown  into 
disorder.  Marksmen  levelled  their  pieces  particularly  at  officers 
and  others  on  horseback.  In  a  short  time  Washington  was  the 
only  aide-de-camp  left  alive,  and  not  wounded.  He  had  two 
horses  shot  from  under  him;  .and  four  bullets  passed  through  his 
coat ;  but  he  escaped  unhurt,  though  every  other  officer  on  horse- 
back was  either  killed  or  wounded.  Providence  preserved  him 
for  further  and  greater  services.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the 
carnage  and  confusion  of  this  fatal  day,  Washington  displayed 
the  greatest  coolness  and  the  most  perfect  self-possession.  Brad- 
dock  was  undismayed  amid  a  shower  of  bullets ;  and,  by  his 
countenance  and  example,  encouraged  his  men  to  stand  their 
ground ;  but  valor  was  useless,  and  discipline  only  offered  surer 
marks  to  the  destructive  aim  of  unseen  marksmen.  Unac- 
quainted with  the  Indian  mode  of  fighting,  Braddock  neither 
advanced  upon  nor  retreated  from  the  assailants ;  but  very  inju- 
diciously endeavored  to  form  his  broken  troops  on  the  ground 
where  they  were  first  attacked,  and  where  they  were  exposed 


502  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

uncovered,  to  the  incessant  galling  fire  of  a  sheltered  enemy.  The 
action  lasted  nearly  three  hours.  In  the  course  of  it,  the  general 
had  three  horses  shot  under  him,  and  finally  received  a  mortal 
wound.  The  officers  in  the  British  regiments  displayed  the 
greatest  bravery.  Their  whole  number  was  eighty-five;  and 
sixty- four  of  them  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  common 
soldiers  were  so  disconcerted  by  the  unusual  mode  of  attack,  that 
they  broke  their  ranks  and  could  not  be  rallied ;  but  the  provincials, 
more  used  to  the  Indian  modes  of  fighting,  were  not  so  much 
disconcerted.  They  continued  in  an  unbroken  body,  under 
Colonel  Washington,  and  covered  the  retreat  of  their  associates. 

Notwithstanding  these  hostilities,  war  had  not  yet  been  formally 
declared.  Previous  to  the  adoption  of  that  measure,  Great  Brit- 
ain, contrary  to  the  usage  of  nations,  captured  sundry  French 
vessels,  and  made  prisoners  of  eight  thousand  French  sailors.  This 
heavy  blow  for  a  long  time  crippled  the  naval  operations  of 
France;  but  at  the  same  time  inspired  her  with  a  desire  to  retal- 
iate, whenever  a  proper  opportunity  should  present  itself. 

The  second  object  of  the  campaign  of  1755,  was  the  reduction 
of  Niagara.  This  was  attempted  by  General  Shirley,  with  fifteen 
hundred  men.  Though  great  diligence  was  used  on  his  part,  yet 
he  was  not  able  to  reach  Oswego  before  the  latter  end  of  August. 
He  proposed  to  embark  about  seven  hundred  of  his  troops  on 
Lake  Ontario,  and  to  proceed  against  Niagara.  But,  while  he 
was  employed  in  his  embarkation,  a  succession  of  heavy  rains 
arrested  his  progress.  The  troops  were  discouraged,  and  his 
Indians  dispersed.  The  season  being  too  far  advanced  for  the 
completion  of  the  enterprise,  it  was  relinquished.  The  general 
left  seven  hundred  men  in  Oswego,  and  returned  to  Albany. 
,  The  third  expedition  of  this  campaign  was  against  Crown 
Point.  This  originated  with  Massachusetts,  and  was  to  be  exe- 
cuted by  the  colonial  troops  raised  in  New  England  and  New 
York.  The  command  was  given  to  William  Johnson,  one  of  the 
council  of  New  York.  The  delays  which  are  inseparable  from 
all  undertakings  depending  on  distinct  and  separate  authorities, 
were  now  experienced  to  a  great  extent.  The  expedition  was 
not  fully  prepared  to  proceed  till  the  last  of  August.  Baron 
Dieskan,  who  commanded  the  French,  did  not  wait  for  the  arrival 
of  Johnson,  but  determined  to  attack  him  at  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Lake  George.  Johnson  detached  Colonel  Williams,  with 
one  thousand  men,  to  skirmish  with  the  approaching  enemy. 
They  met  and  immediately  engaged ;  Williams  fell,  and  his  party 
fled.  A  second  detachment,  ordered  to  their  aid,  experienced  the 
same  fate;  and  both  were  closely  pursued  by  the  French,  till 


EXPEDITIONS    AGAINST    THE   FRENCH   COLONIES.  503 

they  rejoined  the  main  body,  which  was  a  few  miles  in  the  rear, 
and  posted  behind  fallen  trees.  The  French  halted.  The  Amer- 
icans, recovering  from  their  first  alarm,  played  two  pieces  of 
artillery,  with  great  effect,  on  the  assailants.  These  now,  in  their 
turn,  retreated  and  were  briskly  pursued.  Dieskau,  being  mor- 
tally wounded,  became  a  prisoner.  This  repulse  was  magnified 
into  a  victory,  and  seemed  to  remove  the  depression  occasioned 
by  the  defeat  of  General  Braddock.  William  Johnson  was 
rewarded  by  the  English  House  of  Commons,  with  £5000  ster- 
ling ;  and  the  title  of  baronet  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  king 
of  Great  Britain. 

Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1755.  The  expeditions  against 
Fort  Du  Quesne  and  Niagara  entirely  failed.  Though  an  advan- 
tage had  been  gained  over  the  French  commanded  by  Dieskau,  no 
impression  was  made  on  Crown  Point,  the  reduction  of  which 
was  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  the  campaign.  These  failures 
seemed  to  arise  from  the  want  of  a  general  superintending  will,  to 
harmonize  the  operations  of  the  different  colonies,  and  to  direct 
them,  with  effect  and  expedition,  to  the  point  on  which  they  were 
to  act.  From  the  want  of  it.  the  movements  of  the  forces  were,  in 
every  season,  too  late  for  effective  service.  In  the  meantime,  the 
frontier  settlers,  for  several  hundred  miles,  were  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Indians;  for  the  French  maintained  a  complete 
ascendency  over  them.  By  their  bloody  incursions,  whole  ^settle- 
ments were  frequently  broken  up  and  abandoned. 

The  plan  for  the  campaign  of  1756/was  as  extensive  as  that  of 
1755.  This  was  agreed  upon  in  a  grand  council  of  war,  held 
by  General  Shirley,  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in 
America,  and  the  governors  of  Connecticut,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Maryland.  The  reduction  of  Crown  Point  and 
Niagara,  with  the  other  posts  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  of  Fort 
Du  Quesne,  on  the  Ohio,  were  the  objects  of  this  campaign.  It 
was  resolved  to  raise  nineteen  thousand  men  in  America.  But 
this  so  far  exceeded  what  had  ever  been  done  by  the  colonists, 
that  unavoidable  delays  took  place  before  a  sufficient  number 
could  be  recruited.  The  service  was  further  and  materially 
injured,  by  a  regulation  which  required  that,  in  every  case,  pro- 
vincial officers  should  be  under  British  officers,  when  they  acted 
together.  While  they  were  adjusting  their  respective  claims 
to  rank,  and  deliberating  whether  to  attack  Niagara  or  Fort 
Du  Quesne,  Montcalm,  an  able  an  experienced  officer,  who  suc- 
ceeded Dieskau  in  the  command  of  the  French 'troops  in  Canada, 
advanced  at  the  head  of  five  thousand  Europeans,  Canadians  and 
Indians,  and  invested  Oswego.  His  operations  were  conducted 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

with  such  address  and  ability,  that  the  garrison,  consisting  of  six- 
teen hundred  men,  supplied  with  provisions  for  five  months,  was 
speedily  compelled  to  surrender.  This  so  disconcerted  the  plan 
of  offensive  operations  agreed  upon,  that  everything  of  that  kind 
was  given  up,  and  the  whole  attention  of  the  British  general  was 
directed  to  security  against  further  losses.  The  colonies  were 
urged  to  send  on  reinforcements  to  their  army,  by  representations 
that  the  enemy  would  have  it  in  their  power  to  overrun  the  coun- 
try, unless  a  superior  force  was  immediately  brought  forward  to 
oppose  them.  While  their  fears  were  alarmed  with  this  serious 
view  of  their  danger,  another  object  of  terror  was  presented. 
The  small-pox  broke  out  in  Albany.  To  a  people  who  had 
never  been  the  subjects  of  that  disorder,  it  appeared  as  a  most 
formidable  evil,  from  which  they  could  not  secure  themselves 
otherwise  than  by  flight.  The  sanguine  hopes  of  the  colonists 
of  a  successful  campaign,  again  terminated  in  disappointment. 
Much  labor  had  been  employed  in  collecting  and  transporting 
troops,  provisions  and  military  stores,  for  decisive  operations;  and 
yet  nothing  had  been  accomplished.  No  one  enterprise  contem- 
plated at  the  commencement  of  the  campaign,  had  been  carried 
into  effect. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  discouragements,  great  exertions 
were  made  for  the  opening  campaign  of  1757,  with  a  force  that 
might  insure  success.  Lord  London,  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  forces,  applied  for  four  thousand  men  from  New 
England,  which  were  readily  granted.  A  large  fleet  and  army 
arrived  from  Europe,  to  aid  in  prosecuting  the  war  with  vigor. 
From  a  junction  of  these  formidable  armaments,  the  colonists 
confidently  expected  the  speedy  downfall  of  the  power  of  France 
in  America. 

Instead  of  attempting  a  variety  of  objects  as  before,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  strike  at  a  single  one  in  the  campaign  of  1757.  This 
was  the  reduction  of  Louisburg,  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton. 
After  an  expedition  for  this  purpose  was  in  great  forwardness, 
intelligence  was  received,  that  a  fleet  had  lately  arrived  from  Brest, 
and  that  Louisburg  was  garrisoned  by  an  army  of  six  thousand 
regular  troops,  and  defended  by  seventeen  line-of-battle  ships. 
As  no  hope  of  success  against  this  formidable  force  could  be 
entertained,  the  proposed  expedition  was  abandoned,  and  the 
British  general  and  admiral  returned  to  New  York.  While  they 
relinquished  all  ideas  of  offensive  operations,  the  French  general 
took  them  up.  Feeling  himself  secure  with  respect  to  Louisburg, 
he  determined  to  gain  complete  possession  of  Lake  George.  With 
an  army  of  nine  thousand  men,  collected  at  Crown  Point,  Tieon- 


EXPEDITIONS    AGAINST    THE    FRENCH    COLONIES.  505 

deroga,  the  adjacent  French  posts,  and  from  the  Canadians  arid 
Indians,  he  laid  siege  to  Fort  William  Henry,  which  was  in  good 
condition,  and  garrisoned  by  three  thousand  men.  The  French 
commander  urged  his  approaches  with  such  vigor,  that  Colonel 
Munroe,  in  six  days,  surrendered  the  fort  on  articles  of  capitula- 
tion. 

Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1757.  The  affairs  of  Britain 
and  British  America  were  in  a  very  alarming  situation.  Three 
campaigns  had  produced  nothing  but  expense  and  disappoint- 
ment. The  French  had  the  command  of  the  lakes,  a  complete 
ascendency  over  the  Indians,  and  were  in  possession  of  the 
country  about  which  the  war  had  commenced.  With  aa  inferior 
force,  they  had  been  successful  in  every  campaign.  This  was 
not  only  the  case  in  America,  but  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Wherever 
hostilities  had  been  carried  on,  the  British  arms  had  failed  of 
success.  Gloomy  apprehensions  respecting  the  destiny  of  the 
British  colonies  were  common.  That  Britain  would  fail  in  estab- 
lishing her  claim  to  the  western  country  connected  with  the 
waters  of  the  Mississippi,  was  feared  by  many  good  citizens.  It 
was  at  the  same  time  believed  by  several,  that  the  French  would 
connect  Canada  with  Louisiana;  and  so  form  a  bow,  of  which 
the  British  polonies  would  be  no  more  than  the  string.  These 
apprehensions  were  soon  done  away.  The  campaigns  of  1758, 
1759  and  1760,  assumed  a  new  aspect.  Victory  everywhere 
crowned  the  British  arms ;  and  in  a  short  time  the  French  were 
dispossessed  not  only  of  the  territories  in  dispute  between  the  two 
countries,  but  of  Quebec,  and  of  their  ancient  province,  Canada, 
of  which  they  had  been  in  possession  before  the  establishment  of 
the  first  British  province  on  the  continent  of  North  America. 
This  change  took  place  under  the  vigorous  administration  of 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  who,  in  this  crisis,  was  called  to 
the  helm  of  Great  Britain.  His  plans  for  carrying  on  the  war 
were  gigantic,  and  never  crippled  for  want  of  means.  Possessing 
the  public  confidence,  he  commanded  the  resources  of  the  nation. 
Employing  merit,  wherever  found,  he  brought  into  public  service 
the  first  talents  in  the  country.  In  a  circular  letter  to  the  Ameri- 
can governors,  he  assured  them  that  a  formidable  force  would  be 
sent  to  operate  against  the  French  in  America;  and  he  called 
on  them  to  raise  as  large  bodies  of  men  as  their  numbers  and 
resources  would  allow. 

The  legislature  of  Massachusetts  voted  seven  thousand  men, 

Connecticut  five  thousand,  and  New  Hampshire  three  thousand. 

These  were  ready  to  take  the  field  early  in  May.     The  Earl  of 

Loudon,  now  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces,  found 

43  L3 


506  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

himself  at  the  head  of  the  most  powerful  army  ever  seen  in 
Noith  America.  No  delays  interposed  to  defeat  the  objects  of  the 
campaign.  The  winters  were  regularly  devoted  to  necessary 
preparations,  and  for  taking  the  field  as  soon  as  the  season  would 
permit.  Three  expeditions  were  proposed, — the  first,  against 
Louisburg;  the  second,  against  Ticonderoga,  and  Crown  Point;  the 
third  against  Fort  Du  Quesne.  Fourteen  thousand  men,  twenty 
ships  of  the  line,  and  eighteen  frigates,  were  assigned  to  the  expe- 
dition against  Louisburg.  This  formidable  armament  arrived 
before  Louisburg  on  the  2d  of  June,  and  proceeded  with  such 
vigor,  as  to  compel  the  surrender  of  the  place  in  less  than  eight 
weeks.  The  expedition  against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point 
was  not  successful.  The  force  ordered  on  this  service  con- 
sisted of  about  sixteen  thousand  men.  These  embarked  on  Lake 
George,  in  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  whale-boats  and  nine 
hundred  batteaux.  After  they  had  debarked  on  the  west  side  of 
the  lake,  they  marched  towards  the  advanced  guards  of  the 
French,  and  on  their  march  a  skirmish  took  place  with  the  enemy. 
At  the  first  fire  Lord  Howe  was  killed.  General  Abercrombie 
proceeded,  and  took  possession  of  a  fort  near  Ticonderoga.  tender 
the  impression  of  false  intelligence,  an  assault  was  resolved  upon, 
and  took  place  on  the  8th  of  July;  but  the  French  were  so  well 
covered  by  abbatis,  and  a  breastwork  eight  feet  high,  that  the 
British  troops  could  not  carry  the  works.  After  a  contest  of  four 
hours,  and  the  loss  of  one  thousand  eight  hundred  of  the  assail- 
ants, a  retreat  was  ordered.  Abercrombie  relinquished  for  the 
present  all  designs  against  Ticonderoga;  but  detached  Colonel 
Bradstreet,  with  three  thousand  men,  eight  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
three  mortars,  against  Fort  Frontenac,  a  fortress  on  the  north  side 
of  Lake  Ontario.  Bradstreet  commenced  operations  against  the 
fort  in  the  latter  end  of  August,  and  in  a  few  days  received  the 
unconditional  surrender  of  the  garrison,  consisting  of  one  hundred 
and  ten  men. 

The  expedition  against  Fort  Du  Quesne,  was  committed  to 
General  Forbes,  at  the  head  of  eight  thousand  men.  Upon  their 
arrival  at  the  fort,  they  found  it  abandoned.  The  garrison  had 
recently  escaped  in  boats  down  the  Ohio.  To  the  fort,  hence- 
forward, was  given  the  name  of  Pittsburg.  in  compliment  to  Mr. 
Pitt,  who,  with  so  much  reputation,  directed  the  affairs  of  Great 
Britain.  The  Indians  came  in  and  made  their  submission  to  the 
conquerors.  Treaties  were  concluded  with  them,  which  gave 
peace  to  the  frontier  settlements  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  and 
Pennsylvania. 

Two  of  the  three  objects  of  the  campaign  of  1758,  having  been 


CAPTURE   OF   QUEBEC.  507 

accomplished,  the  entire  conquest  of  Canada  was  proposed  as  the 
object  to  be  pursued  the  next  year.  To  accomplish  this  great 
undertaking,  it  was  agreed  that  three  powerful  armies  should 
enter  Canada  by  different  routes,  and  attack,  at  the  same  time,  all 
the  strong-holds  in  that  country.  At  the  head  of  one  division 
General  Wolfe  was  to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence,  and,  with  the 
cooperation  of  a  fleet,  lay  siege  to  Quebec.  The  main  army  was 
destined,  in  the  first  instance,  against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point ;  and  after  the  reduction  of  these  places,  to  proceed  to  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and,  descending  the  river,  to  join  General  Wolfe, 
before  Quebec.  The  third  army  was  to  be  conducted  by  General 
Prideaux,  in  the  first  instance  against  Niagara;  and  after  the 
reduction  of  that  place,  to  embark  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  proceed 
down  the  St.  Lawrence  against  Montreal,  and  afterwards  to 
Quebec.  General  Amherst  advanced  with  the  main  army  to  lay 
siege  to  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point ;  but  on  his  approach  both 
places  were  abandoned,  and  their  garrisons  retired  to  Isle  aux 
Noix.  Amherst  made  great  exertions  to  obtain  a  naval  supe- 
riority on  the  lake,  that  he  might  be  enabled  to  attack  the  French, 
who  had  a  considerable  marine  force  at  its  northern  extremity; 
but  after  gaining  a  partial  advantage,  by  destroying  two  vessels 
of  the  enemy,  he  was  obliged,  by  storms  and  the  advanced  season 
of  the  year,  to  return  to  Crown  Point,  and  put  his  troops  in  winter 
quarters.  General  Prideaux  advanced  towards  Niagara,  and, 
having  effected  a  landing  about  three  miles  from  the  fort,  he 
proceeded  to  invest  the  place  by  regular  approaches.  In  the 
prosecution  of  the  siege,  he  was  killed,  and  the  command  devolved 
on  Sir  William  Johnson.  A  party  of  French  came  from  Detroit 
and  Venango,  to  the  relief  of  the  garrison ;  but  they  were 
defeated,  and  the  garrison,  consisting  of  six  hundred  men,  surren- 
dered during  the  last  week  in  July.  Though  the  armies,  led  by 
Amherst  and  Prideaux  against  Ticonderoga,  Crown  Point  and 
Niagara,  had  succeeded,  yet  their  success  was  neither  so  com- 
plete, nor  so  early  in  the  season,  as  to  enable  them  to  fulfil  the 
ulterior  objects  of  the  campaign,  by  an  efficient  cooperation  with 
General  Wolfe,  to  whom  had  been  assigned  the  hazardous  and 
difficult  operation  of  a  direct  attack  on  Quebec.  Wolfe  was 
completely  successful  in  this  important  enterprise.  Quebec  sur- 
rendered on  the  13th  of  September,  and  the  whole  of  Canada 
became  subject  to  the  British  crown. 

Till  the  year  1758,  or  rather  1759,  it  seemed,  doubtful  whether 
France  or  England  would  gain  the  ascendency  in  me  New- 
World;  and,  in  particular,  whether  the  British  would  not  be 
confined  to  a  narrow  slip  of  land  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 


508  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

The  superior  population  and  wealth  of  the  English  colonies,  and 
the  immense  superiority  of  the  British  navy  over  that  of  France, 
anil  particularly  the  energy  of  Pitt's  administration,  turned  the 
scales  in  favor  of  England.  Great  joy  was  diffused  throughout 
the  British  dominions ;  but  in  no  place  was  it  felt  in  a  higher 
degree,  or  with  greater  reason,  than  in  America.  For  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  France  and  England  had  been  contending  for 
American  territory,  and  for  the  last  half  of  that  period  almost 
incessantly.  Neither  knew  the  precise  extent  of  their  boundaries, 
but  both  were  willing  to  enlarge  them.  They  possessed  much, 
but  coveted  more.  Neither  were  backward  to  make  encroach- 
ments on  the  other ;  and  both  were  prompted  to  repel  them  when 
made,  or  supposed  to  be  made,  on  themselves.  Throughout  thi 
period,  especially  the  last  half  of  it,  in  addition  to  the  unavoida- 
ble calamities  of  war,  indiscriminate  massacres  had  been  frequently 
and  extensively  committed  on  numerous  settlers,  dispersed  over 
many  hundred  miles  of  exposed  frontier ;  it  has  beert  supposed 
that  the  British  lost,  in  this  way,  not  less  than  twenty  thousand 
inhabitants.  War  assumed  a  most  terrific  aspect  among  the 
colonists.  Not  confined  to  men  in  arms,  as  is  common  in  Europe, 
aged  persons,  women  and  children,  were  frequently  its  victims. 
The  tomahawk  and  scalping-knives,  carried  to  the  firesides  of 
peaceable,  helpless  families,  were  applied  promiscuously  to  every 
age  and  sex.  It  was  hoped  that  the  reduction  of  Canada  would 
close  these  horrid  scenes  forever,  with  respect  to  the  northern  and 
middle  colonies.  As  the  Indians  could  in  future  derive  supplies 
from  none  but  the  English,  and  as  they  could  no  longer  be 
exposed  to  the  seduction  of  French  influence,  it  was  confidently 
expected  that  they  would  desist  from  their  depredations,  and 
leave  the  colonists  to  pursue  their  own  happiness.  This  was  in  a 
great  measure  the  case,  after  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1763.  At  the 
end  of  that  period,  a  new  war,  on  new  principles,  commenced,  in 
which  the  same  ground  was  fought  over,  and  the  same  points  con- 
tended for,  by  new  parties.  The  Indians  were  again  called  in  as 
auxiliaries,  and  encouraged  to  the  same  scenes  of  devastation  and 
murder,  from  which  the  colonists  had  fondly  hoped  that  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  had  forever  delivered  them.  The  origin  of  this 
revolution  is  the  next  subject  of  inquiry.  Before  we  enter  upon 
it,  a  few  reflections  may  be  properly  indulged. 

One  hundred  and  fifty-six  years  had  passed  away  between  the 
first  permanent  British  establishment  in  North  America,  and  the 
conquest  of  Canada.  In  a  considerable  portion  of  that  period,  the 
three  greatest  naval  powers  of  Europe, — England,  France  and 
Spain, — had  been  incessantly  contending  for  the  same  American 


STATE   OF   THE   COLONIES.  509 

territory.  The  boundaries  of  the  colonies,  which  now  form  the 
United  States,  were  subjects  of  controversy  on  every  side,  except 
where  nature's  highway,  the  ocean,  precluded  all  ideas  of  appro- 
priation. Ignorance  of  American  geography  laid  the  foundation 
for  disputes  respecting  the  boundaries  of  adjoining  provinces, 
though  granted  by  the  same  sovereign,  and  still  more  so  respect- 
ing the  extent  of  territory  claimed  by  different  nations.  The 
former  might  be  adjusted  in  civil  courts;  but  the  latter,  where 
there  was  no  common  umpire,  to  whom  an  appeal  could  be  made, 
were  generally  referred  to  the  sword.  For  seventy  years,  wars 
had  succeeded  wars,  without  settling  any  points  in  controversy. 
At  length,  a  great  and  decisive  effort  took  place,  in  which  a  com- 
plete trial  of  strength  was  made  by  the  naval  powers.  In  this,  the 
law  of  war  decided  differently  from  the  new  law  of  nations,  in 
favor  of  prior  occupants;  the  sword  settled  all  claims  of  territory, 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  English,  who  were  the  last  occupiers 
of  a  part,  became  the  sole  possessors  of  almost  the  whole  North 
American  continent,  to  the  exclusion  of  their  vanquished  rivals, 
who  had  a  prior  possession  in  its  northern  and  southern  extremi- 
ties. 


CHAPTER    LIV. 

Origin  of  the  troubles  which  led  to  the  American  revolution. — Assumption  of  Ifit 
power  of  exclusive  legislation  by  the  British  Parliament. — Financial  embarrass- 
ments of  Britain. — Schemes  for  raising  a  revenue  in  America. — Restrictions 
imposed  on  the  trade  of  the  calonies. — Discontent  of  the  colonists. — Embarrass- 
ments caused  by  the  oppressive  and  impolitic  measures  of  the  ministry. —  The 
Stamp  Act  passed. — Indignation  and  resolute  opposition  of  the  colonists. 

THE  troubles  which  led  to  the  American  Revolution  proceeded 
from  two  general  causes ;  an  excessive  desire  of  dominion  in  the 
British  government,  and  a  jealousy,  in  the  colonists,  of  ministerial 
designs  against  their  rights  and  liberties.  It  cannot  be  disputed 
that  the  legislature  in  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  the  executive 
power,  by  divers  acts  of  parliament,  which  had  all  the  appearance 
of  selfishness  and  tyranny,  gave,  at  an  early  period,  sufficient 
ground  of  jealousy  to  the  colonies.  On  the  pretence  of  expenses 
incurred  for  the  defence  of  America,  the  British  government 
claimed  a  right  of  internal  taxation,  unknown  to  the  English  con- 
stitution ;  and  proceeded  to  frame  new  laws,  which  declared  that 
the  sole  right  of  legislation  was  vested  in  the  parliament  of  Eng- 
land. In  this  case,  the  subjects  of  the  British  empire  in  the 
western  part  of  the  world  were  considered  not  as  citizens,  but  as 
vassals,  under  absolute  authority  to  a  legislature,  in  which  they 
had  none  to  represent  them.  The  recent  war  with  France  and 
Spain  had  added  an  enormous  weight  of  debt  to  the  national 
burdens,  and  the  peace  that  was  but  lately  concluded,  had  given 
England  an  addition  of  territory,  without  making  her  in  reality 
any  richer.  As  soon  as  peace  gave  the  nation  time  to  reflect,  it 
was  found  that  the  flattering  ideas  of  conquest  could  not  remove 
the  uneasy  feelings  which  the  pressure  of  so  many  millions  of 
debt  had  occasioned.  It  was  expected  that  the  debts  would  have 
been  lessened,  the  taxes  reduced,  and  the  burdens  lightened ;  but 
the  hot  fever  of  war  had  so  weakened  the  whole  frame  of  the 
constitution,  that  the  nation,  soon  after  the  peace,  appeared,  as  it 
were,  in  the  second  stage  of  a  consumption.  The  conductors  of 
the  last  war,  who  had  prosecuted  it  upon  the  plan  which  the" 
elder  Pitt  had  bequeathed  to  their  hands,  were  obliged  ignomini- 
ously  to  drop  it,  for  want  of  capacity  to  carry  it  on.  They 
ratified  a  peace,  as  inglorious  as  the  war  had  been  successful. 


RESTRICTIONS  ON  THE  TRADE  OF  THE  COLONIES.       511 

Though  an  indifferent  peace  is  preferable  to  even  a  successful 
state  of  war,  yet,  when  a  nation  is  laden  with  a  burden  of  enor- 
mous debt,  contracted  for  its  own  defence,  wisdom  and  political 
prudence  will  certainly  vindicate  them  in  making  their  enemies, 
when  in  their  power,  pay  as  much  as  possible  of  the  debt.  The 
negotiators  of  the  peace  were  considered  by  the  bulk  of  the 
natives,  a  set  of  adventurers,  who,  when  they  were  sensible  of 
their  incapacity  to  carry  on  the  war,  were  determined  to  conclude 
a  peace,  with  as  much  profit  to  their  own  private  interest  as 
possible. 

The  government,  since  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  had  been 
projecting  schemes  for  raising  a  revenue;  but  as  the  number  of 
pensioners  was  not  reduced,  and  enormous  sums  were  paid  to  sine- 
cures, all  the  methods  that  had  as  yet  been  devised,  were  found 
ineffectual  to  answer  the  intentions  of  the  ministry.  They  began, 
at  last,  to  turn  their  attention  to  a  new  subject,  which,  in  conclu- 
sion, brought  on  disorders  in  the  empire,  and  at  last  issued  in 
a  civil  war,  and  the  revolt  of  the  thirteen  colonies.  As  the 
merchants  in  Great  Britain  had  been  enriched  by  their  traffic  in 
America,  and  government  had  for  many  years  received  a  large 
revenue  from  the  trade  of  that  country,  the  ministers  began  to 
imagine  that  there  was  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  wealth  in  the 
colonies  to"  answer  their  present  purposes.  Without  examining 
strictly  into  the  consequences  which  might  follow  a  too  precipitate 
determination  in  a  matter  so  new  and  so  delicate,  they  decided  at 
once  to  raise  a  new  revenue  in  the  American  colonies. 

Their  first  movement  was  to  prohibit  the  Americans  from 
exporting  their  superfluous  commodities  to  the  Spanish  and 
French  colonies.  This  trade,  which  had  been  formerly  winked 
at,  though  not  strictly  agreeable  to  the  British  laws  of  navigation, 
was  of  great  advantage  both  to  the  colonies  and  the  mother  coun- 
try. Those  articles  which  would  have  been  as  lumber  upon  the 
hands  of  the  colonists,  and  could  not  have  been  useful  to  Great 
Britain,  were  sold  to  the  Spaniards  and  French  for  ready  money, 
or  bartered  for  valuable  commodities,  for  which  there  was  always 
a  demand  in  Europe.  This  enabled  the  colonies  to  pay  their 
bills  in  specie  to  the  merchants  at  home,  or  to  afford  them  such 
merchandise  as  was  equivalent  to  ready  money.  What  were  the 
secret  springs  of  action  which  moved  the  British  .egislature  to 
prefer  this  impolitic  statute,  is  not  easy  to  perceive,  unless,  by 
listening  to  the  reports  of  the  British  West  India  merchants,  who 
might  conceive  that  it  would  enable  the  French,  and  Spaniards  to 
undersell  them  in  foreign  markets,  and  of  consequence  reduce 
their  profits,  they  were  seduced  to  give  way  to  their  solicitations. 


512  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

In  time  of  war  this  trade  had  been  carried  on  by  flags  of  truce 
between  Great  Britain  and  France,  as  a  public  benefit  to  both,  till 
the  French  West  India  Islands  being  shut  up  by  the  British 
fleets,  it  was  conceived  that  France  had  more  advantage  by  it 
than  England,  and  for  that  reason  it  was  restrained  as  a  treason- 
able practice.  But  this  last  reason  of  restraint  had  no  existence 
after  the  peace  was  concluded. 

Unreasonable  as  this  law  may  appear  to  be,  the  method  of 
putting  it  into  execution  was  still  more  absurd  and  oppressive. 
A  number  of  armed  cutters  were  fitted  out  and  stationed  upon  the 
coasts  of  America,  to  prevent  this  supposed  contraband  trade,  the 
captains  of  which  were  to  act  in  the  character  of  revenue  officers, 
and  to  determine  what  ships  were  liable  to  the  penalties  of  this 
act.  The  greatest  part  of  these  new  naval  revenue  officers  were 
utter  strangers  to  the  nature  of  their  employment.  They  fre- 
quently detained  ships,  which  came  not  within  the  description  of 
the  act;  and  by  these  unnecessary  detentions,  they  interrupted  trade, 
without  bringing  anything  into  the  treasury.  When,  through 
their  ignorance  or  insolence,  a  lawful  trader  was  injured,  it  was 
not  easy  to  obtain  redress ;  the  offenders  lived  upon  an  element 
where  justice  and  law  have  often  little  influence;  and  when  they 
came  ashore,  it  was  in  bodies  too  numerous  to  be  called  to  an 
account  by  the  civil  authority,  or  in  places  where  their  actions 
were  not  cognizable  by  the  law.  None  but  the  lords  of  the 
admiralty,  or  of  the  treasury,  in  England,  could  remove  this 
grievance ;  but  considering  the  distance  of  place,  and  the  manner 
of  application,  the  whole  trade  might  have  been  ruined  before 
redress  could  have  been  obtained. 

This  was  a  grievance  which  the  American  subjects  felt  severely. 
The  many  unjust  acts  of  violence  that  followed,  tended  very 
much  to  irritate  the  minds  of  both  parties,  and  when  they  rep- 
resented their  cases,  it  was  frequently  with  great  acrimony  and 
aggravation.  The  English  parliament  might  have  easily  foreseen 
these  consequences,  had  they  not  been  infatuated  with  the  hope 
of  raising  a  large  revenue  from  the  Americans.  The  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  especially  the  ministry,  were  yet 
smarting  sore  under  the  blows  they  had  received  from  the  North 
Briton,  and  other  political  pasquinades.  A  secretary  of  state 
had  been  also,  the  year  before,  fined  in  a  court  of  justice,  in  a 
penalty  of  a  thousand  pounds,  for  issuing  a  legal  warrant;  and 
considering  the  poverty  of  the  exchequer,  every  similar  touch 
increased  the  painful  feelings  of  the  ministry.  They  seemed  in 
a  state  of  distraction  when  they  passed  this  law  of  restraint  upon 
the  trade  of  America,  and  it  had  more  the  appearance  of  an  act 


IMPOLITIC    MEASURES    OF    THE    BRITISH    MINISTRY. 


513 


of  political  fury  than  the  marks  of  judicious  legislation.  It 
could  answer  no  other  purpose  than  to  assert  the  dominion  of 
parliament  over  America,  and  to  irritate  the  colonies  against  the 
mother  country.  Ever  since  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Pitt,  the  nation 
had  been  in  a  state  of  confusion,  with  regard  to  political  senti- 
ments, and  the  opposition  in  parliament  against  the  prime  minister. 
Lord  Bute,  was  echoed  throughout  all  England. 


George  Grenville. 

In  1763,  Lord  Bute  resigned  his  office  as  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury, and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Grenville ;  but  the  factions 
continued,  and,  during  this  new  ministry,  political  animosity  came 
to  a  great  height.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  American  colonies 
began  to  feel  the  oppressive  hand  of  the  mother  country.  She 
had  not  only  prevented  the  Americans  from  procuring  the  neces- 
saries of  life  with  the  superfluities  of  their  own  country,  but 
obliged  them  to  make  payment  in  specie,  to  the  exchequer  in 
England,  for  the  duty  on  such  goods  as  they  were  allowed  to 
barter.  This  was  an  effectual  method  of  draining  money  from 
the  colonies,  and  leaving  them  nothing  for  circulation.  What 
was  still  more  oppressive,  two  weeks  after  the  bill  now  mentioned 
was  passed,  another  was  proposed,  to  hinder  the  distressed  colonies 
from  supplying  the  demand  of  money  for  their  internal  necessities 
with  paper  bills  of  credit,  by  declaring  that  no  such  bills  should 
be  a  legal  tender  for  payment.  This  was  an  exertion  of  authority 
beyond  all  bounds  of  justice;  for  it  was  impossible  that  the 

M| 


514  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

Americans,  without  trade,  money  or  paper  credit,  could  pay  any- 
thing at  all. 

The  laws  that  were  at  this  time  made  in  behalf  of  the  colonies 
were  trifling  in  their  influence,  compared  with  the  restraints  that, 
were  laid  upon  their  trade  by  the  other  statutes.  The  effects  of 
the  former  were  slow  and  progressive,  but  those  of  the  latter 
instantaneous.  This  was  a  partiality  in  the  legislature,  sufficient 
to  create  a  belief  in  the  minds  of  the  colonists  that  the  parliament 
of  Britain  considered  them  not  as  fellow-subjects,  but  as  inferior 
vassals,  not  to  be  regarded  in  the  same  manner  as  the  subjects  of 
the  mother  country. 

In  1765,  a  bill  was  brought  into  parliament,  for  laying  a  stamp 
duty  and  other  taxes  upon  the  colonies  in  America.  Some  of 
these  duties  were  exceedingly  exorbitant.  The  transactions  in 
parliament  were  not  so  secretly  carried  on,  but  information  of 
them  reached  America  before  the  new  laws  were  ready  to  be  put 
in  execution.  After  the  stamp  act  was  read  in  parliament  the 
first  time,  a  petition  was  offered  to  the  commons,  by  Edward 
Montague,  in  behalf  of  the  province  of  Virginia,  praying  that 
their  House  of  Burgesses  might  be  continued  in  the  rights  and 
privileges  they  had  so  long  enjoyed ;  and  that  they  might  be 
heard  by  their  council  against  a  bill  that  might  be  intended  to 
impose  stamp  duties  on  the  colony  of  Virginia.  A  petition  was 
also  presented  by  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  against  the  stamp 
act,  and  praying  that  the  colony  might  be  indulged  in  the  exercise 
of  the  power  of  levying  all  their  internal  taxes.  Upon  a  division, 
it  was  carried  by  two  hundred  and  forty-five  against  forty-nine, 
that  the  petitions  should  not  be  heard,  and  the  stamp  act,  after 
going  through  all  the  regular  forms,  was  passed,  and  received  the 
royal  sanction,  March  22,  1765. 

It  must  be  acknowledged,  to  the  honor  of  the  British  Parliament, 
that  this  bill  did  not  pass  without  opposition  ;  the  friends  of  lib- 
erty and  of  the  constitution  opposed  it  in  all  its  stages,  and 
offered  such  arguments  against  it  as  their  opponents  were  not 
able  to  answer.  The  jurisdiction  of  parliament  over  the  colonies 
was  combatted  with  arguments  which  every  sober  person,  undei 
the  influence  of  truth,  must  confess  in  his  heart  to  be  forcible  and 
conclusive. 

White  the  ministry  and  parliament  were  deliberating  concern- 
ing the  methods  to  give  effect  to  the  stamp  act,  the  leaders  among 
the  American  colonies  had  time  to  kindle  a  flame  in  the  tempers 
of  the  people  against  it,  that  neither  the  art  nor  power  of  the 
king's  ministers  were  afterwards  able  to  quench.  Wherever  the 
news  of  this  impolitic  and  oppressive  law  reached,  it  spread 


THE    STAMP   ACT.  515 

discontent  like  a  conflagration.  The  ministry  were  unfortunate 
in  the  beginning  of  this  scheme,  and  unsuccessful  in  the  conclu- 
sion of  it.  The  news  of  the  stamp  act  came  first  to  New  Eng- 
land,— a  colony  the  most-  tenacious  of  their  liberty,  and  jealous  to 
the  last  degree  of  every  appearance  of  despotism.  The  people  of 
this  colony  considered  themselves  as  the  offspring  of  progenitors, 
who  had  suffered  both  severely  and  unjustly  at  the  hands  of  the 
mother  country,  and  who  had  asserted  their  natural  rights  and 
privileges  at  the  risk  of  their  lives  and  the  expense  of  much 
blood.  They  had  not  forgotten  how  their  fathers  had,  for  the 
sake  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  fled  to  a  wilderness,  which  they 
had  now  converted  into  a  fruitful  field,  from  an  intolerable  spirit- 
ual persecution,  which  could  not  be  borne;  and  they  were  not 
disposed  to  surrender  the  fruits  of  their  own  labor,  and  that  of 
their  ancestors,  to  the  children  of  those  who  had  banished  their 
fathers  from  their  native  country. 

When  the  news  that  the  stamp  act  had  received  the  royal  sig- 
nature reached  New  England,  the  melancholy  that  had  taken 
possession  of  their  minds  before,  broke  out  into  fury  and  outrage. 
The  ships  in  the  harbors  hung  out  their  colors  half-mast  high,  the 
bells  were  tolled,  the  act  was  printed  with  a  death's  head  to  it, 
in  the  place  where  it  is  customary  to  affix  the  new  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, and  cried  publicly  about  the  streets,  by  the  name  of  the 
'•'•Folly  of  England,  and  the  Ruin  of  America"  Essays  were 
written  against  the  justice  of  this  law  in  newspapers.  One  in 
particular,  the  Constitutional  Courant,  "  pointed  by  Andrew 
Marvel,  at  the  sign  of  the  Bribe  Refused,  on  Constitutional  Hill, 
North  America,"  had  a  more  significant  frontispiece  than  any  of 
the  rest.  It  bore  a  snake  cut  in  pieces,  with  the  initial  names  of  the 
several  colonies,  from  New  England  to  South  Carolina,  inclusively, 
to  each  piece,  and  above  them  the  words,  "JOIN,  OR  DIE." 
To  these  were  added  several  sententious  aphorisms,  suited  to  the 
occasion,  which  were  easily  circulated  and  as  easily  committed 
to  memory ;  and  being  exceedingly  pungent,  they  had  all  the  force 
of  arguments. 

There  were  two  things  exceedingly  grievous  in  this  act  to  the 
colonies.  The  first  was  that  the  persons  who  acted  under  the 
law  had  it  in  their  power  to  bring  an  action  in  court,  the  cause  of 
which  had  arisen  at  one  extremity  of  North  America,  to  the  other 
extremity,  at  the  distance  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  without 
the  defendant  being  entitled  to  recover  damages,  although  the 
judge  should  certify  that  there  was  no  reasonable  cause  for  the 
prosecution.  The  second  was,  the  judge  had  an  interest  in  giving 
a  sentence  in  favor  of  the  party  suing  for  the  penalties  of  the  act ; 


516  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

T.e  being  allowed  for  commission  a  very  large  share  in  these  pen- 
alties. This  was  injustice,  such  as  the  most  abject  slaves  could 
not  easily  endure  without  murmuring.  In  many  places  the  stamp 
act  was  publicly  burnt,  together  with  the  effigies  of  the  chief  pro- 
moters of  the  scheme.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Americans  applauded, 
with  eulogiums  of  the  highest  strain,  the  members  of  parliament 
who  had  opposed  this  obnoxious  bill.  In  several  of  their  meet- 
ings, they  voted  thanks  to  General  Conway  and  Colonel  Barre, 
two  gentlemen  who  had  defended  their  cause  in  the  British  House 
of  Commons. 


Barre. 


The  ministry  were  now  much  embarrassed  how  to  carry  the 
stamp  act  into  execution  ;  for  when  the  tidings  of  this  discontent 
m  America  arrived  in  England,  there  were  but  few  shipmasters 
bund  who  were  willing  to  take  on  board  such  an  unpopular 
jargo  as  the  stamped  paper.  Those  who  had  the  courage  to  carry 
my  of  these  tickets  of  taxation  to  America,  were  made  sadly  to 
jepent  when  they  arrived  at  their  destined  port  ;  where,  to  save 
iheir  vessels  from  fire,  they  were  forced  to  deliver  up  their  exe- 
crated cargoes  into  the  hands  of  the  enraged  populace.  Others 
arere  obliged  to  shelter  themselves  under  cover  of  the  king's  ships. 
The  rich  harvest  of  revenue  that  was  expected  to  be  reaped  by 
English  tax-gatherers,  was  by  this  storm  soon  blasted,  and  the 
ttamp  officers,  who  came  from  England  with  conmissions  to  act  as 
Distributors,  were  made  to  repent  very  severely  having  engaged 
ji  such  an  enterprise.  Many  of  them  were  compelled  to  renounce, 


PATRICK   HENRY.  517 

in  the  most  public  manner  and  upon  oath,  ail  manner  of  concern 
in  the  business ;  and  others  hurried  back  to  England ;  while 
some,  of  a  more  froward  disposition,  persisting  strenuously  in 
putting  the  act  in  execution,  were  treated  by  the  people  as  enemies 
of  their  country.  Such  was  the  rage  of  the  multitude,  that  some 
persons,  who  had  been  appointed,  without  their  consent,  to  super- 
intend the  distribution  of  the  stamped  paper,  were  treated  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  legislatures  of  the  several  colonies  proceeded  still  further. 
Instead  of  merely  winking  at  the  opposition  of  the  people,  they 
began  to  encourage  it,  and  in  express  terms  affirmed  that  the 
British  legislature  had  no  right  to  tax  them.  It  was  granted  that 
the  colonists  were  subjects  of  the  empire ;  but  they  contended  for 
the  right  to  make  their  own  laws,  as  well  as  the  subjects  at  home, 
and  that  none  but  themselves  had  a  right  to  give  away  their 
property.  They  came,  at  last,  to  a  resolution  to  petition  the  par- 
liament against  the  stamp  act;  but  at  the  same  time  that  they 
asked  this  favor,  they  did  not  acknowledge  that  they  were 
dependent  upon  the  parliament  of  Britain.  This  was  considered 
as  only  asking  a  favor  of  equals,  without  making  the  submission 


Patrick  Henry. 

the  parliament  required,  which  rendered  their  petition  offensive  to 
the  majority  of  that  body.  In  the  House  of  Burgesses  of  Vir- 
ginia, resolutions  against  the  stamp  act  were  introduced  by  Pat- 
rick  Henry,  who,  on  this  occasion,  uttered  the  bold  exclamation, 
44 


518  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

"  Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I.  his  Cromwell,  and  George  the 
Third," which  was  interrupted  by  the  cry  of  "  Treason !  Trea- 
son ! "  from  all  parts  of  the  house,  and  which  he  completed  by 
adding,  in  the  firmest  and  most  emphatic  tone — "may  profit  by 
their  example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it ! " 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  colonists  formed  associations  and  ap- 
pointed committees  for  the  sake  of  a  general  correspondence,  in 
managing  the  common  affairs  of  the  whole  body.  From  these 
committees,  deputies  were  appointed  to  meet  in  Congress  at  New 
York ;  and  what  showed  the  unanimity  of  their  sentiments  in 
this  general  cause,  and  that  they  were  all  of  one  mind,  is,  that 
when  the  deputies  met,  they  were  so  well  agreed,  that  they  had 
little  more  to  do  than  to  congratulate  one  another,  and  set  their 
hands  to  one  general  declaration  of  their  rights,  and  the  griev- 
ances they  labored  under ;  and  to  draw  up  a  petition  expressing  a 
sense  of  these  grievances  to  the  king,  lords,  and  commons  of 
Great  Britain. 

Before  the  first  of  November,  1765,  when  the  act  was  to  take 
effect,  there  was  not  a  sheet  of  stamped  paper  to  be  had  through- 
out New  England,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
Maryland,  or  the  two  Carolinas,  except  a  parcel  at  New  York, 
which  the  government,  through  fear,  was  obliged  to  surrender  to 
the  corporation  of  the  city,  upon  condition  that  they  would  not 
destroy  it.  Thus  all  business  that  could  not  be  carried  on 
without  stamps,  was  brought  to  a  stand,  except  the  publication  of 
newspapers,  which  the  printers  had  the  courage  to  publish 
without  stamps.  But  in  Canada,  where  the  newspapers  were 
stamped,  the  printers  were  in  a  worse  situation,  for  few  or  none 
would  buy  a  newspaper,  on  account  of  its  being  stamped,  and  the 
whole  lay  upon  their  hands.  The  courts  of  justice  were  now 
shut  up,  as  well  as  the  custom-houses. 

But  the  Americans  were  not  slow  in  projecting  schemes  against 
the  stamp  act.  The  merchants  throughout  all  the  colonies  en- 
tered into  the  most  solemn  engagements  to  order  no  more  goods 
from  Great  Britain,  whatever  should  be  the  consequence,  and  to 
recall  the  orders  they  had  already  given,  if  not  executed  before  the 
first  of  January,  1766.  They  resolved,  further,  not  even  to  dis- 
pose of  any  British  goods  sent  them  upon  commission,  that  were 
not  shipped  before  that  day ;  or  if  they  consented  to  any  relaxa- 
tion from  these  engagements,  it  was  not  to  take  place  till  the 
stamp  act,  sugar  act,  and  paper  money  acts  were  repealed.  The 
people  of  Philadelphia,  also,  resolved  that,  till  such  a  repeal 
should  happen,  no  lawyer  should  commence  any  suit  for  a  de- 
mand for  money,  owing  by  a  resident  in  America,  however 


OPPOSITION    TO    THE    STAMP    ACT. 


519 


indebted  in  England,  or  make  any  remittances  thither.  This 
resolution  was  adopted  by  the  shopkeepers,  who  unanimously 
agreed  not  to  buy  any  more  English  goods  shipped  contrary  to 
these  resolutions.  Ages  to*  come  will  be  amazed,  that  separate 
governments,  and  so  many  colonies  distinct  from  each  other, 
should  have  united  so  speedily  in  one  interest,  notwithstanding 
the  influence  of  government  agents  among  them,  who  endeavored 
to  frustrate  all  their  designs. 


James  II. 


Queen  Anne. 


George  I. 


George  IV. 


CHAPTER     LV. 

Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act. — New  laws  passed  for  taxing  the  colonies. — Their  failure 
of  success. — Early  efforts  of  the  colonists  for  the  promotion  of  domestic  manu- 
factures.— British  troops  quartered  upon  the  Americans. — Opposition  of  the 
legislature  of  New  York. — Dissensions  between  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts 
and  the  Governor. — Seizure  of  the  sloop  Liberty  at  Boston. —  Troubles  at  that 
place. — British  troops  ordered  to  Boston. —  Consternation  of  the  inhabitants. — 
General  convention  of  the  people  of  Massachusetts. — Arrival  of  the  troops  at 
Boston. — Proceedings  of  the  British  ministry  and  parliament. — Troubles  occa- 
sioned by  the  troops. — The  Boston  Massacre. 

THE  British  ministry  were  at  length  convinced  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  enforcing  the  stamp  act,  and  it  was  repealed  by 
Parliament,  March  8,  1766.  But  the  satisfaction  which  this 
measure  gave  the  colonists,  did  not  remove  their  apprehensions 
concerning  the  designs  of  the  ministry.  New  laws  were  passed, 
in  1767,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue  in  the  colonies,  by 
duties  on  the  importation  of  glass  and  paper,  and  other  commod- 
ities from  Great  Britain.  It  appears  somewhat  surprising,  after 
the  recent  example  of  the  mischiefs  that  attended  the  stamp  act, 
and  the  consequent  repeal  of  it  from  a  knowledge  of  those  evils, 
that  a  measure  of  a  like  tendency  should  have  been  so  speedily 
adopted,  before  the  chagrin,  on  account  of  the  former  irritation, 
was  worn  off  the  minds  of  the  colonists.  Much  the  same  argu- 
ments were  used  in  defence  of  those  measures,  that  were  made  in 
support  of  the  stamp  act. 

These  laws  met  with  the  same  fate  that  attended  the  stamp 
act.  The  first  visible  instance  of  opposition  shown  to  them,  hap- 
pened at  Boston,  October  27th,  1767,  when  the  inhabitants,  at  a 
general  meeting,  agreed,  to  several  resolutions  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  manufactures,  promoting  frugality  and  economy,  and  for 
lessening  and  restraining  the  use  of  all  superfluities.  These 
resolutions,  which  were  all,  in  the  first  instance,  prejudicial  to  the 
commerce  of  Great  Britain,  contained  an  enumeration  of  articles 
which  it  was  determined  not  to  use  at  all,  or  in  as  low  a  degree 
as  possible.  At  the  same  time,  a  subscription  was  opened,  and  a 
committee  appointed  for  the  encouragement  of  their  old  manufac- 
tures, and  the  establishment  of  new  ones.  Among  these,  it  was 
agreed  to  give  particular  encouragement  to  the  making  of  paper 
and  glass,  and  the  other  taxed  commodities.  It  was  also  resolved 


OFFENSIVE   ACTS    OF    THE    BRITISH    PARLIAMENT.  52J 

to  restrain  the  expenses  of  funerals,  and  to  reduce  dress  to  a 
degree  of  primitive  simplicity  and  plainness,  and,  in  general,  not 
to  purchase  from  the  mother  country  anything  which  could  be 
procured  in  America.  Th£se  resolutions  were  adopted,  or  similar 
ones  agreed  upon,  by  nearly  all  the  old  colonies  of  the  continent. 
The  British  ministry  mighf,  by  this  time,  have  perceived  that  a 
people  of  such  Spartan  spirit  were  not  to  be  easily  frightened 
into  compliance  with  arbitrary  acts  of  a  legislature,  where  they 
had  none  to  represent  them.  A  people  that  have  so  much  public 
virtue  as  to  become  unfashionable  for  the  sake  of  preserving  their 
political  rights,  and  can  restrain  their  appetites  and  passions,  for 
the  sake  of  their  country,  are  not  easily  to  be  enslaved. 

What  had  lately  irritated  both  parties  in  this  dispute,  was  the 
law  quartering  troops  on  the  Americans.  It  had  been  ordered,  by 
an  act  of  parliament  in  the  last  session,  that  the  people  of  New 
York  should  provide  for  the  king's  troops,  according  to  a  method 
expressed  in  the  act;  but  the  assembly  of  that  province,  instead 
of  complying,  pursued  a  measure  of  their  own  in  disposing  of  the 
soldiers.  This  was  so  offensive  to  the  ministry,  that  they  retorted 
with  a  new  law,  whereby  the  governor,  council  and  assembly  of 
New  York  were  prohibited  from  passing  any  act  of  assembly 
whatever,  till  they  had  complied  with  the  terms  of  the  above  act 
of  parliament  in  every  particular.  This  was  designed  as  a  lesson 
to  the  other  colonies,  to  teach  them  more  reverence  to  the  acts  of 
the  British  legislature;  but  it  did  not  produce  the  intended  effect; 
for  the  colonists,  who  had  begun  to  question  the  right  of  the  par- 
liament to  make  laws  for  them,  were  not  disposed  to  obey  a 
statute  that  was  specially  designed  to  inform  them  that  they  were 
in  a  state  of  vassalage.  By  these  measures,  the  leading  actors  on 
both  sides  grew  more  and  more  heated  in  their  animosities,  and 
scarcely  could  restrain  themselves  within  the  bounds  of  decency 
and  temper. 

The  spirits  of  the  colonies  were  now  agitated  to  a  high  degree  of 
enthusiasm,  and  they  considered  almost  every  new  act  of  parlia- 
ment as  a  fresh  attack  upon  their  freedom,  and  an  insult  to  their 
understanding.  Upon  the  llth  February,  1768,  the  general  court 
of  Massachusetts  sent  a  circular,  signed  by  their  speaker,  to  all  the 
other  colonies  in  North  America.  The  design  of  this  was  to  show 
the  dangerous  tendency  of  the  late  acts  of  parliament,  to  repre- 
sent them  as  unconstitutional,  and  to  propose  a  common  union 
among  the  colonies  in  the  pursuit  of  all  legal  measures  to  prevent 
their  effects,  and  to  obtain  a  repeal  of  them.  At  this  period,  and 
for  some  years  before,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  and  the 
governor  had  differed  in  their  opinions  upon  almost  every  subject 
44*  N3 


THE    UNITED   STATES. 

that  came  before  them.  Tjjese  altercations  were  carried  on  with 
great  asperity  on  both  sides,  and  both  parties  seemed  more  atten- 
tive to  keenness  of  expression  and  severity  of  reply,  than  to  strict 
propriety  of  conduct.  Governor  Bernard  was  considered  by  the 
people  of  Massachusetts  as  a  person,  who  was  looking  up  to  the 
sovereign  for  a  new  dignity,  and  for  that  reason  was  more  careful 
to  please  the  ministry,  than  to  study  the  real  advantage  of  the 
colony.  He  had  shown  an  imperious  stiffness  in  his  behavior, 
which  did  not  suit  the  temper  of  the  sons  of  the  pilgrims.  His 
answers  to  their  petitions  and  requests  were  formal,  arbitrary, 
and  wilfully  disobliging;  and  instead  of  endeavoring  to  mollify 
the  tempers  of  the  legislature,  already  overheated,  he  added  fuel 
to  the  flame,  by  talking  of  prerogative,  and  the  determination  of 
the  sovereign  to  support  his  dignity.  It  was  strongly  suspected 
that  the  counsels  of  the  king  depended  much  upon  the  representa- 
tion that  the  governor  had  given  of  the  colonies,  and  that  the 
ministerial  vengeance  proceeded,  in  a  great  measure,  from  those 
overcharged  accounts  of  the  temper  of  the  people,  represented  in 
his  letters  to  the  ministers  of  state. 

A  letter,  which  the  governor  received  from  the  Earl  of  Shel- 
burne,  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state,  and  which  con- 
tained some  severe  strictures»on  the  behavior  of  the  colonies,  was, 
by  the  order  of  the  governor,  and  according  to  its  original  design, 
read  in  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts.  This  produced  violent 
debates  in  the  assembly.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  wait 
upon  the  governor,  and  request  a  copy  of  Lord  Shelburne's  letter, 
and  of  those  he  had  written  himself,  concerning  the  affairs  of 
Massachusetts.  These  copies  being  refused,  the  assembly  de- 
spatched a  letter  to  the  secretary  of  state,  vindicating  themselves 
at  the  expense  of  the  governor,  whom  they  charged  with  misrep- 
resenting them.  They  also  wrote  letters  to  the  lords  of  the 
treasury,  and  several  other  officers  of  state,  wherein  they  remon- 
strated against  the  late  acts  of  parliament,  as  contrary  to  the 
constitution,  and  totally  subversive  of  their  rights  and  liberties. 
So  firm  an  opposition  was  by  no  means  agreeable  to  the  temper 
of  the  governor,  who  probably  had  given  assurances  to  the 
secretaries  of  state,  that  a  sharp  rebuke  from  England  would 
make  the  colonists  return  to  their  obedience. 

The  circular  letters  that  had  been  written  by  the  secretary  of 
state  to  the  other  colonies,  were  attended  with  as  little  success  as 
that  which  was  sent  to  Boston.  The  assemblies  of  the  other 
colonies  wrote  answers  to  that  of  Massachusetts,  in  which  they 
xprpssed  the  warmest  approbation  of  their  conduct,  and  a  firm 
resolution  to  concur  in  their  measures.  Some  of  the  colonies, 


SEIZURE   OF   THE   SLOOP   LIBERTY.  523 

also,  addressed  the  secretary  of  state,  and  justified  the  measures 
taken  by  the  assembly  at  Boston,  and  also  animadverted  with 
great  freedom  upon  several  passages  in  the  requisition  contained 
in  his  letter.  • 

On  the  10th  of  June,  1768,  just  before  the  dissolutibn  of  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  a  great  tumult  happened  at  Boston. 
The  board  of  customs  had  made  a  seizure  of  the  sloop  Liberty, 
belonging  to  John  Hancock,  one  of  the  principal  merchants.  The 
sloop  had  discharged  a  cargo  of  wine,  and  in  part  reloaded  with 
oil,  without  any  precise  attention  being  paid  to  the  new  laws,  or 
to  the  custom-house  regulations.  Upon  the  seizure  being  effected, 
the  custom-house  officers  made  a  signal  to  the  Romney  man-of- 
war,  and  her  boats  were  sent  manned  and  armed,  who  cut  away 
the  mast  of  the  sloop,  and  conveyed  her  alongside  the  Romney. 
The  people  assembled  in  great  multitudes,  pelted  the  commission- 
ers with  stones,  and  broke  one  of  their  swords,  after  which,  they 
attacked  their  houses,  broke  the  windows,  dragged  the  collector's 
boat  to  the  common,  and  burnt  it  to  ashes.  The  officers  of  the 
customs,  upon  this  outrage,  took  shelter  aboard  the  man-of-war, 
from  whence  they  removed  to  Castle  William.  This  transaction 
occasioned  several  town  meetings,  in  which  a  remonstrance  was 
presented  to  the  governor,  wherein  the  people  demanded  that  he 
should  issue  an  order  for  the  departure  of  the  ship  of  war  out  of 
the  harbor.  The  people  were  now  greatly  irritated;  they  per- 
ceived that  the  new  laws  would  be  enforced  by  every  exertion  of 
the  ministry. 

While  matters  were  in  this  threatening  situation,  two  regiments 
of  troops  were  ordered  from  Ireland,  and  some  detachments  from 
Halifax,  to  support  the  royal  government  at  Boston.  This  threw 
the  whole  town  into  consternation,  and  raised  great  commotions; 
it  was  considered  in  the  light  of  an  invasion,  and  animadverted 
upon  in  the  severest  terms.  A  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  was 
called  at  Fanueil  Hall.  They  chose  one  of  their  late  popular 
representatives  as  moderator.  They  then  appointed  a  committee 
to  wait  on  the  governor,  to  know  what  reasons  he  had  for  the 
intimations  he  had  given,  that  the  king's  troops  were  expected  in 
that  town,  and  to  present  a  petition  desiring  that  he  would  issue 
precepts  to  convene  and  assemble  the  legislature  with  the  greatest 
speed.  The  governor  answered  that  his  information  was  of  a 
private  nature,  and  that  he  could  do  nothing  as  to  the  calling  of 
another  assembly  for  the  present  year,  until  he  received  the  king's 
instructions.  A  committee  was  also  appointed,  to  consider  the 
present  state  of  affairs,  which  gave,  in  their  report,  a  long  declar- 
ation and  recital  of  their  rights,  and  the  violation  of  them  which 


524  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

they  conceived  had  been  lately  made ;  and  offered  several  resolu- 
tions, with  respect  to  the  legality  of  raising  or  keeping  up  a 
standing  army  among  them.  This  report  and  the  resolutions 
were  unanimously  agreed  to  by  the  assembly.  Upon  this,  a  con- 
vention was  called  to  assemble  at  Boston.  The  selectmen  were 
ordered  to  write  to  all  the  other  towns  in  the  province,  to  propose 
their  appointing  committees  for  the  same  purpose.  These  pro- 
ceedings of  the  people  of  Massachusetts  were  considered  as  illegal 
by  the  ministry.  It  would  appear  that  both  Governor  Bernard 
and  the  ministry  at  home  did  not  regard  the  colonists  as  having 
the  same  benefit  of  the  laws  with  the  people  of  England,  though 
they  imagined  they  were  bound  by  them  in  their  fullest  extent. 
But  they  seem  to  have  had  in  idea  a  distinction  between  a  British 
freeman  and  a  colonist,  which  the  latter  did  not  admit. 

Ninety-six  towns  in  Massachusetts  appointed  committees  to 
attend  the  convention,  but  the  town  of  Hatfield  refused  to  com- 
ply with  the- measure,  and  gave  reasons  in  a  letter.  It  is  plain 
from  this  answer  that  they  either  had  different  notions  from  the 
rest  of  their  brethren,  or  were  lukewarm  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 
When  the  convention  met,  their  first  measure  was  to  send  a  mes- 
sage to  the  governor,  wherein  they  disclaimed  all  authoritative  or 
legislative  acts ;  and  declared  that  they  came  freely  and  volun- 
tarily, at  the  earnest  desire  of  the  people,  to  consult  and  advise 
such  measures  as  might  promote  peace  and  good  order.  They 
then  repeated  the  tale  of  their  grievances,  complained  that  they 
were  grossly  misrepresented  in  Great  Britain,  and  pressed  the 
governor,  in  the  most  earnest  manner,  to  call  an  assembly,  as  the 
only  means  to  guard  against  those  alarming  dangers  that  threat- 
ened the  total  destruction  of  the  colony. ' 

The  governor  admonished  them  to  break  up  their  assembly 
instantly.  He  added  that  if  they  did  not  regard  his  admonition, 
he  must,  as  governor,  assert  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown  in  a 
more  public  manner ;  that  they  might  assure  themselves  he  spoke 
from  instruction ;  the  king  was  determined  to  maintain  his  entire 
sovereignty  over  that  province,  and  whosoever  should  persist  in 
usurping  any  of  the  rights  of  it,  would  repent  of  his  rashness. 
This  answer  produced  another  message,  wherein  they  justified 
this  meeting,  as  being  only  an  assemblage  of  private  persons,  and 
desired  explanations  as  to  the  criminality  with  which  their  pro- 
ceedings were  charged.  The  governor  refused  to  receive  that,  or 
any  other  message  from  them,  as  it  would  be  admitting  them  to 
be  a  legal  assembly,  which  he  would  not  by  any  means  allow. 
The  convention  then  appointed  a  committee,  who  drew  up  a 
report,  in  terms  of  great  moderation,  which  was  approved  by  the 


ARRIVAL   OF    BRITISH   TROOPS    IN    BOSTON    HARBOR.  525 

assembly.  In  this,  they  assign  the  cause  of  their  meeting,  and 
disclaim  all  pretence  to  any  authority  whatsoever,  and  recommend 
it  to  the  people  to  pay  the  greatest  deference  to  government. 
After  they  had  prepared  a  representation  of  their  conduct,  and  a 
detail  of  the  late  transactions,  to  be  transmitted  to  their  agent  at 
London,  they  broke  up.  It  appears  plain,  from  the  whole  of  these 
proceedings,  that  Governor  Bernard  was  at  more  pains  to  provoke 
the  people,  than  to  quiet  their  discontents.  His  opinion  concern- 
ing the  legality  of  their  meeting,  seems  frivolous  and  unsatisfac- 
tory; for  though  the  convention  was  chosen  by  the  people,  yet 
they  attempted  to  perform  no  public  act,  but  met  for  advice. 

On  the  29th  of  September,  1768,  the  very  day  the  convention 
broke  up,  the  fleet  from  Halifax,  with  two  regiments  and  a 
detachment  of  artillery,  arrived  in  the  harbor  of  Boston.  There 
were  some  disputes  concerning  quartering  the  soldiers;  the  coun- 
cil at  first  refused  to  receive  them  into  the  town,  as  the  barracks 
of  Castle  William  were  sufficient  for  them ;  this  objection  was, 
at  last,  got  over,  and  the  council  allowed  them  barrack  provisions. 
Soon  after,  General  Gage  arrived  with  the  two  regiments  from 
Ireland.  A  tolerable  harmony  subsisted  for  some  time  between  the 
people  and  the  troops,  and  both  the  town  and  province  continued 
for  a  season  very  quiet. 

'  The  ministry,  finding  that  they  had  a  strong  majority  in  parlia- 
ment, was  now  determined  effectually  to  humble  the  refractory 
colonies.  The  House  of  Lords,  upon  the  5th  of  February,  1769, 
passed  some  resolutions,  and  an  address  to  the  king.  In  these  the 
late  acts  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
which  called  in  question  the  authority  of  the  supreme  legislature 
to  make  laws  to  bind  the  colonies,  were  rescinded,  and  declared 
illegal,  unconstitutional  and  derogatory  of  the  rights  of  the  crown 
and  parliament.  The  circular  letters  written  by  the  same  assem- 
bly to  the  other  colonies,  were  declared  to  be  proceedings  most 
unwarrantable  and  dangerous.  The  town  of  Boston  was  declared 
in  a  state  of  disorder  and  confusion;  and  the  resolutions  and 
proceedings  at  the  town  meetings  at  Boston,  on  the  1 4th  of  June, 
and  the  12th  of  September,  1769,  were  pronounced  illegal  and 
unconstitutional,  and  calculated  to  excite  sedition  and  insurrection. 

The  address  that  followed  the  above  resolutions  breathed  the 
same  spirit.  It  expressed  the  greatest  satisfaction  with  the  meas- 
ures that  had  been  pursued,  to  support  the  constitution,  and  to 
restore  in  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  a  due  obedience  to 
the  authority  of  the  mother  country. 

Upon  this  persuasion  it  was  earnestly  requested  that  Governor 
Bernard  would  transmit  the  fullest  information  he  could  obtain, 


526  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  all  treasons,  or  suspicion  of  treason,  committed  within  his 
government,  since  the  30th  of  December,  1767,  together  with  the 
names  of  the  persons  who  were  most  active  in  committing  such 
offences;  that  his  majesty  might  issue  a  special  proclamation  for 
inquiring  into,  hearing  and  determining  upon  the  guilt  of  the 
offenders  within  the  realms.  This  was  an  opinion  very  unfavor- 
able to  the  colonists;  it  exposed  them  to  two  evils  of  the  most 
severe  kind ;  their  character  was  to  be  taken  from  the  report  of 
one  man,  who  was  their  enemy,  and  they  were  to  be  tried  in  a 
strange  country,  where  they  might  have  neither  friends  nor  con- 
nections. Though  these  resolutions  and  the  address  were  carried 
by  a  powerful  majority,  they  were  opposed  with  great  firmness 
and  force  of  argument  by  the  friends  of  the  colonists ;  and  there 
had  been  few  subjects  for  many  years  more  ably  discussed  than 
was  this,  through  the  whole  of  the  debate.  Both  the  right  and 
propriety  of  taxing  the  colonies  was  warmly  disputed.  Both 
houses  of  parliament  were  so  bent  upon  humbling  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts,  that  they  had  proceeded,  on  the  13th  of  February. 
to  request  the  king  to  call  all  offenders  in  that  colony  to  an 
account  before  the  British  courts.  Their  address  is  expressed  in 
the  strongest  terms  of  loyalty  to  the  king,  and  severity  to  the 
offenders  in  the  colony.  The  king,  in  his  answer,  entered  warmly 
into  the  spirit  of  the  measures  recommended,  and  breathed  ven- 
geance against  the  leading  persons  in  Massachusetts. 

It  was  now  manifest  that  nothing  could  bring  the  opposing 
parties  to  a  proper  temper,  except  an  unconditional  submission  on 
the  part  of  the  colonists.  At  this  time  it  appeared  to  almost  all 
ranks  of  people  an  easy  matter  to  settle  the  difference.  Modera- 
tion in  the  government,  equal  to  the  submission  of  the  colonists, 
might  have  quieted  all  the  commotions.  On  the  5th  of  March, 
1770,  Lord  North,  who  was  now  prime  minister,  brought  in  a  bill 
for  a  repeal  of  the  late  act  imposing  a  duty  upon  paper,  painter's 
colors,  and  glass,  except  the  duty  on  tea,  which  was  still  con- 
tinued. It  would  appear  that  the  minister  did  not  intend  to  be 
consistent,  when  he  repealed  only  part  of  that  act.  The  colo- 
nists had  as  strong  objections  to  the  authority  which  laid  a  duty 
on  tea,  as  that  which  did  the  same  for  paper  and  glass.  They 
inferred,  if  this  law  was  complied  with,  that  the  parliament  would 
never  cease  in  their  requisitions,  as  long  as  they  could  find 
anything  to  tax  in  the  colonies.  They  therefore  considered  the 
partial  repeal  of  the  acts  as  no  favor. 

Meantime,  the  military,  who  had  been  ordered  to  Boston  to 
enforce  the  new  laws,  took  up  their  quarters  there,  with  the 
strongest  impressions  that  they  were  sent  to  quell  an  actual  rebel- 


THE   BOSTON    MASSACRE.  527 

iion.  They  therefore  began  to  use  freedoms  inconsistent  with  the 
i ules  of  peace.  Their  behavior  gave  great  offence  to  the  citizens, 
who  were  not  a  little  prejudiced  against  them,  from  the  belief 
that  they  were  intended  to  be  a  check  upon  their  liberties.  It 
was  not  that  the  officers  were  guilty  of  any  disrespect  to  the 
inhabitants;  on  the  contrary,  they  did  all  in  their  power  to  pro- 
mote a  good  understanding  between  the  soldiers  and  the  towns- 
men. But  those  who  know  the  character  of  troops  stationed 
among  strangers,  will  easily  perceive  that  it  is  no  easy  task  to 
restrain  them  from  outrage  when  a  temptation  offers.  A  collec- 
tion of  men,  gathered  not  only  from  the  lowest  but  the  basest  of 
the  people,  who  have  nothing  to  restrain  them  but  military  disci- 
pline, and  who  always  consider  themselves  in  an  enemy's  country, 
wherever  they  are,  will  always  be  ready,  upon  the  smallest  relax- 
ation of  command,  to  fall  into  extravagances.  By  comparing 
impartially  the  accounts  given  on  both  sides,  it  appears  that  the 
soldiers  had  not  behaved  orderly,  nor  the  townsmen  very  dis- 
creetly. The  private  quarrels  of  individuals  soon  grew  to  open 
outrage.  The  soldiers  paraded  the  streets  with  drawn  cutlasses 
and  bayonets,  and  the  people  provoked  them  with  insults  and 
opprobrious  speeches.  The  soldiers  considered  the  people  to  be 
rebels,  and  the  citizens  looked  upon  the  soldiers  as  a  banditti  of 
oppressors,  sent  by  government  to  enslave  them.  It  was  no 
wonder  that  people,  inspired  by  such  different  sentiments,  should 
not  agree. 

In  this  state  of  mutual  irritation  between  the  soldiers  and  the 
populace,  it  was  evident  that  the  slightest  accident  might  lead  to 
scenes  of  open  violence,  tumult  and  bloodshed.  These  conse- 
quences did  not  fail  to  ensue;  and  the  memorable  affair  of  the 
fifth  of  March,  1770,  known  in  history  as  the  "  Boston  Massacre," 
tended  still  further  to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  colonists  against 
the  mother  country.  The  brawls  between  the  soldiers  and  the 
Bostonians  soon  grew  serious.  A  private  of  the  29th  regiment, 
being  provoked  by  some  insulting  words  from  a  workman  at  one 
of  the  ropewalks,  assaulted  him  and  was  overpowered.  He  ran 
to  his  barracks,  gathered  a  body  of  his  comrades,  and  returned  to 
take  his  revenge.  An  affray  ensued ;  the  soldiers  were  defeated 
by  the  ropemakers,  and  one  of  their  number  was  dangerously 
wounded.  Great  excitement  followed  throughout  the  town.  The 
matter  was  laid  before  the  council,  and  that  body  expressed  a 
decided  opinion  that  there  would  be  no  tranquillity  till  the  troops 
were  removed.  The  commanding  officer,  being  either  unauthor- 
ized or  unwilling  to  take  such  a  step,  the  irritation  and  alarm  of 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

» 

the  citizens  augmented,  and  every  moment  was  expected  to  bring 
on  an  outbreak  of  violence. 

Early  on  the  evening  of  the  fifth,  the  excitement  became 
wound  up  to  such  a  point,  as  to  make  it  certain  that  an  explosion 
was  at  hand.  Groups  of  people  collected  in  the  streets,  and 
parties  of  soldiers  were  hurrying  in  various  directions  with 
unusual  activity  and  marks  of  preparation.  About  nine  o'clock, 
the  alarm-bell  was  rung,  as  if  for  fire,  and  immediately  large 
bands  of  men  were  seen  in  motion,  brandishing  clubs  and  utter- 
ing imprecations  against  the  soldiers.  They  collected  in  large 
numbers  in  Dock  square.  A  young  man,  attempting  to  pass  into 
Brattle  street,  was  struck  at  by  the  sentry  near  the  barracks,  and 
wounded  in  the  head.  The  mob  immediately  assaulted  the  sol- 
diers, but  the  officers  ordered  their  men  into  the  barracks,  and 
shut  them  in.  The  populace  followed  them  to  the  gate  with 
violent  and  abusive  language.  An  unknown  person,  described  as 
"  a  tall,  large  man,  in  a  red  cloak  and  white  wig,"  then  addressed 
an  inflammatory  speech  to  the  rioters,  which  appears  to  have  pro- 
duced an  instantaneous  and  powerful  effect,  for  the  whole  body 
presently  rushed  through  Royal  Exchange  lane  into  King  street, 
now  State  street.  At  the  corner  of  these  two"  streets  stood  the 
Custom  House,  in  front  of  which  a  sentry  was  posted.  The  mob 
drove  him  up  the  steps,  where  he  loaded  his  gun  and  made  a 
show  of  resistance.  The  people  pressed  upon  him  with  violent 
imprecations,  and  he  shouted  for  protection  to  the  main  guard, 


Boston  Massacre. 


which  were  within  hearing.  Captain  Preston,  the  commander, 
despatched  a  corporal  and  six  men  to  his  relief,  and  immediately 
followed  himself.  The  mob  had  now  become  encouraged  by  a 


THE   BOSTON   MASSACRE.  520 

great  accession  of  numbers,  and  continued  to  hoot  at  the  soldiers, 
pelting  them  with  snowballs,  ice  and  sticks.  The  soldiers  were 
ordered  to  load,  and  form  in  front  of  the  custom-house.  They 
began  to  force  the  crowd  away,  when  one  of  them  received  a  blow 
from  a  club,  which  brought  him  to  the  ground.  He  immediately 
rose  and  fired.  All  the  rest,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  followed 
his  example.  Five  merr  were  killed  on  the  spot,  or  mortally 
wounded,  and  several  more  received  severe  wounds. 

The  people  were  immediately  alarmed  with  the  report  of  this 
massacre;  the  bells  were  set  ringing,  and  great  numbers  soon 
assembled  at  the  place  where  the  tragical  scene  had  been  acted 
Their  feelings  may  be  better  conceived  than  expressed  ;  and 
while  some  were  taking  care  of  the  dead  and  wounded,  the  rest 
were  in  consultation  what  to  do  in  these  dreadful  circumstances 
But  so  little  intimidated  were  they,  notwithstanding  their  being 
within  a  few  yards  of  the  main  guard,  and  seeing  the  27th  regi- 
ment under  arms,  that  they  kept  their  station,  and  appeared,  as 
an  officer  of  rank  expressed  it,  ready  to  run  upon  the  very  muzzles 
of  their  muskets.  The  lieutenant-governor  soon  came  into  the 
town-house,  and  there  met  some  .of  the  council  and  a  number  of 
magistrates.  A  considerable  body  of  people  immediately  entered 
the  council  chamber,  and  expressed  themselves  with  a  freedom 
and  warmth  becoming  the  occasion.  The  governor  used  his 
utmost  endeavors  to  pacify  them,  requesting  that  they  would  let 
the  matter  subside  for  the  night,  and  promising  that  justice 
should  be  done,  and  the  law  have  its  course.  Men  of  influence 
and  weight  with  the  people  were  not  wanting  on  their  part  to 
procure  their  compliance,  by  representing  the  horrible  consequence 
of  a  promiscuous  and  rash  engagement  in  the  night.  The  inhab- 
itants attended  to  these  suggestions ;  and  the  regiment  under  arms 
being  ordered  to  their  barracks,  they  separated  and  returned  to 
their  dwellings  by  one  o'clock  in  the  morning.  A  solemn  pro- 
cession was  made  through  Boston  at  the  funeral  of  the  vic- 
tims. On  this  occasion  all  the  shops  were  shut  up,  the  bells 
were  ordered  to  toll  in  Boston  and  the  .neighboring  towns,  and 
the  bodies  that  moved  from  different  quarters,  met  in  King  street, 
and  were  carried  together  through  the  main  streets,  followed  by 
the  greatest  concourse  of  people  ever  known,  all  testifying  the 
deepest  grief,  to  a  vault  provided  for  them  in  the  middle  of  the 
Granary  burying-ground. 

This  tragical  occurrence  wrought  the  people  of  Massachusetts, 

and  particularly  the  citizens  of  Boston,  to  the  highest  pitch  of  rage 

and  indignation ;  yet  no  acts  of  violence  ensued.     Captain  Preston 

-  surrendered  himself  to  the  civil  authority,  and  was  committed  to 

45  o3 


530  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

• 

prison  to  be  tried  for  murder  by  the  laws  of  Massachusetts.  John 
Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy,  eminent  among  the  lawyers  and  pub- 
lic men  of  the  day.  had  the  courage  to  defend  him  at  the  trial. 
In  spite  of  the  bloody  scenes  which  had  inflamed  the  resentment 


John  Adams. 

of  the  people,  such  was  the  ability  of  the  defence,  and  so  strong 
was  the  feeling  of  self-restraint  among  the  citizens,  after  the  first 
heats  of  indignation  were  passed,  that  Preston  was  acquitted, 
and  allowed  to  go  at  large  unmolested.  The  soldiers  were  also 
severally  put  upon  trial,  and  likewise  acquitted.  Justice  tri- 
umphed, and  the  friends  of  freedom  were  saved  from  the  lasting 
reproach  of  having  taken  the  lives  of  defenceless  men,  who  had 
thrown  themselves  on  the  civil  power  for  protection.  The  result 
gained  for  the  people  of  Massachusetts  the  respect  of  the  world ; 
and  no  single  occurrence  did  more  to  advance  the  cause  of  Amer- 
ican liberty,  than  the  "  Boston  Massacre."  It  caused  the  imme- 
diate removal  of  the  troops  from  the  town ;  and  the  people,  feeling 
that  something  had  been  gained,  acquired  new  confidence  in  their 
resolution  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  arbitrary  power.  The 
town  of  Boston  resolved  to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the  5th 
of  March,  that  there  might  be  an  annual  illustration  of  "  the 
fatal  effects  of  the  policy  of  standing  armies,  and  the  natural 
tendency  of  quartering  regular  troops  in  populous  cities  in  times 
of  peace."  On  the  day  of  the  first  celebration,  the  bells  were 
tolled  from  twelve  to  one  o'clock,  and  from  nine  to  ten  in  the 
evening ;  and,  during  the  evening,  figures  representing  the  massa- 


THE    BOSTON  MASSACRE. 


531 


ere,  were  exhibited  from  the  window  of  a  distinguished  citizen  at 
the  north  end.  The  solemnization  of  this  anniversary  was 
repeated  from  year  to  year  ;  an  oration  was  delivered  by  public 
appointment,  and  the  feeling  excited  by  the  event  was  kept 
dive  till  it  burst  out  into  the  full  flame  of  the  revolution. 


Burke. 


Fox. 


Pitt. 


CHAPTER     LVI. 

Discovery  of  the  Hutchinson  letters. — General  congress  at  Philadelphia. — State  of 
affairs  in  England. — Capture  of  the  king's  schooner,  Gaspee. — Destruction  of 
the  tea  at  Boston. — Indignation  of  the  ministry. -—The  Boston  Port  Bill. — Non- 
importation resolutions. — Fortitude  and  resolution  of  the  colonists. — Proceedings 
in  New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island. — Preparations  for  hostilities. 

IN  this  state  of  excitement,  a  singular  transaction  occurred, 
which  gave  double  force  to  the  ill  temper  and  animosity  that  had 
subsisted  between,  the  governor  and  people  of  Massachusetts. 
This  was  a  discovery  and  publication  of  some  confidential  letters, 
which  had  been  written  during  the  course  of  the  disputes,  by  the 
governor  and  lieutenant-governor  and  other  persons,  to  the  minis- 
try of  England.  These  letters  contained  a  very  unfavorable 
representation  of  the  state  of  affairs,  the  temper  and  disposition 
of  the  people,  and  the  views  of  the  leaders  in  that  province ;  and 
tended  to  show,  not  only  the  necessity  of  the  most  coercive  meas- 
ures, but  that  even  a  considerable  change  of  the  constitution  and 
system  of  government  was  necessary,  to  enforce  the  obedience  of 
the  colony.  These  letters  had  been  sent  by  lieutenant-governor 
Hutchinson  to  the  ministry,  privately  and  in  confidence ;  but  the 
•  people  of  the  colony  insisted  that  they  were  evidently  intended 
to  influence  government,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  shown  to  such 
persons  as  had  an  interest  in  preserving  their  privileges.  Upon 
the  death  of  a  person  in  England,  in  whose  hands  these  letters 
happened  to  be  lodged,  they,  by  some  means  which  are  not  yet 
known,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Franklin,  then  in  London,  as 
representative  of  American  affairs,  and  were  by  him  transmitted 
to  Boston  in  1772. 

The  indignation  and  rage  which  these  letters  excited  in  Bos- 
ton can  hardly  be  described.  The  people  found  themselves 
misrepresented  and  betrayed  by  those  whom  they  imagined 
bound  in  duty  to  support  their  interests,  and  perceived  that  the 
late  measures  of  government  had  proceeded  from  false  information 
that  had  been  given  by  their  governor  and  lieutenant-governor. 
Under  the  impulses  of  resentment,  the  house  of  representatives 
passed  many  violent  resolutions.  The  letters  were  presented  to 
the  council,  under  the  strictest  injunctions  from  the  representa- 
tives, that  the  persons  who  were  to  have  them  should  not,  by  any 


THE   HUTCHINSON   LETTERS.  533 

means,  suffer  them,  for  a  moment,  out  of  their  own  hands.  This 
affront  to  the  governor  was  adopted  by  the  council,  and  upon  his 
demanding  to  see  the  letters  that  were  attributed  to  him,  that 
board,  under  pretence  of  this  restriction,  refused  to  deliver  them, 
but  sent  a  committee  to  open  them  before  him,  that  he  might 
examine  the  hand-writing.  To  this  indignity,  he  was  obliged  to 
submit,  as  well  as  to  the  mortification  of  acknowledging  his 
signature. 

The  people  of  Massachusetts  were  sufficiently  irritated  before, 
and  needed  no  new  fuel  to  increase  the  flame  of  their  resentment. 
These  letters  pushed  them  on  to  measures  of  the  most  spirited 
nature ;  the  legislature  passed  a  petition  and  remonstrance  to  the 
king,  in  which  they  charged  the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor 
with  betraying  their  trust,  and  the  people  they  governed;  of 
giving  private,  partial  and  false  information.  They  declared 
them  enemies  to  the  colony,  and  prayed  for  their  speedy  removal 
from  their  offices. 

Meantime,  the  government  of  Great  Britain  showed  no  disposi- 
tion to  abandon  their  pretensions  to  the  right  of  taxing  the  Amer- 
icans. The  colonists,  on  the  other  hand,  were  equally  inflexible 
in  their  determination  to  resist  this  attempt.  By  degrees  a  plan 
for  expressing  the  united  opinion  of  the  country  on  this  point  was 
matured,  and  it  was  resolved  to  convene  a  general  congress  of 
deputies  from  the  several  provinces.  This  body  met  at  Philadel- 
phia on  the  5th  of  September,  1774,  and  after  deliberating  more 
than  a  month,  passed  a  series  of  declarations,  which  showed  their 
earnest  as  well  as  unanimous  determination  to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  British  legislature.  They  protested  formally  and 
unreservedly  against  the  taxation  of  the  colonies  without  their 
consent,  and  agreed  upon  a  plan  of  "non-importation  and  non- 
consumption,"  for  the  purpose  of  frustrating  the  designs  of  the 
ministry  in  regard  to  commercial  duties.  They  also  drew  up  an 
address  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  in  which  they  insisted 
upon  their  rights  as  British  subjects,  and  affirmed  that  no  power 
on  earth  had  a  right  to  take  away  their  property  without  their 
consent.  They  considered  it  essential  to  English  liberty  that  no 
man  should  be  condemned  unheard,  or  punished  for  supposed 
offences,  without  having  an  opportunity  of  making  his  defence. 
They  considered  the  proprietors  of  the  soil  in  America  as  much 
masters  of  their  own  property,  as  those  of  Great  Britain,  and 
affirmed  that  they  were  not  bound  to  submit  to  any  parliament 
not  of  their  own  election.  i.  ' 

These  declarations,  however,  had  no  effect  upon  the  British 
ministry  although  their  influence  in  encouraging  the  colonists  was 
45* 


„«.. 

534  •          THE    UNITED    STATES. 

very  manifest.  Their  resolution  to  resist  the  attempts  of  the 
mother  country  to  tax  them  was  soon  put  to  the  test.  The  duty 
on  tea  had  been  continued  by  the  ministry  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  the  principle  of  taxation ;  and  on  the  same  ground  of 
principle  it  was  resisted  by  the  Americans.  It  had  been  foretold, 
by  those  in  England  who  struggled  hard  for  the  total  repeal  of 
the  duties,  who  always  declared  against  internal  taxation  in 
America,  that  the  retaining  of  one  duty  and  the  abandonment 
of  the  others,  could  answer  no  other  purpose  than  the  lessening 
of  that  scanty  revenue,  which  was  scarcely  sufficient  in  its  whole 
amount  to  answer  the  expense  of  the  collection.  These  predic- 
tions were  fully  confirmed.  The  discontents  of  the  colonies 
increased  every  day,  and  an  universal  spirit  of  opposition  to  the 
tea  act  prevailed  throughout  the  country.  The  governors  of 
most  of  the  colonies,  and  the  people,  were  in  a  continual  state  of 
warfare ;  and  such  was  the  opposition  between  them,  that  what 
the  one  proposed,  the  others  were  pretty  sure  to  contradict.  It 
was  generally  believed  that  this  evil  had  its  rise  in  the  mother 
country,  and  that  the  governors  had  their  instructions  how  to 
behave,  from  the  ministry,  which  they  servilely  executed,  without 
considering  either  the  reasonableness  of  the  commands,  or  the 
temper  of  the  colonists.  It  is,  however,  manifest,  that  the  gov- 
ernors either  did  not  understand,  or  wilfully  disregarded  the  state 
of  the  colonies  in  their  account  to  the  ministry ;  for  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  the  latter  would  have  proceeded  so  far  without  false 
information  from  their  servants.  The  variances  between  the 
governors  and  people  put  an  end  to  all  regular  proceedings ;  the 
assemblies  were  repeatedly  called  and  suddenly  dissolved. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected,  in  such  a  state  of  agitation,  when  the 
laws  were  in  a  great  measure  suspended,  and  men  left  to  pursue 
the  dictates  of  their  passions,  that  things  would  proceed  in  an 
orderly  course.  The  Gaspee,  an  armed  schooner,  had  been  sta- 
tioned at  Rhode  Island  to  prevent  smuggling,  for  which  that  place 
had  been  notorious.  The  vigilance  of  the  officer  who  commanded 
the  vessel,  so  enraged  the  people,  that  they  boarded  her  at  mid- 
night, in  a  body  of  two  hundred  armed  men,  and  after  wounding 
the  commander,  and  forcing  him  and  his  men  ashore,  set  fire  to 
the  schooner.  This  greatly  incensed  the  government,  and  a 
reward  of  five  hundred  pounds,  together  with  a  pardon  if  claimed 
by  an  accomplice,  was  offered  for  the  discovery  and  apprehension 
of  any  of  the  perpetrators.  But  no  discovery  was  made.  This 
daring  act  of  some  smugglers,  was,  by  the  ministerial  party, 
imputed  to  the  whole  colony. 


DESTRUCTION   OF    TEA    IN   BOSTON   HARBOR.  535 

As  the  colonists  refused  to  import  any  tea  from  England,  the 
ministry  were  forced  upon  a  manoeuvre  of  their  own  to  introduce 
the  commodity  into  America.  In  1773,  an  act  of  parliament 
allowed  the  East  India  Company  a  drawback  upon  all  teas  ex- 
ported from  England  to  the  colonies.  Under  this  encouragement 
large  shipments  were  made  by  the  company  to  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia  and  other  places.  It  was  easy  to  perceive 
that  the  ministry  cared  little  on  this  occasion  for  the  small  duty 
of  threepence  a  pound,  but  were  only  solicitous  that  the  principle 
of  taxation  should  be  established  by  the  landing  of  the  article 
and  the  actual  payment  of  the  duty.  There  was  now  no  resource 
for  the  colonists  but  to  prohibit  the  landing.  The  grand  and 
decisive  blow  against  this  measure  was  struck  by  the  Bosto- 
nians.  The  tea-ships  had  no  sooner  arrived  in  Boston  harbor, 
than  the  bells  of  the  town  were  set  ringing,  the  citizens  turned 
out  in  a  high  state  of  excitement,  and  .the  determination  was 
general  that  the  tea  should  not  be  landed.  A  popular  meeting 
was  instantly  convened  in  Fanueii  Hall,  and  the  universal  feeling 
and  determination  of  the  citizens  expressed  without  disguise.  A 
negotiation  was  opened  with  the  consignees,  to  induce  them  to 
order  the  ships  back  to  England,  but  this  failed  of  its  object,  and 
it  was  at  once  apparent  that  by  the  smallest  delay  of  decisive 
measures  the  tea  would  be  landed  under  the  guns  of  the  ships 
of  war.  In  the  midst  of  the  crowd  and  excitement  at  Fanueii 
Hall,  the  sound  of  an  Indian  war-whoop  was  heard  from  the 
gallery,  and  an  exclamation  that  Boston  harbor  should  be  "  a  tea- 
pot that  night."  The  signal  was  too  plain  to  be  misunderstood. 
The  same  evening  a  band  of  seventeen  men,  disguised  as  Mo- 
hawk Indians,  assembled  at  Gray's  wharf,  near  Fort  Hill,  boarded 
the  ships,  which  lay  at  anchor  close  to  a  British  man-of-war,  and 
threw  all  the  tea  overboard.  Having  performed  this  most  daring 
feat,  without  committing  any  other  damage,  or  any  way  molesting 
the  crews,  they  returned  on  shore  undiscovered. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  surprise  and  irritation  of  the  British 
ministry,  when  intelligence  of  this  event  arrived  in  England. 
Their  scheme  of  taxation  was  foiled  in  an  instant  by  such  a 
master-stroke  of  audacity  on  the  part  of  the  Bostonians,  as  had 
never  entered  their  anticipations.  In  the  other  colonies,  opposi- 
tion had  also  been  made  to  the  landing  and  sale  of  the  tea, 
though  by  no  means  in  so  emphatic  and  decisive  a  manner  as  at 
Boston.  This  disagreeable  intelligence  occasioned  a  message  from 
the  throne  to  both  houses  of  parliament,  wherejn  appeared  the 
greatest  anxiety  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  authority. 
The  message  set  forth,  that  unwarrantable  practices  were  carried 


536  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

I 

on  m  North  America,  and  that  violent  proceedings  had  lately 
been  pursued  in  the  town  of  Boston,  with  a  view  of  obstructing 
the  commerce  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  also  signified  that  his 
majesty  confided  in  his  parliament  for  the  support  of  his  authority. 
The  message  was  attended  with  a  great  number  of  papers  relat- 
ing to  the  transactions  in  the  colonies.  When  these  documents 
were  laid  before  parliament,  they  were  aggravated  by  ministerial 
comments,  which  set  them  forth  in  the  most  alarming  manner, 
particularly  those  which  related  to  the  transactions  of  Boston. 
It  appeared  manifest  that  the  storm  now  gathering  against  the 
colonies  would  fall  first  upon  Massachusetts.  The  minister,  after 
having  moved  that  the  king's  message  of  the  7th  of  March  should 
be  read,  opened  his  plan  for  the  restoring  of  peace  and  order  in 
that  colony.  He  stated  that  the  opposition  to  the  authority  of 
parliament  had  always  originated  in  Massachusetts,  which  had 
been  ever  controlled  by  the  seditious  proceedings  of  the  town  of 
Boston ;  that,,  therefore,  it  became  necessary  to  begin  with  that 
town,  which,  by  a  late  unparalleled  outrage,  had  led  the  way  to 
the  destruction  of  commerce  in  all  parts  of  America ;  that  a 
severe  and  exemplary  punishment  ought  to  be  inflicted  for  this 
heinous  act.  It  would,  he  said,  be  proper  to  take  away  from 
Boston  the  privilege  of  a  port,  until  his  majesty  should  be  pleased 
to  restore  it. 

The  Massachusetts  agent  presented  a  petition  to  the  commons, 
desiring  to  be  heard  in  behalf  of  the  colony  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Boston.  The  house  refused  to  hear  the  petition,  and  the  bill 
for  shutting  up  the  port  of  Boston  was  passed  March  31,  1774. 
After  some  conciliatory  motions  had  been  proposed  and  rejected, 
the  minister  brought  in  another  bill,  to  which  the  Boston  port  act 
was  only  a  prologue.  It  was  entitled,  "  A  bill  for  the  better  regu- 
lating the  government  of  the  province  of  Massachusetts  Bay." 
This  bill  was  intended  to  alter  the  constitution  of  this  province, 
and  to  take  all  share  of  government  out  of  the  hands  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  to  vest  the  nomination  of  counsellors,  judges  and  magis- 
trates of  all  kinds,  in  the  crown,  and  in  some  cases  in  the  king's 
governor,  and  all  to  be  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  king. 
This  was,  at  one  stroke,  undermining  the  ancient  constitution  of 
the  colony,  and  leaving  the  people  no  share  in  their  own  gov- 
ernment. 

The  agent  made  another  effort  in  behalf  of  his  province,  and 
attempted  to  petition  for  time  to  receive  an  answer  from  America 
to  the  account  he  had  sent  of  these  proceedings.  The  house 
refused  to  receive  the  petition  by  a  large  majority.  The  same 
natives  of  America  who  petitioned  against  the  Boston  port  bill, 


THE   BOSTON    PORT   BILL.  537 

again  renewed  their  endeavors,  by  a  petition  against  this.  This 
document  was  written  with  great  spirit,  and  in  a  very  warm  style, 
and  composed  with  much  judgment.  It  set  forth  the  apprehensions 
of  the  petitioners,  as  to  the  effects  of  this  bill  in  the  quarter 
where  it  was  intended  to  operate,  and  was  a  true  prediction  of 
the  consequences  which  actually  ensued.  This  petition,  however, 
was  laid  on  the  table  without  further  notice.  After  the  debates 
were  finished,  the  minister  proceeded  to  give  the  finishing  blow 
to  American  liberties  by  bringing  in  a  "  bill  for  the  impartial 
administration  of  justice."  This  act  provided  that  persons  in- 
dicted for  capital  offence  in  the  colonies,  might  be  sent  to  England 
for  trial.  This  was  the  greatest  encroachment  yet  attempted 
upon  the  rights  of  the  colonies,  and  its  absurdity  and  injustice 
were  apparent  on  the  very  face  of  it.  What  hope  of  justice  could 
a  prisoner  entertain  who  is  tried  by  the  laws  and  judges  of  one 
country,  for  an  offence  committed  in  another  ? 

When  the  Boston  port  bill  arrived  in  America,  it  excited  the 
utmost  alarm  and  indignation,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but 
throughout  the  colonies.  Copies  of  it  were  multiplied  and  circu- 
lated among  the  people,  to  show  them  the  tyrannical  and  ruinous 
measures  of  the  British  government.  In  Virginia,  the  legislature 
appointed  a  fast,  for  the  1st  of  June,  the  day  when  the  bill  was 
to  take  effect.  In  that  colony,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  the  fast  was 
solemnized  with  every  manifestation  of  public  grief.  But  the 
citizens  of  Boston  had  the  deepest  cause  for  concern  at  this  event ; 
it  was  a  blow  which  menaced  them  with,  absolute  ruin.  Com- 
merce, industry  and  trade  were  annihilated  by  it.  They  were 
sentenced,  on  a  short  notice  of  twenty  days,  to 'the  utter  depriva- 
tion of  the  means  of  subsistence.  On  the  1st  of  June,  business 
ceased  at  Boston,  at  twelve  o'clock,  noon,  and  the  harbor  was 
shut  against  all  vessels.  The  custom-house  was  removed  to 
Salem.  Sailors,  merchants,  laborers  and  artificers  were  immedi- 
ately thrown  out  of  employment.  The  immense  property  in 
stores,  wharves  and  ships  was  rendered  useless.  The  rents  of 
houses  ceased,  for  want  of  the  means  of  payment.  Provisions 
grew  scarce,  and  all  persons  who  depended  on  their  daily  labor 
were  threatened  with  starvation  or  beggary. 

A  calamity  such  as  this  might  indeed  have  been  expected  to 
break  the  spirit  of  the  Bostonians,  and  bow  them  to  a  speedy 
submission  to  ministerial  rule.  But,  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
British  cabinet,  all  these  sufferings  were  endured  with  inflexible 
fortitude  and  resolution.  No  word  of  submission  was  uttered, 
and  the  inhabitants  showed  an  invincible  determination  to  endure 
the  last  extremities  sooner  than  abandon  their  political  rights.  In 

p3 


KOO 

538  *        THE   UNITED   STATES. 

this  resolve  they  were  animated  by  the  sympathy  and  charities 
of  their  neighbors.  Provisions  were  sent  in  from  the  towns  in 
the  vicinity ;  and  the  people  of  Marblehead  generously  offered  the 
merchants  of  Boston  the  use  of  their  harbor,  wharves  and  ware- 
houses, with  their  personal  assistance  in  unlading  their  goods,  free 
of  all  expense.  The  flame  of  patriotism  was  kept  alive  by  letters 
and  addresses  from  town  meetings  and  conventions  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  and  the  spirit  of  resistance  against  British 
encroachments  waxed  stronger  than  ever. 

Meantime,  General  Gage,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
forces  in  North  America,  had  been  appointed  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  arrived  at  Boston,  with  a  reinforcement  of  troops, 
on  the  13th  of  May,  1774.  His  first  proceeding  was  to  involve 
himself  in  an  altercation  with  the  legislative  body,  and  his  next 
to  dissolve  them.  The  committee  of  correspondence  at  Boston 
drew  up  a  declaration,  which  they  entitled  a  solemn  league  and 
covenant,  wherein  the  subscribers  bound  themselves,  in  the  most 
solemn  manner,  to  suspend  all  commercial  intercourse  with  Great 
Britain,  from  the  last  day  of  the  ensuing  month  of  August,  until 
the  Boston  port  bill  and  other  unpopular  laws  were  repealed, 
and  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  fully  restored  to  all  its  rights. 
They  also  bound  themselves  not  to  consume  or  purchase  any 
goods  whatsoever  which  arrived  after  the  specified  time. 

This  covenant,  accompanied  with  a  letter  from  the  committee 
at  Boston,  was  widely  circulated,  and  the  people  not  only  in  New 
England,  but  in  the  other  provinces,  entered  into  this  new  league 
with  the  greatest  zeal.  What  was  somewhat  remarkable  is,  that 
similar  agreements  had  been  entered  into  about  the  same  time  in 
various  parts  of  the  continent,  and  without  any  previous  concert 
with  one  another.  The  title  of  a  solemn  league  and  covenant 
greatly  alarmed  General  Gage  and  the  friends  of  the  ministry  in 
all  parts  of  the  British  dominions ;  its  name  and  tendency  were 
ominous.  It  brought  to  the  remembrance  of  the  king  and  ministers 
the  times  when  the  people  of  England  and  Scotland  entered  into 
a  solemn  league  and  covenant  for  the  defence  of  their  legal  rights, 
— a  proceeding  which  had  always  been  remembered  by  men  of 
arbitrary  principles  with  horror.  Gage  issued  a  proclamation  on 
the  29th  of  June,  which  showed  how  much  he  was  alarmed.  He 
styled  the  league  an  unlawful,  hostile  and  treacherous  combina- 
tion, destructive  of  the  lawful  authority  of  the  Fritish  parliament, 
and  of  the  peace,  good  order  and  safety  of  the  community.  All 
persons  were  warned  against  incurring  the  penalties  due  to  such 
aggravated  and  dangerous  offences;  and  all  magistrates  were 


MILITARY   PREPARATIONS    OF   THE   COLONISTS.  539 

charged  to  apprehend  and  secure  for  trial  such  as  should  have 
any  share  in  it. 

Meantime,  the  southern  colonies  began  also  to  arm  and  train 
their  militia.  As  soon  as  advice  was  received  of  a  proclamation 
issued  in  England  to  prevent  the  exportation  of  arms  and  ammu- 
nition to  America,  measures  were  taken  to  procure  these  articles. 
For  this  purpose  powder-mills  were  erected  in  various  quarters. 
Encouragement  was  given  in  all  the  colonies  to  the  manufacture 
of  arms  of  every  sort.  Great  difficulties  attended  these  first 
essays ;  and  the  supply  of  powder,  both  from  home  manufacture 
and  from  importation,  was  for  a  long  time  scanty  and  precarious. 
But  such  was  the  resolution  and  zeal  of  the  colonists,  that  they 
ardently  persisted  in  their  undertakings,  and  success  ultimately 
followed  their  endeavors.  Gage  now  issued  another  proclamation 
against  the  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts,  which  had  just 
convened;  but  it  did  not  produce  the  smallest  effect  upon  that 
assembly,  nor  in  the  conduct  of  the  people,  who  paid  an  implicit 
obedience  to  its  determinations. 

From  the  natural  advantages  of  its  situation  and  the  works 
thrown  up  on  the  neck,  Boston  had  already  become  a  strong-hold. 
It  was  also,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  governor,  capable  of  being  made 
a  secure  prison  for  the  inhabitants,  who  would  thereby  become 
hostages  for  the  province  at  large.  The  Bostonians  saw  the 
danger,  and  several  schemes  were  projected  to  avert  it.  One  of 
the  boldest  of  these  was  to  burn  the  town  and  retire  into  the 
country;  but  neither  this  daring  enterprise,  nor  any  other  decisive 
proceeding,  was  ultimately  determined  on.  At  Rhode  Island,  the 
people  seized  and  carried  away  all  the  ordnance  belonging  to  the 
crown  in  that  colony.  The  assembly  of  the  province  also  passed 
resolutions  for  the  procuring  of  arms  and  military  stores,  and  for 
training  and  arming  the  inhabitants.  The  province  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, which  had  hitherto  shown  a  moderate  temper,  and  had  be- 
haved with  more  respect  to  the  British  government  than  the  other 
provinces  of  New  England,  as  soon  as  they  heard  of  the  resolu- 
tions of  Rhode  Island,  and  received  a  copy  of  the  royal  proclama- 
tion, pursued,  the  same  plan.  A  body  of  men  assembled  in  arms, 
and  marched  to  the  attack  of  Fort  William  and  Mary,  at  Ports- 
mouth, remarkable  only  for  being  the  object  of  the  first  military 
operation  in  New  Hampshire.  This  fort  was  taken  December  13th, 
and  supplied  them  with  a  quantity  of  powder.  No  other  act  of 
hostility  or  violence  happened  during  the  winter  of  1774;  but 
a  firm  determination  of  resistance  was  universally  spread,  and 
increased  every  day.  The  arrival  of  the  king's  speech  and  the 


540 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


addresses  of  the  new  parliament  added  to  the  flame  that  was 
already  kindled. 

The  king's  speech,  in  the  opinion  of  the  colonists,  cut  off  all 
hopes  of  reconciliation,  and  made  them  strain  every  nerve  to 
provide  against  the  storm  they  saw  gathering  against  them.  It 
is  very  remarkable  that  all  the  public  acts  and  declarations, 
which,  in  England,  were  recommended  as  the  means  of  pacifying 
the  colonists,  by  intimidating  them,  constantly  operated  in  a  differ- 
ent manner.  The  secretary  of  state  for  the  American  department 
issued  a  circular  letter  forbidding,  in  the  king's  name,  the  election 
of  deputies  for  the  ensuing  general  congress.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
elections  took  place,  unobstructed,  throughout  the  country. 


CHAPTER     LVII. 

Delusion  of  the  British  ministry. — The  Americans  declared  rebels. — Battle  oj 
Lexington. — Siege  of  Boston. — Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. — Proceedings  of 
Congress. —  Washington  appointed  commander-in-chief. — Treachery  of  Gage 
towards  the  Bostonians. —  Capture  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  by  the 
provincials. — Lord  Dunmore  abandons  the  government  of  Virginia. 

THE  year  1775,  an  epoch  forever  memorable  in  American  his- 
tory, had  now  arrived.  The  British  government  showed  no  dis- 
position to  relax  its  coercive  measures.  The  colonists  exhibited 
no  symptoms  of  a  submissive  spirit,  and  it  was  evident  that 
a  hostile  collision  must  soon  take  place.  What  added  to  the 
infatuation  of  the  British  ministry  was  the  belief,  then  prevalent  in 
that  country,  that  the  Americans  were  cowards,  and  would  never 
dare  to  oppose  the  British  arms  in  case  of  extremities.  This 
notion  had  been  encouraged  by  the  rhodomontade  of  many  of  the 
officers  of  the  royal  army  who  had  served  in  America,  and  who 


Lord  Chatham. 


had  not  the  penetration  to  discover,  under  the  homely  manners  of 
the  American  yeomanry,  any  signs  of  military  spirit.  Under  this 
delusion,  it  was  confidently  believed  in  England,  that  an  army  of 
five  thousand  men  could  march  through  the  country  from  one 


542  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

I 

end  to  the  other.  Matters  were  therefore  carried,  in  the  cabinet 
and  parliament,  with  a  high  hand  and  an  arrogant  tone.  At  the 
close  of  the  past  year,  the  king  had  delivered  an  address  to  par- 
liament, full  of  the  most  bitter  denunciations  against  the  colony 
of  Massachusetts,  and  avowing  a  determination  to  suppress  all 
attempts  in  favor  of  American  liberty.  The  parliament  concur- 
red in  these  sentiments  by  a  large  majority.  The  more  sagacious 
among  the  British  statesmen,  however,  saw  the  storm  coming,  and 
made  the  most  strenuous  endeavors  to  check  the  rash  and  precipi- 
tate measures  of  the  ministry.  The  venerable  Earl  of  Chatham 
left  his  retirement,  and  again  entered  the  House  of  Lords,  where 
his  powerful  eloquence  was  exerted  in  an  attempt  to  dissuade  his 
countrymen  from  the  design  of  subduing  the  colonists  by  force  of 
arms.  He  recommended  conciliatory  measures,  and  in  particular 
the  immediate  removal  of  the  troops  from  Boston.  His  remon- 
strances, however,  had  not  the  slightest  effect.  Equally  unavail- 
ing was  the  petition  of  congress  to  the  king,  which  Dr.  Franklin 
and  others  now  laid  before  parliament,  with  a  request  to  be  heard 
in  its  support.  The  petition  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority. 
The  lords  and  commons  then  passed  an  address  to  the  king, 
declaring  the  people  of  Massachusetts  rebels ;  and  the  next  day 
a  more  decisive  blow  was  struck  by  the  ministers,  in  procuring 
the  passage  of  an  act  restricting  the  trade  of  the  New  England 
colonies,  and  depriving  them  of  the  Newfoundland  fishery. 

The  Bostonians,  in  the  meantime,  in  spite  of  their  suffering 
condition,  avoided  every  kind  of  outrage.  Massachusetts  had 
successfully  engaged  the  other  colonies  to  make  common  cause 
with  her.  A  new  provincial  congress  met  in  February,  and  pub- 
lished a  resolution  advising  the  people  to  furnish  themselves  with 
arms,  and  make  every  preparation  to  resist  the  invading  armies 
which  were  expected  from  Britain  for  the  destruction  of  the  colo- 
nies. In  all  parts  of  Massachusetts  the  inhabitants  obeyed  these 
hints.  Arms  and  powder  were  manufactured  and  stored  in 
various  places,  military  bands  organized,  and  the  proceedings 
in  every  quarter  gave  "dreadful  note  of  preparation."  These 
things  did  not  escape  the  notice  of  General  Gage.  On  the  26th 
of  February,  having  learnt  that  a  quantity  of  military  stores  had 
been  collected  at  Salem,  he  despatched  one  hundred  and  forty 
soldiers  in  a  transport  from  the  castle,  to  seize  them.  They 
landed  at  Marblehead,  and  took  up  their  march  for  Salem.  Not 
finding  the  stores  there,  they  proceeded  to  Danvers,  but  were 
stopped  at  a  draw-bridge,  where  a  body  of  thirty  or  forty  militia 
were  drawn  up.  After  some  parley  and  an  attempt  to  pass,  the 
troops  returned  to  Boston,  without  effecting  their  object. 


SEIZURE   OP   MILITARY   STORES  AT   CONCORD.  543 

But  the  flames  of  war  could  no  longer  be  kept  from  bursting 
out.  News  arrived  in  Boston,  of  the  king's  speech,  of  the  resolu- 
tions adopted  by  parliament,  and  finally  of  the  act  by  which 
the  people  of  Massachusetts  were  declared  rebels.  The  whole 
province  flew  to  arms ;  indignation  became  fury ;  obstinacy,  des- 
peration. The  idea  of  reconciliation  became  chimerical ;  neces- 
sity stimulated  the  most  timid ;  a  thirst  of  vengeance  fired  every 
breast.  The  match  was  now  lighted, — the  materials  disposed, — 
the  conflagration  near  at  hand.  The  fatal  momen^  had  arrived; 
the  signal  of  war  was  given.  General  Gage  was  informed  that 
the  provincials  had  amassed  large  quantities  of  arms  and  ammu- 
nition in  the  towns  of  Worcester  and  Concord.  Excited  by  the 
loyalists,  who  had  persuaded  him  that  he  would  find  no  resist- 
ance ;  considering  the  cowardice  of  the  patriots,  and  perhaps  not 
imagining  that  the  sword  would  be  drawn  so  soon,  he  resolved  to 
send  a  few  companies  to  Concord,  to  seize  the  military  stores. 
It  was  said,  also,  that  he  had  in  view,  in  this  expedition,  to  get 
possession  of  the  persons  of  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams, 


John  Hancock. 

two  of  the  most  ardent  patriot  chiefs,  and  the  principal  directors 
of  the  provincial  congress.  But  to  avoid  causing  irritation  and 
the  popular  tumults  which  might  obstruct  his  design,  he  took 
his  measures  with  caution  and  secrecy.  He  ordered  the  grena- 
diers and  several  companies  of  light  infantry  to'  hold  themselves 
in  readiness  to  march  out  of  the  city  at  the  first  signal ;  pretend- 


544 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


ing  that  it  was  in  order  to  review  and  execute  manoeuvres.  The 
Bostonians  entertained  suspicions,  and  sent  to  warn  Hancock  and 
Adams  to  be  upon  their  guard.  Gage,  to  proceed  with  more 
secrecy,  commanded  a  certain  number  of  officers,  who  had  been 
made  acquainted  with  his  designs,  to  go,  as  if  on  a  party  of 
pleasure,  and  dine  at  Cambridge,  on  the  road  to  Concord.  It  was 
on  the  evening  of  the  18th  of  April  that  these  officers  dispersed 
themselves  upon  the  roads  to  intercept  the  couriers  that  might 
have  been  despatched  to  give  notice  of  the  movements  of  the 
troops.  Gage  gave  orders  that  no  person  should  leave  Boston ; 
nevertheless,  Doctor  Warren,  one  of  the  most  active  patriots,  had 
timely  intimation  of  the  scheme,  and  immediately  despatched 
messengers,  some  of  whom  found  the  roads  obstructed  by  the 
officers;  but  others  made  their  way  in  safety  to  Lexington,  a 
town  on  the  road  to  Concord.  The  news  was  soon  divulged; 
the  people  flocked  together;  alarm  bells  were  rung;  and  the  firing 
of  cannon  spread  the  agitation  throughout  the  neighborhood.  In 
the  midst  of  this  tumult,  at  eleven  in  the  evening,  a  strong  detach- 
ment of  grenadiers  and  light  infantry  was  embarked  at  Boston, 
and  landed  at  Phipps's  Farm,  whence  they  marched  toward 
Concord. 

The  troops  were  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Colonel 
Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  who  led  the  vanguard.  The  militia  of 
Lexington,  as  the  intelligence  of  the  movement  of  this  detachment 
was  uncertain,  had  separated  in  the  night.  But  at  five  in  the 


morning  of  the  19th,  advice  was  received  of  the  approach  of  the 
royal  troops.  The  people  who  happened  to  be  near,  assembled  to 
the  number  of  about  seventy,  certainly  too  few  to  entertain  the 


Nathaniel  Green. 


C 


Falls  of  Monlmarenci. 


Henry  Clay. 


Richard  M.  Johnson. 


BATTLE   OF   LEXINGTON.  545 

design  of  fighting.  The  English  appeared,  and  Major  Pitcairn 
cried  in  a  loud  voice,  "  Disperse,  you  rebels !  lay  down  your 
arms  and  disperse  ! "  The  provincials  did  not  obey ;  upon  which 
he  sprung  from  the  ranks,  discharged  a  pistol,  and  brandishing  his 
sword,  ordered  his  soldiers  to  fire.  The  provincials  retreated; 
the  English  continuing  their  fire,  the  former  faced  about  to 
return  it. 

Meanwhile,  Hancock  and  Adams  had  made  their  escape,  and  it 
is  related  that  the  latter,  enraptured  with  joy,  exclaimed,  "0! 
what  an  ever-glorious  morning  is  this!" — considering  this  first 
effusion  of  blood  as  the  prelude  of  events  which  must  secure  the 
independence  of  his  country.  The  British  advanced  towards  Con- 
cord. The  inhabitants  assembled  and  appeared  disposed  to  act 
upon  the  defensive;  but  seeing  the  numbers  of  the  enemy,  they 
fell  back  and  posted  themselves  on  the  bridge,  north  of  the  town, 
intending  to  wait  for  reinforcements  from  the  neighboring  places; 
but  the  light  infantry  assailed  them  with  fury,  routed  them,  and 
occupied  the  bridge,  whilst  the  others  entered  Concord,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  execution  of  their  orders.  They  spiked  two  pieces 
of  twenty-four  pound  cannon,  destroyed  their  carriages  and  a 
number  of  wheels  for  the  use  of  the  artillery,  threw  into  the  river 
and  into  wells  five  hundred  pounds  of  bullets,  and  wasted  a 
quantity  of  flour  deposited  there  by  the  provincials.  These  were 
the  arms  and  provisions  which  gave  the  first  occasion  to  a  long 
and  cruel  war ! 

But  the  expedition  was  not  yet  terminated ;  the  militia  arrived, 
and  the  forces  of  the  provincials  were  increased  by  continual 
accessions  from  every  quarter.  The  light-infantry,  who  scoured 
the  country  above  Concord,  were  obliged  to  retreat,  and  on  enter- 
ing the  town,  a  hot  skirmish  ensued.  A  great  number  were 
killed  on  both  sides.  The  light  infantry  having  joined  the 
main  body  of  the  detachment,  the  English  retreated  precipitately 
towards  Lexington.  Already  the  whole  neighborhood  had  risen 
in  arms.  Before  the  detachment  had  reached  Lexington,  its  rear 
guard  and  flanks  suffered  great  annoyance  from  the  provincials, 
who,  posted  behind  trees,  walls  and  fences,  kept  up  a  brisk  fire, 
which  the  troops  could  not  return.  The  English  found  them- 
selves in  a  most  perilous  situation.  General  Gage,  apprehensive 
of  the  event,  had  despatched  in  haste  a  reinforcement  of  sixteen 
companies,  with  some  marines  and  two  field-pieces.  This  body 
arrived  very  opportunely  at  Lexington,  at  the  moment  when  the 
royal  troops  entered  the  town  on  the  other  sider*pursued  with 
fury  by  the  provincial  militia.  It  appears  highly  probable  that, 
without  this  reinforcement,  they  would  have  been  all  cut  to 


. 

546  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

» 

pieces  or  made  prisoners ;  their  strength  was  exhausted  as  well  as 
their  ammunition.  After  making  a  considerable  halt  at  Lexing- 
ton, they  renewed  their  march  towards  Boston,  the  number  of 
the  provincials  increasing  every  moment,  although  the  rear  guard 
of  the  English  was  less  molested,  on  account  of  the  two  field- 
pieces,  which  repressed  the  impetuosity  of  the  Americans.  But 
the  flanks  of  the  column  remained  exposed  to  a  very  destructive 
fire,  which  assailed  them  from  every  sheltered  spot.  The  royal- 
ists were  also  annoyed  by  the  heat,  which  was  excessive,  and  by 
a  violent  wind,  which  blew  a  thick  dust  in  their  eyes.  The 
American  scouts,  adding  to  their  natural  celerity  a  perfect  know- 
ledge of  the  country,  came  up  unexpectedly  through  cross  roads, 
and  galled  the  English  severely,  taking  aim  especially  at  the 
officers,  who,  perceiving  it,  kept  much  on  their  guard.  Finally, 
after  a  march  of  incredible  fatigue,  and  a  considerable  loss  of 
men,  the  English,  overwhelmed  with  lassitude,  arrived  at  sunset 
in  Charlestown. 

Such  was  the  memorable  affair,  known  in  American  history  as 
the  Battle  of  Lexington.  The  troops  accomplished  the  object  of 
their  expedition  by  destroying  the  Concord  magazines ;  but  the 
immediate  consequences  of  this  event  were  such  as  the  British 
commander  had  never  anticipated.  The  news  of  the  conflict  ran 
through  the  country  like  an  electric  shock.  The  inhabitants 
rushed  from  their  houses,  the  laborers  quitted  their  fields,  the 
churches  poured  forth  their  congregations,  as  the  messengers 
of  bloodshed  and  war  swept  through  the  towns  and  villages. 
The  first  moment  of  surprise,  panic,  and  consternation,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  cry  of  revenge,  the  call  to  battle,  and  the  shout  of 
preparation.  In  Massachusetts  and  the  neighboring  colonies,  the 
population  immediately  rushed  to  arms.  In  three  days  from  the 
battle  of  Lexington,  the  roads  were  covered  with  armed  men 
marching  upon  Boston,  and  within  a  week  the  town  was  invested 
by  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men.  From  the  heights  of  the 
capital,  the  British  commander  viewed  with  astonishment  a  line 
of  watch-fires  stretching  from  north  to  south,  and  enclosing  him 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  peninsula  of  Boston.  It  was 
then  he  became  aware  of  the  immense  importance  of  the  blow  he 
had  struck,  and  the  critical  conjuncture  into  which  this  act  of 
rashness  had  thrown  him.  But  it  was  now  too  late  to  avert  the 
terrible  storm  of  war. 

The  army  of  provincials  thus  suddenly  gathered  for  the  siege 
of  the  capital,  was  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  population,  who 
rushed  from  their  farms  and  firesides  at  a  moment's  warning, 
with  such  weapons  as  they  could  hastily  snatch.  There  was, 


548  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

"Tgr 

in  consequence,  no  discipline,  knowledge  of  tactics,  or  geneial 
system  of  operations  among  them.  Without  magazines,  camp 
equipage,  or  engineering  apparatus,  they  threw  up  rude  entrench- 
ments-on  the  hills  which  surround  Boston  on  the  land  side,  ;and 
maintained  their  posts  in  sight  of  the  regular  troops  of  Britain, 
animated  solely  with  the  consciousness  of  the  justice  of  their 
cause,  and  by  their  ardor  to  avenge  the  blood  of  their  country- 
men. The  British  troops,  though  at  first  struck  with  astonish- 
ment at  this  sudden  apparition  of  an  army,  which  seemed  to 
have  sprung  in  an  instant  out  of  the  earth,  yet  soon  dismissed 
their  apprehensions,  when  they  compared  their  own  military 
knowledge,  discipline  and  skill,  with  the  ignorance  and  imperfect 
organization  of  the  provincial  forces.  Their  contempt  for  such 
an  enemy  was  strengthened  by  the  current  persuasion  of  the 
native  cowardice  of  the  Americans,  which,  even  after  the  conflict 
of  Lexington,  still  continued  among  them.  It  was  not  long  before 
the  correctness  of  this  belief  was  put  to  a  severe  test. 

On  all  sides,  preparations  were  now  made  for  war.  The 
Massachusetts  provincial  congress,  on  the  5th  of  May,  passed  an 
act,  depriving  Gage  of  all  authority  in  the  colony,  and  declaring 
him  a  public  enemy.  His  jurisdiction  ceased  from  this  moment, 
except  in  the  capital.  Towards  the  end  of  the  month,  large 
reinforcements  of  troops,  under  Generals  Howe,  Burgoyne  and 
Clinton,  arrived  at  Boston  ;  and  Gage,  gathering  fresh  confidence, 
issued  a  proclamation  of  martial  law  throughout  Massachusetts, 
offering  pardon  to  all  who  should  lay  down  their  arms,  except 
Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock.  This  proclamation,  instead 
of  intimidating  the  inhabitants,  only  served  to  embolden  and 
unite  them.  Hancock  was  immediately  chosen  president  of  the 
continental  congress,  which  met  at  Philadelphia  on  the  10th  of 
May,  1775. 

Gage  remained  inactive  for  some  time,  expecting  the  besieging 
forces  would  disperse.  On  the  contrary,  they  pushed  their  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  town.  On  the  night  of  the  16th  of  June, 
a  body  of  one  thousand  provincials  marched  into  Charlestown, 
and  took  post  on  Breed's  Hill,  which  commands  the  upper  portion 
of  the  harbor,  and  is  within  a  short  gun-shot  of  the  north  part  of 
Boston.  They  labored  so  diligently  during  the  night,  that  by 
break  of  day  they  had  thrown  up  a  redoubt  on  the  brow  of  the 
hill,  and  commenced  a  slight  breastwork,  extending  down  the 
slope  of  the  eminence  toward  Mystic  river.  As  soon  as  day- 
light had  discovered  their  movements,  a  brisk  cannonade  was 
opened  upon  them  from  a  man-of-war  in  the  stream  and  a  bat- 
tery on  Copp's  Hill,  in  Boston.  Shot  and  shells  were  incessantly 


BATTLE    OF    BUNKER    HILL.  549 

poured  in  upon  them,  yet  they  continued  their  labor  with  perfect 
coolness,  till  their  lines,  though  hastily  and  unscientifically  plan- 
ned, were  as  fully  completed  as  their  imperfect  materials  would 
allow. 

The  British  commander-in -chief  could  no  longer  rest  inactive, 
but  determined  instantly  to  drive  the  Americans  from  this  post. 
About  noon  of  the  17th,  he  despatched  three  thousand  men,  con- 
sisting of  the  flower  of  his  troops,  under  Generals  Howe  and 
Pigot,  on  this  service.  They  embarked  in  boats,  and  landed  at 
Moreton's  point,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The' provincials  had  now 
received  a  reinforcement  which  increased  their  numbers  to  fifteen 
hundred  men.  There  appears  to  have  been  no  commander-in- 
chief ;  but  Doctor  Joseph  Warren,  of  Boston,  who  held  the  rank 
of  Brigadier  General,  and  Colonel  Prescott,  were  among  the  com- 
batants. General  Putnam  was,  no  doubt,  on  the  spot,  though 


General  Putnam; 

this  has  been  questioned.  All  that  is  known  of  their  prepara- 
tions, leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  different  companies 
posted  themselves  according  to  their  own  judgment,  and  acted 
as  the  emergency  dictated,  without  any  general  authority  to 
direct  their  movements.  Not  having  anticipated  so  speedy  an 
attack  from  the  enemy,  they  had  no  field-piece^,  and  no  adequate 
preparations  had  been  made  for  supplies  of  ammunition.  In  this 
ill-arranged  and  unprepared  condition,  they  awaited  the  approach 
of  twice  their  number  of  veteran  troops,  amply  provided  with 


550  *       THE    UNITED   STATES. 

artillery,  and  covered  by  the  fire  of  the  ships  of  war  and  the 
Boston  battery. 

The  British  formed  in  excellent  order,  and  marched  up  the  hill, 
halting  from  time  to  time,  to  allow  the  fire  of  their  artillery  to 
take  effect.  The  heights  of  Boston,  the  house-tops,  and  steeples, 
were  covered  with  anxious  multitudes,  gazing,  with  breathless 
anxiety  and  palpitating  hearts,  on  the  momentous  scene  that  was 
passing.  The  spectacle  that  ensued  was  sublime  and  appalling. 
The  town  of  Charlestown  was  set  on  fire  by  the  British,  and  its 
wide  mass  of  wooden  houses  was  quickly  wrapped  in  one  vast 
flame,  while  the  troops  marched  up  the  hill  to  the  attack.  The 
provincials,  amid  clouds  of  smoke  and  showers  of  falling  cinders, 
awaited  their  approach  with  perfect  coolness ;  and  reserving  their 
fire  till  the  enemy  were  within  point-blank  shot,  suddenly  poured 
in  so  destructive  a  volley,  that  the  assailants  instantly  broke  their 
ranks,  and  retreated  in  haste  and  disorder  toward  their  boats. 
Their  officers,  with  great  exertions,  rallied  the  fugitives,  and  led 
them  again  to  the  charge.  Again  the  Americans  waited  their 
near  approach  ;  again  a  furious  and  well-aimed  discharge  issued 
from  the  lines  with  deadly  effect.  Whole  ranks  of  the  British 
were  mowed  down,  and  again  they  fled  in  disorder.  Had  the 
Americans  possessed  any  cavalry,  the  whole  attacking  force 
might  have  been  cut  to  pieces ;  but  their  troops  were  too  ill- 
organized  to  allow  them  to  pursue  the  enemy.  Such  was  the 
carnage  that  nearly  the  whole  of  General  Howe's  staff  were 
killed  around  him,  and  the  general  was  left  alone  on  the  side  of 
the  hill.  Meantime,  Gage,  from  the  Boston  side,  seeing  the  criti- 
cal situation  of  his  troops,  despatched  a  reinforcement  under 
General  Clinton.  A  third  assault  was  made.  The  soldiers,  reluc- 
tant to  advance,  were  forced  onward  by  their  officers,  who 
pricked  them  with  their  swords.  The  powder  of  the  Americans 
now  began  to  fail,  and  their  fire  slackened.  The  left  flank  of  the 
breastwork  was  carried,  and  the  British  artillery  raked  the  inte- 
rior of  the  intrenchments  from  end  to  end.  Nevertheless,  the 
provincials  maintained  their  position  with  the  most  obstinate 
bravery,  defending  themselves  with  the  but-ends  of  their  mus- 
kets after  their  ammunition  was  expended.  The  redoubt  was 
attacked  on  three  sides  at  once,  and  at  length  carried  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet.  General  Warren  received  a  shot  in  the  breast, 
and  fell  dead  on  the  spot.  The  provincials,  overpowered  by 
numbers,  abandoned  the  works,  and  retreated  over  Charlestown 
neck  in  safety,  notwithstanding  the  shot  of  a  man-of-war  and 
two  floating  batteries,  which  completely  commanded  the  isthmus. 

The  assailants  remained  masters  of  the  field,  but  their  loss  was 


552  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

vastly  greater  than  the  advantage  gained.     More  than  one  third 
of  their  men  were  killed  or  wounded,  making  this  one  of  tho 


Death  of  Warren. 

bloodiest  battles  in  which  British  troops  had  yet  been  engaged. 
Pitcairn,  who  commanded  the  Lexington  expedition,  was  among 
the  slain,  and  the  slaughter  of  the  officers  was  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  that  of  the  privates.  On  the  other  hand,  the  effects  of  the 
battle  were  equal  to  a  victory  to  the  provincials.  Though  driven 
from  their  position,  yet  the  unexpected  firmness,  courage,  and 
good  conduct  their  raw  troops  had  exhibited,  and  the  terrible 
effect  of  their  fire  upon  the  enemy,  raised  a  degree  of  confi- 
dence among  them  equal  to  that  of  a  positive  triumph.  They 
encamped  on  an  eminence  immediately  without  the  peninsula  of 
Charlestown,  so  that  the  British  remained  closely  blockaded  as 
before.  The  British  troops,  instructed  by  this  severe  lesson,  no 
longer  considered  their  antagonists  as  cowards.  Passing  from 
the  extreme  of  contempt  to  that  of  respectful  regard  for  the 
courage  of  their  enemy,  they  made  no  further  endeavors  to  pene- 
trate into  the  country;  and  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  as  this 
action  is  now  called,  checked  at  once  and  forever  the  advance  of 
the  British  arms  in  Massachusetts. 

Meantime,  the  congress  at  Philadelphia  were  taking  measures 
for  organizing  a  military  resistance  to  the  British  power  through- 
out the  country.  They  issued  bills  of  credit,  pledging  the  twelve 
confederated  colonies  for  their  redemption ;  prepared  for  the 
raising  of  an  army,  and  published  a  manifesto,  setting  forth 
the  cause  of  their  taking  up  arms.  General  Washington  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief.-and  repaired  immediately  to  the 


SIEGE    OF    BOSTON. 


553 


scat  of  war.     He  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Cambridge,  three 
miles  from  Boston,  and  applied  himself  to  the  business  of  disci- 


House  in  Cambridge,  where  Washington  resided. 

plining  the  troops,  and  pressing  more  closely  the  blockade  of  the 
town,  which  now  began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  war.  The  royal 
forces  in  Boston  continued  closely  blocked  up  by  land,  and 
being  shut  out  from  fresh  provisions  and  vegetables,  they  began 
to  feel  great  distress.  The  provincials  watched  the  more  care- 
fully to  keep  out  supplies,  thinking  the  soldiers  would  suffer  the 
inhabitants  to  depart,  for  fear  of  a  famine ;  or,  at  least,  that  the 
women  and  children  would  be  suffered  to  remove,  which  was 
repeatedly  demanded.  Th'ere  is  some  reason  to  imagine  that 
Gage  considered  the  inhabitants  as  necessary  hostages  for  the 
security  of  the  town,  and  the  safety  of  the  troops.  To  keep 
women,  old  men,  and  children  confined  as  pledges  for  their  own 
safety,  argued  that  they  were  unwilling  to  fight  the  provin- 
cials on  fair  terms.  It  had  often  been  asserted  in  England  that 
a  few  regular  troops  would  march  through  all  America ;  but  now, 
a  general,  with  an  army  of  the  best  troops  in  the  service,  was 
cooped  up  in  a  town,  and  durst  not  even  stay  in  it  without  old 
men,  women  and  children,  to  guard  them !  General  Gage  at 
length  entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  town's  people,  that 
if  they  would  deliver  up  their  arms,  they  should  have  liberty  to 
go  where  they  pleased  with  their  property.  The  arms  were 
accordingly  given  up ;  but,  to  their  amazement  and  mortification, 
he  refused  to  let  them  depart.  Many,  however,  were  suffered 
afterwards  to  quit  the  town  at  different  times,  but  they  were 
obliged  to  leave  all  their  effects  behind ;  so  that  those  who  had 
hitherto  lived  in  affluence,  were  at  once  reduced  to  poverty.  The 


554 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


general  congress  complained  loudly  of  this  conduct,  and  ranked 
the  sufferings  of  the  inhabitants  of  Boston  among  the  most 
grievous  and  bitter  of  their  complaints. 

In  the  mean  time,  a  few  private  adventurers  had  accomplished 
an  enterprise,  which  astonished  all  Europe.  Some  persons, 
belonging  to  the  interior  of  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  and  New 
York,  undertook,  at  their  own  risk  and  without  any  authority, 
and  without  publicly  announcing  their  designs,  an  expedition  of 
the  utmost,  importance.  This  was  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga, 
Crown  Point,  and  other  forts,  commanding  the  passes  between 


Allen  at  Fort  Ticonderoga. 

the  southern  colonies  and  Canada.  Some  of  those  who  had 
embarked  in  this  design,  set  out  with  the  greatest  secrecy,  and 
met  others  upon  their  march,  who,  without  any  previous  concert, 
were  proceeding  upon  the  same  project.  These  adventurers 
amounted  to  two  hundred  and  forty  men,  and  were  commanded 
by  Colonel  Ethan  Allen.  The  Americans  arrived  before  the  walls 
of  Ticonderoga  early  in  the  morning,  while  the  garrison  were 
sleeping  in  all  the  confidence  of  perfect  security.  Allen  burst  into 
the  bedchamber  of  the  commander,  and  with  a  drawn  sword  over 
his  head  compelled  him  to  surrender  the  place.  The  capture  of 
Crown  Point  followed.  These  important  acquisitions  were  made 
without  the  loss  of  a  man. 

In  these  forts  they  found  a  considerable  quantity  of  cannon, 
besides  some  mortars,  howitzers  and  other  stores ;  they  also  took 
two  vessels,  which  gave  them  command  of  Lake  Champlain,  and 
the  possession  of  materials  at  Ticonderoga,  for  building  and 
equipping  others.  This  was  as  daring  an  act  as  had  been  known 


vyiomiA. 


555 


and  clearly  showed  that  the  colonists  were  now  in  earnest  in  their 
opposition. 

In  Virginia,  Lord  Dunmore,  the  governor,  aroused  the  spirit  of 
resistance  among  the  people,  by  his  intemperate  measures.  In 
April,  1775,  he  removed  the  public  stores  from  the  magazines  at 
Williamsburg,  to  the  ships  of  war,  and  afterwards  abandoned  his 
residence,  and  took  refuge  on  board  a  king's  ship,  at  Yorktown ; 
thus  virtually  abdicating  his  government.  On  the  15th  of  Octo- 
ber, he  landed  with  a  party  at  Norfolk,  carried  off  two  pieces 
of  cannon,  and  damaged  several  others.  These  marauding 
attempts  he  repeated  several  times,  destroying  ammunition  and 
stores. 

47* 


CHAPTER   LVIII. 

Gtneral  Howe  takes  the  command  at  Boston. — Perilous  condition  of  the  American 
army. — Destruction  of  Falmouth. — Expedition  to  Savannah. — Success  of  the 
American  cruisers. —  Occupation  of  Dorchester  heights. — Tlie  British  evacuate 
Boston. — Defeat  of  Sir  Peter  Parker's  squadron  at  Charleston. 

GENERAL  Gage  returned  to  England,  in  October,  1775,  and  the 
command  of  the  army  at  Boston  fell  to  General  Howe.  This 
officer  soon  after  issued  a  proclamation,  by  which  those  of  the 
inhabitants  who  attempted  to  quit  the  town,  without  leave,  were 
condemned  to  military  execution.  By  another  proclamation,  such 
as  obtained  permission  to  leave  the  town,  were,  by  severe  penal- 
ties, excluded  from  carrying  more  than  a  small  specified  sum 
of  money  with  them.  He  also  required  the  forming  of  associations, 
by  which  the  remaining  inhabitants  should  offer  their  persons  for 
the  defence  of  the  place.  Such  of  them  as  he  approved  were  to 
be  armed,  formed  into  companies,  and  instructed  in  military  exer- 
cises ;  the  remainder  being  obliged  to  pay  their  quotas  in  money 
towards  the  common  defence. 

The  limited  time  for  which  the  soldiers  in  the  provincial  army 
before  Boston  were  enlisted,  had  nearly  expired,  and  it  was  ne- 
cessary that  some  measure  should  be  taken  for  supplying  their 
place.  A  committee  of  the  general  congress  were  sent  to  Boston 
to  take  the  necessary  measures,  in  conjunction  with  Washington, 
for  keeping  the  army  from  disbanding.  Of  all  the  difficulties 
which  the  Americans  encountered  in  their  attempts  towards  estab- 
lishing a  military  force,  nothing  was  more  important  than  the 
want  of  gunpowder;  for  though  they  used  the  utmost  diligence 
in  collecting  nitre,  and  all  the  other  materials  for  the  manufacture, 
the  results  of  their  own  industry  and  skill  were  small.  They  had 
not  yet  opened  that  commerce  with  foreign  states,  which  subse- 
quently procured  them  a  supply  of  military  stores.  The  scarcity  of 
gunpowder  was  so  great,  that  it  was  said  the  troops  at  Bunker's 
Hill  had  not  a  single  charge  left  after  that  short  engagement;  and 
the  deficiency  in  the  army  before  Boston  was  at  one  time  so  great, 
that  nothing  but  General  Howe's  ignorance  of  the  circumstance 
could  have  saved  the  besiegers  from  being  dispersed  by  a  single 
attack.  They  left  nothing  undone  to  supply  the  defect,  and 
among  other  temporary  expedients,  had  contrived  to  purchase, 


CONFEDERATION  OP  THE  COLONIES.  557 

without  notice  or  suspicion,  all  the  powder  from  the  European 
settlements  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

Meantime,  plundering,  threatening  and  hostilities  were  con- 
stantly carried  on  along  the  American  coast.  The  town  of 
Falmouth,  in  the  District  of  Maine,  was  doomed  to  share  in  these 
calamities.  Some  disorder  relative  to  the  loading  of  a  lumber- 
ship,  caused  the  British  admiral  to  issue  an  order  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  town.  The  officers  who  commanded  the  ships  on 
that  occasion,  gave  two  hours'  notice  to  the  inhabitants,  to  provide 
for  their  safety,  and  this  time  was  further  enlarged  till  next 
morning,  under  the  cover  of  a  negotiation  for  delivering  their 
artillery  and  small  arms,  as  the  price  of  saving  the  town.  This, 
however,  they  refused  to  comply  with,  but  they  made  use  of  the 
intermediate  time  in  removing  as  many  of  their  effects  as  they 
could,  during  the  darkness  of  the  night. 

On  the  morning  of  the  18th  of  October,  a  cannonade  was 
begun,  and  continued  with  little  intermission  through  the  day. 
About  three  thousand  shot,  besides  bombs  and  carcases,  were 
thrown  into  the  town,  and  the  sailors  landed  to  complete  the. 
destruction,  but  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  a  few  men.  The 
principal  part  of  the  town  which  lay  next  the  water,  consisting 
of  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  dwelling-houses,  two  hundred 
and  seventy-eight  stores  and  warehouses,  a  large  new  church, 
and  a  handsome  court-house,  with  the  public  library,  were 
reduced  to  ashes.  The  destruction  of  Falmouth  provoked  the 
Americans  to  the  highest  degree,  and  probably  pushed  on  the 
congress  of  Massachusetts  Bay  to  the  daring  measure  of  granting 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  establishing  courts  of  admi- 
ralty, for  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  British  ships.  In  this  law, 
they  declared  an  intention  of  defending  the  coasts  and  navigation 
of  America,  extending  the  power  of  capture  only  to  such  ships 
as  should  be  employed  in  bringing  supplies  to  the  armies  employed 
against  them.  From  this  time,  they  did  all  that  was  in  their 
power  to  seize  such  ships  as  brought  supplies  to  the  troops. 

During  the  course  of  the  summer,  1775,  articles  of  confederation 
and  perpetual  union  were  entered  into  between  the  several  colonies, 
which  were  already  associated,  with  liberty  of  admission  to  those 
of  Quebec,  St.  John's,  Nova  Scotia  and  the  two  Floridas  and 
Bermudas.  They  contained  rules  of  general  government,  in 
peace  and  war,  both  with  respect  to  foreigners  and  each  other. 
These  articles  were  drawn  up  by  the  general  congress,  and  by 
them  transmitted  to  the  different  colonies,  for  the  consideration 
of  their  respective  assemblies.  If  the  articles  met  'their  approba- 
tion, they  were  to  empower  their  delegates  to  the  ensuing  congress 


558  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

to  ratify  and  confirm  them ;  and  from  that  time,  the  union  which 
they  established  was  to  continue  firm  until,  besides  a  redress  ot 
grievances,  reparation  was  made  for  the  losses  sustained  by  Bos- 
ton, for  the  burning  of  Charlestown,  for  the  expenses  of  the  war, 
and  until  the  British  were  withdrawn  from  America. 

When  the  autumn  approached,  and  appearances  of  plenty 
gave  the  colonists  ground  to  conjecture  what  might  be  spared  out 
of  the  abundance  of  a  plentiful  harvest,  it  was  resolved  by  the 
congress,  that  if  the  late  restraining  laws  were  not  repealed 
within  six  months,  from  the  20th  of  July,  1775,  their  ports  from 
that  time  should  be  open  to  every  state  in  Europe,  which  would 
admit  and  protect  their  commerce,  free  of  all  duties,  and  for  every 
kind  of  commodity  excepting  only  teas,  and  the  merchandise  of 
Great  Britain  and  her  dependencies.  And  the  more  to  encourage 
foreigners  to  engage  in  trade  with  them,  they  passed  a  resolution 
that  they  would,  to  the  utmost  of  their  power,  maintain  and  sup- 
port such  freedom  of  commerce  for  two  years  after  its  commence- 
ment, notwithstanding  any  reconciliation  with  Great  Britain,  and 
as  much  longer  as  the  present  obnoxious  laws  should  continue. 
They  also  immediately  suspended  the  non-importation  agreement 
in  favor  of  all  ships  that  should  bring  gunpowder,  nitre,  sulphur, 
good  muskets  fitted  with  bayonets,  or  brass  field-pieces. 

By  the  delays  and  misfortunes  which  the  transports  and  vic- 
tuallers from  England  experienced,  the  forces  in  Boston  were 
reduced  to  great  distress.  What  added  to  the  afflictions  which 
they  already  suffered,  was  the  mortification  of  seeing  several 
vessels,  which  were  laden  with  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of 
life,  captured  by  the  provincials  in  the  very  entrance  of  the 
harbor,  whilst  the  tide  and  wind  disabled  the  ships  of  war  from 
preventing  it.  The  loss  of  most  of  the  coal-ships  was  severely 
felt,  as  fuel  could  not  be  procured,  and  the  climate  rendered  that 
article  indispensable.  The  houses  of  Boston  were  pulled  down 
for  fuel.  The  inhabitants  were  in  a  most  deplorable  condition ; 
detained  against  their  will,  or  cut  off  from  all  intercourse  with 
their  friends,  exposed  to  all  the  consequences  of  that  contempt 
and  aversion,  with  which  a  greater  part  of  them  were  regarded 
by  the  soldiers,  and  at  the  same  time  in  want  of  every  necessary 
of  life.  The  attempts  made  to  procure  provisions  were  not 
attended  with  great  success.  Some  vessels  were  sent  to  Barba- 
does,  where,  by  the  assistance  of  the  governor,  a  very  moderate 
quantity  was  obtained.  A  detachment  of  marines,  with  an  armed 
ship  and  some  transports,  were  sent  to  Savannah  in  Georgia,  with 
a  view,  as  the  event  showed,  to  carry  off  cargoes  of  rice  and  other 
provisions.  The  militia,  however,  took  to  their  arms,  and  would 


EVACUATION   OF   BOSTON,  659 

not  permit  the  British  to  land,  nor  the  ships  to  hold  any  corre- 
spondence with  the  shore.  In  the  course  of  the  debate  which 
arose  upon  this  occasion,  some  officers  belonging  to  the  colony 
were  seized  and  detained  on  board  the  ships;  and  their  release 
being  haughtily  refused,  and  other  provoking  circumstances 
occurring  on  both  sides,  some  batteries  were  speedily  erected  by 
the  militia  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  an  engagement  with 
cannon  and  small  arms  took  place.  Some  blood  was  spilt,  and 
seven  loaded  vessels  belonging  to  the  colony,  were  burnt  in  the 
conflict. 

Meantime,  the  besieging  forces  at  Boston  waited  for  the  hard 
frosts  of  mid-winter,  in  expectation  of  attacking  the  town  by 
crossing  over  upon  the  ice.  But  the  uncommon  mildness  of  the 
season  disappointed  these  hopes,  and  they  were  forced  to  remain 
quiet  through  the  winter.  The  arrival  of  a  copy  of  the  king's 
speech,  with  an  account  of  the  fate  of  the  petition  from  the  con- 
tinental congress,  still  further  excited  the  people.  They  burnt  the 
king's  speech  publicly  in  the  camp ;  and  on  this  occasion  they 
changed  their  colors  from  a  plain  red  ground,  which  they  had 
hitherto  used,  to  a  flag  with  thirteen  stripes,  as  a  symbol  of  the 
union  and  number  of  the  colonies. 

During  this  state  of  affairs,  the  American  cruisers  grew  daily 
more  numerous  and  successful  against  the  transports  and  store- 
ships.  Among  a  multitude  of  other  prizes,  they  had  the  good 
fortune  to  capture  one  which  gave  a  new  impulse  to  their  military 
operations.  This  was  an  ordnance  ship  from  Woolwich,  which 
had  separated  from  her  convoy,  and  being  herself  of  no  force, 
she  was  taken  without  defence,  by  a  small  privateer,  in  Boston 
Bay.  This  vessel  contained  several  pieces  of  fine  brass  cannon, 
a  large  quantity  of  small  arms  and  ammunition,  and  a  mortar, 
with  all  manner  of  tools,  utensils  and  machines  necessary  for 
camps  and  artillery,  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

By  this  fortunate  acquisition,  the  American  troops  became  sup- 
plied with  the  very  articles  of  which  they  had  long  stood  in  need. 
They  delayed  not  a  moment  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantage. 
On  the  2d  of  March,  1776,  a  battery  was  opened  at  Lechmere 
Point,  directly  opposite  Boston,  from  which  a  heavy  bombardment 
and  cannonade  were  directed  against  the  town  with  great  effect. 
Many  buildings  were  demolished  and  set  on  fire,  and  the  troops 
and  inhabitants  were  constantly  employed  in  extinguishing  the 
flames.  The  British  commander  began  to  feel  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  his  army ;  but  matters  grew  rapidly  m.ore  threatening. 
Three  days  after,  he  saw,  with  inexpressible  surprise,  at  the  dawn 
of  day,  the  ramparts  of  a  new  fortification  which  had  arisen 


560  ^         THE   UNITED   STATES. 

during  the  night  on  the  heights  of  Dorchester,  commanding  the 
town  and  harbor  on  the  south.  The  morning  mist  having  magni- 
fied these  works  to  a  gigantic  size,  added  much  to  the  consterna- 
tion and  amazement  of  the  British  officers,  who,  in  their  accounts 
of  the  siege,  affirm  that  this  apparition  recalled  to  their  minds 
those  tales  of  magic  and  enchantment  with  which  eastern 
romances  are  filled. 

They  Were  ready  to  imagine  that  they  had  got  into  Fairy-land, 
where  spiritual  agency  is  supposed  to  supply  the  place  of  bodily 
exertions.  They  could  not  help  seeing  that  they  were  now 
dealing  with  a  people  that  were  in  earnest,  and  who  were  not 
inferior  to  themselves  in  enterprise.  Both  the  skill  and  industry 
of  the  colonists  began  now  to  be  alarming  to  the  British  troops ; 
they  perceived  that  the  men  whom  they  had  been  taught  to  de- 
spise as  cowards,  were  their  equals  if  not  their  superiors,  both  in 
application  and  intrepidity.  The  situation  of  the  king's  troops 
was  now  very  critical.  Shot  and  shells  were  poured  in  upon 
them  from  the  new  works.  Others  were  rapidly  constructing  on 
the  neighboring  hills,  commanding  the  town  and  a  considerable 
part  of  the  harbor. 

In  these  circumstances,  no  alternative  remained  but  to  abandon 
the  town,  or  dislodge  the  enemy  and  destroy  the  new  works. 
General  Howe  adopted  the  latter  plan.  Two  thousand  men  were 
embarked  in  transports,  and  fell  down  the  harbor  to  the  castle, 
with  a  design  to  land  on  the  beach  opposite,  and  carry  the  works 
on  Dorchester  heights  by  storm.  Every  preparation  was  made 
by  the  Americans  for  the  defence.  Hogsheads  filled  with  stones 
and  chained  together  were  planted  on  the  brow  of  the  hill,  to  be 
rolled  down  upon  the  ranks  of  the  assailants.  The  British  were 
aware  of  the  desperate  nature  of  their  attempt.  Murmurs  of 
irresohition  were  heard,  and  exclamations  that  it  would  be 
"  another  Bunker  Hill  affair."  In  this  dispirited  condition  of  the 
troops,  a  furious  storm,  which  happened  during  the  night,  supplied 
the  British  commander  with  a  plausible  excuse  for  deferring  the 
attack.  A  council  of  war  was  held,  and  resulted  in  a  determina- 
tion to  retreat  from  Boston.  A  fortnight  was  passed  in  prepara- 
tions for  departure,  till,  on  the  17th  of  March,  1776,  the  besieged 
were  quickened  in  their  movements  by  a  new  battery  erected  by 
the  Americans  on  Nook's  Hill,  at  the  northern  point  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Dorchester.  Delay  was  no  longer  safe.  By  ten  in  the 
forenoon  of  that  (lay,  all  the  king's  troops,  together  with  such  of 
the  inhabitants  as  were  attached  to  the  royal  cause,  were  em- 
barked and  under  sail.  As  the  rear  guard  went  on  board  the 
ships,  Washington  marched  into  the  town,  where  he  was  received 


ATTACK  ON  FORT  MOULTRIE.  561 

in  triumph  by  the  people,  with  every  demonstration  of  joy  and 
gratitude.  Several  ships  of  war  were  left  in  the  bay  by  the 
British,  to  protect  the  vessels  which  should  arrive  from  England. 
In  this  they  were  not  perfectly  successful.  The  great  extent  of 
the  bay,  with  its  numerous  creeks  and  islands,  and  the  number 
of  small  ports  that  surround  it,  afforded  such  opportunities  to 
the  provincial  armed  boats  and  privateers,  that  they  took  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  transport  ships,  who  were  still  in  ignorance  that 
the  town  had  changed  its  masters. 

Washington  was  now  in  possession  of  the  capital  of  Massachu- 
setts, but  being  ignorant  of  the  destination  of  the  fleet,  and 
apprehensive  of  an  attempt  upon  New  York,  he  detached  several 
regiments  for  the  protection  of  that  city,  on  the  very  day  on 
which  he  took  possession  of  Boston.  The  royal  army  were  not 
as  yet  in  a  situation  which  admitted  of  their  undertaking  any 
important  expedition.  They  did  not  exceed  nine  thousand 
effective  men,  and  were  in  some  respects  very  ill  provided.  This 
army,  nevertheless,  was  three  times  more  numerous  than  had  been 
thought  sufficient  to  conquer  all  America.  Their  repulse  was  a 
mortifying  blow  to  the  schemes  of  the  ministry,  who  had  given  out 
that  the  sight  of  a  few  grenadiers,  would  frighten  all  the  colonies 
into  a  compliance  with  their  measures.  Their  invincible  troops 
had  been  obliged  to  abandon  Boston,  before  a  newly-raised  militia, 
who  were  styled  cowards  in  England. 

The  fleets,  transports  and  victuallers,  which  had  been  sent  from 
England,  met  with  bad  weather  in  their  passage;  many  delays 
and  untoward  circumstances  befel  them,  which  in  a  great  degree 
frustrated  their  designs.  A  squadron,  under  Sir  Peter  Parker, 
destined  for  the  invasion  of  South  Carolina,  sailed  from  Ports- 
mouth, about  the  end  of  the  year  1775,  but,  suffering  great  delays, 
did  not  reach  Carolina  till  May,  1776.  In  the  beginning  of  June, 
the  fleet,  anchored  off  Charleston,  and  made  preparations  for 
attacking  the  place.  Two  of  the  ships  mounted  fifty  guns,  four 
were  frigates  of  twenty-eight,  to  which  were  added  four  more 
ships  of  smaller  force  and  a  bomb-ketch.-  The  passage  of  the 
bar  was  a  work  of  difficulty  and  danger,  especially  to  the  two 
large  ships,  which,  though  lightened  of  their  guns,  both  struck  on 
the  bar  several  times.  The  land  forces  were  commanded  .by 
Generals  Clinton,  Cornwallis  and  Vaughan.  It  is  somewhat 
singular,  that,  at  the  time  General  Clinton  sailed  from  Boston, 
General  Lee,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  detachment  from  the  army 
before  that  place,  immediately  set  out  to  seciurt  New  York. 
Having  succeeded  in  that  object,  General  Clinton  could  not  be 
surprised,  at  his  arrival  in  Virginia,  to  find  Lee  in  the  same  state 


562 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


of  preparation  in  which  he  had  left  him  at  New  York.  Upon 
Clinton's  departure  from  Cape  Fear,  Lee  traversed  the  continent 
with  the  utmost  expedition,  to  secure  North  Carolina ;  and  at 
length,  upon  the  farther  progress  of  the  fleet  and  army  to  the 
southward,  General  Lee  again  Avith  equal  celerity  proceeded  to 
the  defence  of  Charleston. 


Attack  on  Fort  Moultrie. 

4) 

The  British  troops  landed  on  Long  Island,  which  lies  eastward 
of  Sullivan's,  being  separated  only  by  a  creek,  which  was  deemed 
passable  at  low  water.  The  Carolinians  had  posted  some  forces 
with  a  few  pieces  or  cannon  near  the  northeast  extremity  of 
Sullivan's  Island.  General  Lee  was  encamped  with  a  considera- 
ble body  of  forces  upon  the  continent  to  the  northward  of  the 
island,  with  which  he  had  a  communication  by  a  bridge  of  boats. 
Long  Island  is  a  naked-burning  sand,  where  the  troops  suffered 
much  from  their  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Both  the  fleet 
and  the  army  were  greatly  distressed  through  the  badness  of  the 
water ;  that  which  is  found  upon  the  sea-coast  of  Carolina  being 
very  brackish.  Nor  were  they  in  any  better  condition  with  re- 
spect to  the  quantity  or  quality  of  their  provisions.  Though  the 
greatest  despatch  was  necessary,  on  account  of  these  inconve- 
niences, yet  such  delays  occurred  in  carrying  the  design  into 
execution,  that  it  was  near  the  end  of  the  month,  before  the  attack 
on  Sullivan's  Island  took  place.  This  leisure  was  improved  by 
the  provincials,  with  great  diligence,  for  completing  their  works. 
Everything  being  at  length  settled  for  the  attack,  the  bomb-ketch, 
covered  byan  armed  ship,  took  her  station  on  the  morningof  the28th 
of  June,  and  began  by  throwing  shells  at  Fort  Moultrie,  as  the  fleet 


ATTACK  ON  FORT  MOULTR1E.  563 

advanced.  About  eleven  o'clock,  four  other  ships  brought  up 
directly  against  the  fort,  and  began  a  most  furious  and  incessant 
cannonade.  Three  ships  were  ordered  to  the  westward,  to  take 
their  station  between  the  island  and  Charleston,  with  a  design  to 
demolish  the  works  of  the  fort,  and,  if  possible,  to  interrupt  the 
communication  between  the  island  and  continent,  and  cut  oft'  the 
retreat  of  the  garrison.  This  part  of  the  design  miscarried  by 
the  unskilfulness  of  the  pilot,  who  entangled  the  frigates  in  the 
shoals,  where  they  all  stuck  fast;  and  though  two  of  them  were 
got  off,  it  was  then  too  late  to  be  of  any  service.  One  was  burnt 
by  the  crew  the  next  morning,  to  prevent  her  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Americans.  The  ships  suffered  excessively  from 
the  fire  of  the  batteries,  and  the  slaughter  on  board  was  dreadful. 
Scarcely  was  ever  British  valor  put  to  so  severe  a  trial.  The 
battle  continued  till  the  darkness  of  the  night  compelled  the 
assailants  to  desist.  Sir  Peter  Parker,  after  using  every  effort, 
finding  that  all  hopes  of  success  were  at  an  end,  and  the  ebbing 
tide  near  spent,  withdrew  his  shattered  vessels,  between  nine  and 
ten  o'clock  in  the  evening,  after  an  engagment  which  had  been 
supported  for  above  ten  hours  with  uncommon  courage  and 
resolution.  One  of  his  ships  had  one  hundred  and  eleven,  and 
another  seventy-nine,  killed  and  wounded.  The  frigates  did  not 
suffer  so  severely,  for  the  provincials  pointed  their  fire  principally 
at  the  ships  of  the  line. 

This  defeat  was  a  most  unexpected  blow  to  the  British.  They 
had  never  imagined  that  this  insignificant  fort  would  have  been 
able  to  withstand  the  heavy  fire  of  their  squadron  for  the  space 
of  one  hour ;  though,  upon  trial,  it  was  found  that  after  ten  hours' 
severe  cannonade,  it  was  as  far  from  being  reduced  as  at  the  begin- 
ning. The  provincials  showed,  on  this  occasion,  a  degree  of 
skill  and  intrepidity,  which  would  have  done  honor  to  veteran 
troops ;  both  officers  and  men  performed  their  duty  to  the  amaze- 
ment of  their  enemies,  and  conducted  their  fire  with  such  delib- 
eration and  design,  that  almost  every  shot  did  execution.  Colonel 
Moultrie,  who  commanded  in  the  fort,  received  great  and  deserved 
praise  from  his  countrymen.  The  garrison  also  received  great 
applause,  and  a  sergeant  was  publicly  honored  with  a  present  of 
a  sword,  from  the  president  of  the  congress,  for  a  particular  act 
of  bravery.  This  defence  greatly  raised  the  character  of  the 
Carolinians  and  the  southern  colonies.  Sir  Peter,  with  his 
shattered  fleet,  made  the  best  of  his  way  to  New  York. 
48 


CHAPTER     LIX. 

Declaration  of  Independence  ^British  expedition  against  New  York  .—-Battle  af 
Long  Island.— Escape  of  the  American  army.— Lord  Howe  attempts  to  neo'o- 
tiate  with  Congress.— New  York  captured  by  the  British.— Action  at  White 
Plains.— Forts  Washington  and  Lee  taken  by  the  .British.— Conquest  of  the 
Jerseys.— The  British  reduce  Rhode  Island.— Desperate  condition  of  the  Amer- 


ican cause. 


HITHERTO  the  colonists  had  maintained  their  struggle  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  mother  country,  without  abandoning 
the  hope  that  pacific  councils  and  conciliatory  measures  might 
heal  the  breach  between  them.     But  as  the  British  ministry  con- 
tinued to  manifest   the   most   hostile   and   arrogant   spirit,   and 
showed  a  fierce  determination  to  reduce  them  by  force  of  arms  to 
unconditional  submission,  their  feelings  became  more  and  more 
alienated,  and  they  began  to  despair  of  any  amicable  settlement 
of  their  difficulties.     The  news  that  sixteen  thousand  German 
mercenary  troops  had  been  hired  to  make  war  upon  them,  added 
still  more  to  their  resentment.     Ere  long  they  began  to  disown 
the  authority  of  the  king,  and  to  declare,  in  speech  and  writing. 
that  nothing  remained  for  them  but  a  complete  and  final  separa- 
tion from  the  British  crown.     The  popular  feeling  soon  found  a 
correspondent   expression   in  public  bodies,   and   at   length   the 
continental   congress,  on  the   fourth   of  July.   1776.   issued   the 
DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  ;  thus  dissolving  the  connection  of 
the  colonies  with  England,  and  claiming  for  them  a  rank  amonsr 
independent  nations.     This  declaration  was  received  everywhere 
throughout  the  country  with  the  highest  exultation,  and  the  enno- 
bling prospect  of  a  separate  national  existence  now  animated  the 
colonists  with  new  courage  and  resolution  to  repel  their  invaders. 
Washington,  meantime,  confident  that  the  British  would  never 
appear  again  at  Boston,  marched  his  army  to  New  York,  antici- 
pating the  next  attack  in   that  quarter.     He  was  right  in  his 
conjecture.     The  forces  that  evacuated  Boston  proceeded  first 
to  Halifax,  to  await  reinforcements   from  England.      A  grand 
scheme  of  conquest  was  now  projected  by  the  British  ministry. 
The   execution   of  it  was  entrusted  to  Lord  and  Sir  William 
Howe,  two  officers  of  good  character  and  known  abilities,  in 
whom  the  nation  reposed  much  confidence.    A  powerful  army  was 


566  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

appointed  for  this  service.  The  whole  force  was  supposed  to 
amount  to  thirty-five  thousand  men.  Perhaps  this  might  be 
only  the  calculation  which  was  made  upon  paper.  It  was,  how- 
ever, in  reality,  a  formidable  armament,  and  a  larger  army  than 
ever  had  been  sent  by  any  European  power  to  the  continent  of 
America.  With  an  army  inferior  in  numbers  to  this,  Alexander 
the  Great  made  himself  master  of  the  whole  Persian  empire. 
The  British  troops  were  supposed  to  be  the  best  in  the  world. 
and  their  generals  the  most  skilful.  They  were  well  provided 
with  all  sorts  of  provisions,  warlike  stores  and  ammunition,  and 
were  also  supported  by  a  numerous  fleet.  The  general  and  admiral, 
beside  their  military  power,  were  invested  with  authority  as  com- 
missioners, by  act  of  parliament,  for  restoring  peace  to  the  colo- 
nies, and  for  granting  pardon  to  such  as  should  deserve  mercy. 

While  Sir  William  Howe  waited  at  Halifax  for  reinforcements, 
he  was  pressed  by  the  want  of  provisions.  He  at  last,  without 
waiting  for  his  brother,  Lord  Howe,  departed  from  Halifax  on 
the  10th  of  June,  1776,  and  arrived  at  Sandy  Hook  about  the  end 
of  the  month.  On  their  passage,  the  fleet  was  joined  by  six 
transports  with  Highland  troops,  which  had  been  separated  from 
their  companions  in  their  voyage.  Those  that  were  missing, 
with  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers  and  several  officers, 
were  taken  by  the  American  cruisers,  and  carried  into  Boston. 
General  Howe  found  the  entrance  of  New  York  harbor  strongly 
fortified.  Long  Island,  on  account  of  its  extent,  did  not  admit  of 
its  being  so  strongly  guarded ;  it  was,  however,  in  a  tolerable 
state  of  defence,  and  had  considerable  encampments  at  the  end 
of  the  island  next  to  New  York.  Staten  Island,  being  of  less 
consequence,  was  neglected  ;  this  was  certainly  a  great  oversight 
in  the  provincials. 

On  the  10th  of  July,  the  British  landed  on  Staten  Island. 
Their  troops  were  cantoned  in  the  villages,  where  they  received 
plenty  of  provisions.  General  Howe  was  here  met  by  Governor 
Tryon,  with  several  other  loyalists,  who  had  taken  refuge  on 
board  a  British  ship  at  Sandy  Hook.  These  persons  gave  him 
an  account  of  the  strength  of  the  provincials.  He  was  also 
joined  by  about  sixty  men  from  New  Jersey,  who  came  to  take  up 
arms  in  the  royal  cause,  and  about  two  hundred  militia  of  the 
island,  who  were  embodied  for  the  same  purpose.  This  afforded 
a  flattering  prospect  to  the  general,  that  when  the  army  was 
landed  and  collected  in  force  to  support  the  loyalists,  such  num- 
bers would  join  him,  as  would  enable  him  to  bring  the  war  to  a 
speedy  conclusion.  This  was  a  notion  that  misled  both  the 
ministry  in  England  and  the  officers  abroad,  and  ruined  the 


BRITISH   FORCES   LAND   AT    STATEN   ISLAND.  567 


success  of  the  greatest  part  of  their  measures ;  they  judged  of 
the  body  of  the  colonists  from  a  few  samples  they  had  of 
creatures  that  were  under  the  influence  of  crown  officers,  and 
falsely  concluded  that  all  the  provincials  Were  of  the  same 
temper.  Lord  Howe  arrived  at  Staten  Island  about  the  middle 
of  July.  His  first  act  was  to  issue  a  proclamation,  stating  his 
authority  to  grant  pardons  to  such  of  the  colonists  as  would 
return  to  their  allegiance  to  the  king,  and  promising  favors  to 
those  persons  who  should  exert  themselves  in  suppressing  the 
rebellion.  These  documents  were  widely  circulated,  but  without 
producing  the  desired  effect.  Considerable  delay  followed,  in  the 
expectation  of  reinforcements.  At  length,  the  British  forces  were 
augmented  by  the  arrival  of  Sir  Peter  Parker  and  General  Clin- 
ton, from  Charleston,  with  some  regiments  from  Florida  and  the 
West  Indies.  It  was  now  determined  to  make  a  descent  on  Long 
Island. 

Upon  the  22d  of  August,  the  fleet  having  taken  necessary 
measures  for  covering  the  descent,  the  army  landed  without 
opposition  near  Utrecht  and  Gravesend,  on  the  southwest  end  of 
the  island,  and  not  far  from  the  Narrows.  At  that  time,  General 
Putnam  was  encamped  with  a  strong  force  at  Brooklyn,  at  a  few 
miles  distance  on  the  north  coast,  where  his  works  covered  the 
breadth  of  a  small  peninsula,  having  the  East  river,  which  sepa- 
rated him  from  New  York,  on  his  left ;  a  marsh  on  the  right,  with 
the  Bay  and  Governor's  Island  in  his  rear.  The  armies  were 
separated  by  a  range  of  hills  covered  with  wood.  The  direct 
road  across  the  heights  lay  through  the  village  of  Flatbush, 
where  the  hills  commenced,  and  near  which  was  an  important 
pass.  General  Putnam  had  detached  part  of  his  army  to  pccupy 
the  hills,  and  defend  the  passes.  It  appears,  however,  that  it  was 
not  the  plan  of  the  colonists  to  attempt  any  decisive  battle  till 
they  had  exercised  their  troops  in  skirmishes  and  taught  them 
a  little  military  knowledge.  They  knew  that  the  British  troops 
were  highly  disciplined,  and  longed  for  nothing  more  than  an 
opportunity  to  put  an  end  to  the  war  by  a  single  stroke.  Their 
safety  depended  much  upon  speedy  action.  The  colonists,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  as  yet  raw  troops;  a  sudden  attack  and 
a  signal  overthrow  would  have  dispirited  them  and  frustrated 
all  their  hopes.  What  the  British  called  cowardice,  was  in  them 
the  greatest  prudence.  They  industriously  avoided  coming  to 
any  general  action,  but  contented  themselves  with  wearying  and 
harassing  the  British,  which  answered  all  the  •purpose  of  a  gen- 
eral engagement.  After  some  time  spent  in  skirmishes,  a  strong 
body  of  the  British,  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  advanced  upon  Flat- 
48*  r3 


568  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

bush.  Major  General  Grant  commanded  the  left  wing,  which 
extended  to  the  coast;  and  the  principal  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  CJinton  and  Earl  Percy,  wheeled  to  the  right, 
and  approached  the  opposite  coast  at  Flatland. 

When  everything  was  prepared  for  forcing  the  hills,  General 
Clinton,  at  the  head  of  the  van  of  the  army$  with  fourteen  field- 
pieces,  began,  on  the  evening  of  the  26th  of  August,  his  march 
from  Flatland.  Having  passed  through  the  part  of  the  country 
called  the  New  Lots,  they  reached  the  road  that  crosses  the  hills 
from  Bedford  to  Jamaica,  where,  wheeling  to  the  left  towards  the 
former  place,  they  seized  a  considerable  pass,  which  the  Ameri- 
cans had,  through  some  unaccountable  neglect,  left  unguarded. 
The  main  body,  under  Lord  Percy,  with  ten  field-pieces,  followed 
at  a  moderate  distance,  and  the  way  being  thus  successfully 
opened,  the  whole  army  passed  the  hills  without  opposition,  and 
descended  by  the  town  of  Bedford  into  the  lower  country,  which 
lay  between  them  and  Putnam's  lines.  The  engagement  was 
begun  early  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day,  by  the  Hessians,  at 
Flatbush,  and  by  General  Grant,  along  the  coast ;  and  a  warm 
cannonade,  with  a  sharp  fire  of  small  %arms,  was  eagerly  sup- 
ported on  both  sides  for  some  hours.  During  this  time,  the  king's 
troops  gained  no  advantage,  but  were  on  the  point  of  being 
repulsed,  when  the  fleet  made  several  mano3uvres  on  their  left, 
and  attacked  a  battery  on  Red  Hook.  This  movement  embar- 
rassed the  right  wing  of  the  colonists,  which  was  engaged  with 
General  Grant,  and  called  off  their  attention  totally  from  the  left 
and  rear,  where  their  greatest  danger  lay.  Those  who  were 
engaged  with  the  Hessians  were  the  first  that  perceived  their 
danger;  they  accordingly  retreated  in  large  bodies  and  in  good 
order,  with  a  design  to  recover  their  camp.  They  were,  however, 
attacked  furiously  by  the  king's  troops,  and  driven  back  into  the 
woods,  where  they  were  met  by  the  Hessians,  and  alternately 
intercepted  and  chased  by  the  dragoons  and  light  infantry.  In 
these  critical  circumstances,  some  of  their  regiments,  though  over- 
powered by  numbers,  forced  their  way  to  the  lines ;  some  kept 
the  woods  and  escaped.  Great  numbers  were  killed,  and  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  Americans  at  this  point  was  decisive. 

The  right  wing  of  the  provincials,  engaged  with  General  Grant 
on  the  coast,  were  so  late  in  knowing  what  was  going  on  in  other 
parts,  that  they  were  intercepted  in  their  retreat  by  some  of  the 
British  troops,  who,  in  the  morning,  had  not  only  turned  the 
heights  upon  their  left,  but  had  traversed  the  whole  extent  of 
country  in  their  rear.  Such  of  them  as  did  not  flee  to  the  woods, 
which  were  the  greatest  number,  were  obliged  to  throw  them- 


Francis'  Marion. 


Joseph  Warren. 


Alexander  Hamilton. 


Henry  Lee. 


BATTLE    OF   LONG   ISLAND.  569 

selves  into  a  marsh,  where  many  were  drowned,  or  suffocated  in 
the  mud.  A  considerable  number,  however,  made  their  escape  to 
the  lines,  though  they  were  much  diminished  in  their  flight  by  the 
fire  of  the  pursuers.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  on  this  occasion 
was  very  great.  Nearly  a  whole  regiment  from  Maryland,  con- 
sisting altogether  of  young  men  of  the  best  families,  were  totally 
cut  off. 

In  this  situation  there  was  no  hope  left,  but  in  a  retreat,  and 
even  this  was  exceedingly  difficult,  under  the  watchful  eye  of  an 
active  enemy,  with  a  powerful  army,  flushed  with  success,  almost 
close  to  their  works.  This  desperate  task  was  however  under- 
taken, and  executed  with  great  address  by  Washington.  On  the 
night  of  the  29th,  the  American  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the 
camp,  and  with  their  baggage,  stores,  and  almost  all  their  artillery, 
conveyed  to  the  water  side,  embarked,  and  ferried  over  to  New 
York,  with  such  silence  and  order,  that  the  British,  though  within 
six  hundred  yards,  knew  nothing  of  the  movement.  The  dawn 
of  day  showed  them  the  lines  abandoned,  the  American  rear- 
guard in  their  boats  and  out  of  danger.  Those  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  usual  noise  and  confusion  attending  the  break- 
ing up  of  a  camp,  and  the  march  of  so  many  thousand  men,  even 
in  open  day,  must  acknowledge  that  this  retreat  required  an 
extraordinary  address  to  conduct  it,  and  deserves  the  name  of  a 
master-piece  in  the  art  of  war. 

After  the  retreat  from  Long  Island,  General  Sullivan,  who  had 
been  taken  prisoner,  was  sent  upon  parole,  with  a  message  from 
Lord  Howe  to  the  congress.  In  this  he  stated,  that  though  he 
could  not  treat  with  them  in  the  character  of  a  congress,  he  was 
very  desirous  of  having  a  conference  with  some  of  their  members, 
whom  he  would  consider  only  as  private  gentlemen.  The  answer 
of  the  congress  was,  that  being  the  representatives  of  the  free  and 
independent  states  of  America,  they  could  not  with  propriety 
send  any  of  their  members  in  their  private  characters;  but  that, 
ever  desirous  of  establishing  peace  upon  reasonable  terms,  they 
would  appoint  a  committee  to  know- whether  he  had  any  authority 
to  treat  with  persons  authorized  by  congress  for  that  purpose,  and 
what  that  authority  was,  and  to  hear  such  propositions  as  he 
should  think  fit  to  make  respecting  the  same.  Dr.  Franklin, 
John  Adams  and  Mr.  Rutledge,  were  appointed  as  a  committee 
upon  this  occasion,  and  accordingly  waited  upon  Lord  Howe,  on 
Staten  Island ;  but  these  negociations  came  to  nothing. 

The  royal  army  was  now  divided  from  the  island  of  New  York 
by  the  East  river,  and  the  troops  were  impatient  to  pass  that 
narrow  limit.  They  posted  themselves  along  the  coast  wherever 


570  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

they  could  see  or  front  their  enemies,  and  erected  batteries  at 
various  points.  A  fleet,  consisting  of  upwards  of  three  hundred  sail, 
including  transports,  covered  the  waters  of  the  bay,  while  the 
ships  of  war  hovering  round  the  island,  threatened  destruction  to 
every  part,  and  were  continually  engaged  with  the  American 
batteries.  Thus  an  almost  constant  cannonade  was  kept  up  for 
many  days,  and  the  troops,  who  had  so  lately  escaped  from 
imminent  danger,  had  little  time  for  repose.  At  length,  the 
British  having  settled  their  plans  for  the  attack  of  the  city,  the 
squadron  made  a  movement  in  the  North  River,  with  a  design  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  provincials  to  that  side  of  the  island. 
Other  parts  were  also  threatened,  to  increase  the  uncertainty  of 
the  real  point  of  attack.  A  detachment  of  the  British  took  pos- 
session of  a  small  island  near  Hellgate,  and  erected  a  battery  on 
it,  to  silence  one  which  the  provincials  had  thrown  up  opposite. 
This  had  the  appearance  of  a  design  to  land  in  that  part.  Whilst 
the  Americans  were  in  this  state  of  suspense,  the  first  divisions 
of  the  British,  under  Generals  Clinton,  Cornwallis,  Vaughan, 
Leslie  and  the  Hessian  Colonel  Donop,  embarked  at  the  head  of 
Newtown  Bay,  which  runs  deep  into  Long  Island,  and  where 
they  were  out  of  all  view  of  the  enemy.  Covered  by  five  ships 
of  war  upon  their  entrance  into  the  river,  they  proceeded  to 
Kip's  Bay,  about  three  miles  north  of  New  York,  where,  being 
less  expected  than  in  other  places,  the  preparation  for  defence  was 
not  so  great.  The  works  were,  notwithstanding,  tolerably  strong 
and  well  manned,  but  the  fire  from  the  ships  was  so  severe  and 
well  directed,  that  the  fortifications  were  deserted,  and  the  army 
landed  without  opposition.  The  loss  of  New  York  was  the 
immediate  consequence. 

The  provincials,  harassed  by  the  fire  of  the  men-of-war,  aban- 
doned the  city  on  the  15th  of  September,  with  their  other  posts 
on  that  part  of  the  island,  and  retired  to  the  North  End,  where 
their  principal  strength  lay.  They  were  obliged  to  leave  a  great 
part  of  their  artillery  and  military  stores  behind.  They  had 
some  men  killed  and  a  few  taken  prisoners,  in  the  retreat.  The 
king's  troops  suffered  considerably,  but  this  loss  was  concealed  as 
much  as  possible.  Many  of  the  American  regiments  behaved 
badly  on  this  occasion.  Their  late  severe  losses  on  Long  Island 
appear  to  have  had  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  their  conduct  at  this 
time.  Part  of  the  British  army  took  possession  of  New  York, 
and  the  rest  encamped  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  thus  occu- 
pying it  from  shore  to  shore.  Washington  took  post  on  the  island 
at  Kingsbridge,  where  he  had  a  communication  with  the  continent. 
He  erected  strong  works  on  both  sides  of  the  passage.  The 


DANGEROUS   POSITION   OF    THE   AMERICAN   TROOPS.  571 

nearest  encampment  of  the  British  was  on  the  heights  of  Haarlem, 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  Between  the  two 
armies  were  the  strong  grounds  called  Morris's  heights.  In  this 
situation  skirmishes  frequently  happened,  and  it  was  found  that 
by  degrees  the  apprehensions  of  the  provincials  began  to  wear 
away. 

A  few  days  after  the  capture  of  New  York,  a  fire  broke  out,  by 
which  nearly  a  third  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes ;  and 
unless  the  exertions  of  the  troops  and  the  sailors  of  the  fleet  had 
preserved  the  remainder,  not  a  house  would  have  been  left  stand- 
ing. Some  persons,  who  were  thought  to  have  been  concerned  in 
the  cause  of  this  calamity,  were  thrown  into  the  flames  by  the 
soldiers,  and  burnt  to  death,  though  it  could  never  be  ascertained 
who  were  the  real  authors  of  the  conflagration.  General  Howe, 
finding  that  no  movements  could  be  made  with  success  upon  the 
island  of  New  York,  determined  upon  a  new  plan  of  operation 
On  the  llth  of  October,  the  greater  part  of  the  army  embarked 
in  flat  boats,  passed  successfully  through  the  dangerous  naviga- 
tion of  Hellgate,  and  landed  oh  Frog's  neck,  near  the  town  of 
East  Chester.  Earl  Percy,  with  two  brigades  of  British  troops 
and  one  of  Hessians,  continued  in  the  lines  near  Haarlem.  The 
chief  object  of  this  expedition  was  to  cut  off  the  communication 
between  Washington  and  the  eastern  shore,  and  if  this  measure 
did  not  bring  him  to  an  engagement,  to  enclose  him  on  all  sides 
in  the  north  end  of  York  Island.  The  king's  troops  were  now 
masters  of  the  lower  road  to  Connecticut  and  Boston,  but  to  gain 
the  upper  road  it  was  necessary  to  advance  to  the  higher  grounds 
called  the  White  Plains.  This  is  a  rugged  tract  of  land,  and  is 
only  part  of  an  ascent  to  a  country  which  is  still  higher.  When 
the  army  advanced  to  White  Plains,  it  was  judged  necessary  to 
leave  the  second  division  of  Hessians,  with  the  regiment  of 
Waldeck,  at  New  Rochelle,  to  keep  a  communication  to  forward 
the  supplies  that  were  to  arrive  at  that  place.  Washington  fore- 
saw the  intention  of  this  movement,  and  provided  against  it.  He 
perceived  the  danger  his  army  would  be  in  if  the  British  general 
succeeded  in  cooping  him  up  in  the  island.  '  In  such  a  case  he 
would  have  been  compelled  to  commit  the  whole  fortune  of  the 
war  to  the  hazard  of  a  general  engagement.  In  his  present  state, 
this  would  have  been  highly  imprudent ;  his  troops  were  not  well 
recovered  from  the  discouragement  occasioned  by  their  late  mis- 
fortunes, and  in  case  of  a  defeat  there  would  "scarcely  have  been 
a  possibility  of  a  retreat.  Determined  to  extricate  himself  from 
his  dangerous  position,  Washington  immediately  put  his  troops  in 
motion  and  formed  them  into  a  line  of  small  detachments,  and 


572  CONQUEST    OF    THE   JERSEYS. 

entrenched  camps,  which  occupied  every  height  and  strong  post 
from  Kingsbridge  to  White  Plains.  The  two  armies  came  into 
contact  at  White  Plains.  A  general  action  was  expected ;  but 
although  some  severe  skirmishing  took  place,  in  which  several 
hundreds  were  killed,  no  decisive  results  ensued.  Washington 
knew  it  to  be  the  main  desire  of  the  British  commander  to  draw 
him  into  a  general  engagement,  where  the  superior  discipline  and 
experience  of  his  veteran  troops  would  give  him  an  immense 
advantage  over  the  raw  levies  of  the  provincial  army.  He  there- 
fore prudently  abstained  from  hazarding  the  fortune  of  the  war 
in  a  general  combat.  He  abandoned  this  position  on  the  night  of 
the  1st  of  November,  and  took  post  on  higher  ground  towards 
North  Castle.  Howe,  finding  it  impossible  to  force  Washington 
to  a  general  engagement,  altered  his  plans  again,  and  resolved  to 
drive  the  Americans  from  York  Island.  Fort  Washington  stood 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  island,  and  Howe  directed  his  first 
operations  against  it.  The  fort  was  tolerably  strong,  but  could 
not  resist  heavy  artillery.  It  was  summoned  to  surrender,  but 
the  officer  who  commanded  it  replied,  that  he  was  determined  to 
defend  it  to  the  last  extremity,  and  a  general  assault  was  resolved 
upon.  Four  attacks  were  made  at  the  same  time.  The  British 
troops  crossed  the  East  river  in  flat  boats,  and  were  supported  by 
a  numerous,  powerful  and  well  served  artillery.  The  garrison, 
deficient  in  ammunition,  could  make  but  a  feeble  defence,  and  the 
place  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Fort  Washington  having 
been  reduced,  Lord  Cornwallis  was  sent  with  a  strong  body  of 
men  to  attack  Fort  Lee.  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  The 
garrison  of  two  thousand  men  abandoned  the  fort,  and  left  their 
stores,  artillery  and  tents  behind  them. 

After  these  decisive  advantages,  the  British  overran  the  greatest 
part  of  the  Jerseys  without  opposition,  the  provincials  every- 
where flying  before  them,  till,  at  length,  the  invading  army 
extended  their  winter  cantonments  from  New  Brunswick  to  the 
Delaware.  It  was  thought  that,  had  they  possessed  the  means 
of  passing  the  Delaware,  they  might  have  taken  Philadelphia, 
where  the  people  were  in  great  panic  and  consternation ;  but  the 
Americans  had  the  foresight  to  destroy  or  carry  off  all  the  boats 
upon  the  river.  During  these  proceedings  in  the  Jerseys,  General 
Clinton,  with  some  British  and  Hessian  troops,  and  a  squadron  of 
ships  under  Sir  Peter  Parker,  were  sent  to  make  an  attack  upon 
Rhode  Island.  They  succeeded  easily  in  this  enterprise.  Upon 
the  8th  of  December,  the  provincials  abandoned  the  island,  and 
the  British  and  Hessian  troops  took  possession  of  it  without  any 
loss,  and  at  the  same  time  blocked  up  Commodore  Hopkins's 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


573 


squadron,  in  Providence  river.  The  British  squadron  and  troops 
continued  here  during  the  winter,  rinding  better  quarters  than  at 
New  York.  Hitherto  the  king's  forces  had  succeeded  in  all  their 
attempts  since  their  landing  on  Staten  Island.  The  American 
army  was  reduced  to  a  handful  of  men,  fleeing  before  a  victorious 
enemy.  The  struggle  seemed  finally  closed,  and  nothing  appeared 
to  be  left  for  the  colonists  but  unconditional  submission. 
49  u3 


CHAPTER     LX. 

Expedition  against  Canada  >-~- Capture  of  St.  John's  and  Montreal.— Arnold  4 
march  through  the  wilderness  of  Maine. — Junction  of  Montgomery  and  Arnold. 
— Attack  on  Quebec,  and  death  of  Montgomery. — Failure  of  the  enterprise. — 
Canada  evacuated  by  the  Americans. — Desperate  state  of  the  American  cause. — 
Firmness  of  Washington. — Success  of  the  Americans  at  Trenton  and  Princeton. 
• — The  British  retreat  through  the  Jerseys.— Expedition  against  Philadelphia. — 
Battle  of  Brandywmc. — Capture  of  Philadelphia  by  the  British. — Battle  of 
Germantown. — Attack  of  Red  Bank. — The  forts  on  the  Delaware  evacuated. — 
Washington  goes  into  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge. 


Dtalh  ii  f  'Montgomery. 

DURING  the  course  of  the  events  related  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
the  Americans  were  also  carrying  on  an  expedition  against  Can- 
ada. The  British  parliament  had  passed  a  law,  establishing  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  in  that  country,  which  greatly  alarmed  the 
colonists.  They  considered  this  law,  which  bore  the  name  of  the 
Quebec  Act,  as  a  stratagem,  intended  to  seduce  the  papists  in 
Canada  into  the  designs  of  the  British  government,  and  excite 
them  to  take  up  arms  and  fall  upon  the  back  settlements  of  the 
New  England  provinces.  As  the  success  of  a  former  expedition 
to  the  lakes  had  given  spirit  to  the  Americans,  and  Ticonderoga 


EXPEDITION  AGAINST   CANADA.  575 

and  Crown  Point  were  now  in  their  hands,  congress  resolved  to 
make  a  bold  push  for  Canada. 

It  was  determined  to  improve  the  opportunity  while  the  British 
were  shut  up  in  Boston,  in  1775.'  Accordingly,  a  body  of  New 
'  York  and  New  England  troops,  to  the  amount  of  two  thousand 
men,  under  Generals  Schuyler  and  Montgomery,  were  embodied 
for  this  service.  Batteaux  and  flat  boats  were  built  at  Ticonder- 
oga  and  Crown  Point,  to  convey  them  through  Lake  Champlam 
to  the  river  Sorel,  by  which  they  were  to  enter  Canada.  Schuyler 
proceeded  to  Albany,  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  Indians,  which 
he  had  been  negotiating  for  some  time;  but  being  from  illness 
unable  to  return,  the. whole  conduct  of  the  enterprise  fell  upon 
Montgomery.  His  first  measure  was  to  detach  the  Indians  from 
the  British  service;  and  being  strengthened  by  the  arrival  of 
reinforcements  and  artillery,  he  prepared  to  lay  siege  to  the  fort 
of  St.  John.  This  fort  was  garrisoned  by  nearly  all  the  regular 
troops  then  in  Canada,  and  was  well  provided  with  stores, 
ammunition  and  artillery. 

The  parties  of  the  provincials  were  spread  over  the  adjacent 
country,  and  were  everywhere  -well  received  by  the  Canadians. 
While  matters  were  in  this  situation,  Ethan  Allen,  who  seems  to 
have  acted  rather  as  a  volunteer  than  as  a  person  obedient  to  any 
regular  command,  Undertook  to  surprise  Montreal.  He  set  out 
upon  this  hazardous  enterprise  at  the  head  of  a  small  party  of 
provincials  and  Canadians,  without  the  knowledge  of  the  corn- 
man  der-in-chief.  His  attempt  was  unsuccessful.  The  Canadian 
militia,  supported  by  a  few  regular  troops,  met  the  adventurer  at 
some  distance  from  Montreal,  defeated  his  troops,  and  took  him 
prisoner,  with  forty  others;  the  rest  of  the  party  escaped  into  the 
woods.  Allen  and  his  fellow-prisoners  were  by  the  order  of  Sir 
Guy  Carleton,  governor  of  Canada,  loaded  with  chains,  and  in 
that  condition  sent  to  England. 

Meantime,  Montgomery  pressed  the  siege  of  St.  John's,  but 
Carleton  was  indefatigable  in  his  endeavors  to  raise  forces  for  its 
relief.  Colonel  M'Clean  with  some  Scotch  and  Canadians,  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred,  were  posted  near,  the  junction  of  the 
Sorel  with  the  St.  Lawrence.  Carleton  used  his  utmost  diligence 
to  effect  a  junction  with  M'Clean,  and  then  to  march  to  the  relief 
of  St.  John's;  but  his  purpose  was  defeated  by  the  activity  of 
the  provincials.  He  was  attacked  at  Longueil,  in  attempting  to 
cross  the  river  from  the  island  of  Montreal,  by  a  party  of  Ameri- 
cans, who  easily  repulsed  the  Canadians,  and  frustrated  his  whole 
plan.  St.  John's  surrendered,  and  Montgomery  immediately  ap- 
proached Montreal.  A  capitulation  was  proposed  by  the  principal 


576  »          THE   UNITED   STATES. 

French  and  English  inhabitants,  including  a  sort  of  general  treaty, 
which  Montgomery  refused,  as  they  were  in  no  state  of  defence 
to  entitle  them  to  a  capitulation,  and  were  on  their  side  unable  to 
fulfil  the  conditions.  The  Americans  took  possession  of  Montreal 
upon  the  13th  of  November,  1775. 


Sir  Guy  Carhton. 

It  was  now  the  season  of  the  year  when  troops  usually  go  into 
winter  quarters ;  and  in  such  a  climate  as  that  of  Canada,  this 
step  appeared  more  especially  necessary.  It  seems  a  task  beyond 
the  ordinary  powers  of  man,  for  troops  to  march  in  that  season 
through  a  wild  and  uncultivated  country,  covered  with  forests, 
thickets  and  deep  snows.  Yet  the  Americans,  encouraged  by 
their  good  fortune,  pushed  on  to  attempts  altogether  beyond  their 
strength.  Their  success  upon  the  lakes  seduced  them  into  the 
hopes  of  capturing  the  city  of  Quebec,  and  they  seem  to  have 
forgotten  or  despised  the  dangers  and  fatigues  of  an  inclement 
season,  in  the  prospect  of  finishing  with  glory  so  important  an 
enterprise.  The  provincials  had  now  the  whole  command  of  the 
lakes.  General  Prescott  had  been  obliged  to  enter  into  a  capitu- 
lation, by  which  the  whole  of  the  naval  force,  consisting  of  eleven 
armed  vessels,  was  surrendered  into  their  hands. 

While  Montgomery  was  carrying  on  the  war  in  Upper  Canada, 
an  «xpedition  of  the  most  novel  and  daring  description  was 
undertaken  against  the  lower  part  of  the  province,  from  the  New 
England  side,  by  a  route  that  had  hitherto  been  unexplored,  and 
considered  as  impracticable.  About  the  middle  of  September. 


ARNOLD'S  EXPEDITION  TO  QUEBEC.  577 

Arnold,  at  the  head  of  two  regiments,  consisting  of  atxmt  eleven 
hundred  men,  marched  from  the  camp  at  Cambridge  \o  Newbury- 
port,  where  vessels  were  ready  to  carry  them  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Kennebec.  Upon  the  22d  of  the  same  month,  they  embarked  in 
boats  at  Gardner's  Town,  on  the  Kennebec,  and  proceeded  up  the 
river.  The  Kennebec  is  a  rapid  stream,  and  its  shores  are  rocky ; 
the  navigation  was  continually  interrupted  by  falls,  and  the 
carrying  places  were  difficult  to  traverse.  In  this  passage  the 
boats  were  frequently  filled  with  water  and  overset,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  their  arms,  ammunition  and  provisions  were  to 
a  great  extent  lost  or  spoiled.  Besides  the  labor  of  loading  and 
reloading  at  the  carrying  places,  the  troops  were  obliged  to  carry 
the  boats  on  their  shoulders,  sometimes  a  dozen  miles.  That  part 
of  the  detachment  which  was  employed  in  managing  the  batteaux, 
marched  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  the  boats  and  the  men 
being  disposed  in  three  divisions,  each  division  encamped  together 
every  night.  The  march  by  land  was  not  more  pleasant  than  the 
passage  by  water.  They  had  thick  woods,  deep  swamps,  steep 
mountains  and  precipices  to  encounter,  and  were  upon  many 
occasions  obliged  to  cut  their  way  through  the  thickets  for  miles 
together.  From  all  these  impediments,  their  progress  was  very 
slow,  being  in  general  from  four  or  ftve  to  ten  miles  a  day.  The 
constant  and  severe  fatigue  caused  many  of  them  to  fall  sick. 
Provisions  grew  at  last  so  scarce  that  some  of  the  men  ate  their 
dogs,  their  shoes,  the  leather  of  their  cartridge-boxes,  and  whatever 
else  could  be  converted  into  food.  When  they  arrived  at  the  head 
of  the  Kennebec,  which  was  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  from  their  point  of  departure,  and,  according  to  their  way 
of  travelling,  must  have  been  much  more  distant,  they  sent  back 
their  sick.  One  of  the  colonels  took  that  opportunity  of  return- 
ing with  his  whole  division,  from  a  dread  of  starvation.  This 
was  done  without  the  knowledge  of  the  Commander-in-chief,  who 
had  marched  forward  to  explore  the  way.  By  this  desertion 
Arnold's  detachment  was  reduced  about  one  third.  They,  how- 
"ever,  proceeded  with  unabated  resolution;  and  at  length  reached 
the  heights  of  land  which  border  Canada  on  the  south,  and  after 
a  few  days'  farther  march,  they  emerged  from  the  wilderness  at 
the  head  of  the  river  Chaudiere,  which  runs  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence near  Quebec.  This  little  army,  every  individual  of  which 
was  nearly  reduced  to  a  skeleton,  had  still  a  long  march  to 
Quebec,  though  their  greatest  hardships  were  now  over.  On  the 
3d  day  of  November,  an  advanced  party  obtained 'some  provisions, 
and  they  soon  after  came  to  a  house,  the  first  they  had  seen  for 
thirty-one  days,  having  spent  the  whole  time  in  traversing  a 
49* 


578  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

hideous  wilderness,  without  seeing  an  inhabitant.  Their  suffer- 
ings may  be  easily  imagined. 

The  Canadians  on  the  frontier  received  them  with  the  same 
good  will  that  Montgomery  and  his  army  had  experienced.  They 
supplied  them  liberally  with  all  sorts  of  provisions  and  necessaries. 
Arnold  published  an  address  to  the  people,  signed  by  General 
Washington,  similar  to  one  which  had  been  issued  before  by 
Schuyler  and  Montgomery.  They  were  invited  to  unite  with  the 
other  colonies,  and  to  range  themselves  under  the  standard  of 
liberty. 

When  Arnold  reached  Point  Levy,  opposite  Quebec,  the  inhab- 
itants were  in  a  wavering  situation ;  the  English  subjects  were 
disaffected,  and  the  French  were  not  to  be  trusted  with  the  defence 
of  the  city.  There  were  no  troops  in  the  place  till  M'Clean's 
newly  raised  regiment  of  emigrants  arrived  from  the  Sorel.  Some 
marines,  whom  the  governor  had  requested  from  General  Gage  at 
Boston,  were  refused,  on  account  of  the  lateness  of  the  season  and 
the  danger  of  navigation.  The  Canadian  militia  had  been  lately 
embodied  by  the  lieutenant  governor.  The  river  alone  saved 
Quebec  from  an  immediate  capture,  as  the  inhabitants  had  taken 
the  precaution  to  secure  all  the  boats  in  the  stream.  But  after 
some  days'  delay  the  Americans  procured  a  number  of  canoes 
and  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence,  under  cover*of  a  dark  night,  not- 
withstanding the  vigilance  of  the  ships  of  war  in  the  river.  The 
inhabitants  now  began  to  think  of  securing  their  property ;  the 
disaffected,  both  English  and  Canadians,  finding  the  danger  pres- 
sing, united  for  their  common  defence.  Had  the  city  been  taken  by 
surprise  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  malecontents  would  have 
Coined  the  conquerors;  but  as  it  was  now  doubtful  whether  the 
attack  would  succeed,  they  considered  it  the  wisest  course  to 
remain  true  to  those  who  had  the  possession.  The  inhabitants 
were  embodied  and  armed,  and  the  sailors  landed  from  the  ships 
to  man  the  batteries.  The  besieged  were  considerably  superior 
in  numbers  to  the  besiegers,  and  Arnold  had  no  artillery.  It  is 
probable  that  he  depended  upon  the  disaffection  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  being  disappointed  in  this,  nothing  remained  practicable  but 
to  guard  the  roads  and  cut  off  supplies  from  the  city,  till  Mont- 
gomery should  arrive.  Arnold  manoeuvred  for  some  days  upon 
the  heights  near  Quebec,  and  sent  two  flags  to  summon  the  in- 
habitants to  surrender,  but  they  were  fired  at.  and  no  message  was 
admitted ;  upon  which  he  withdrew  his  troops  into  close  quarters. 

During  these  proceedings;  Montgomery  had  received  large 
supplies  for  his  army  at  Montreal,  and  was  advancing  upon 
Quebec.  Yet  he  found  his  progress  Weset  with- great  difficulties. 


ATTACK    ON    QUEBEC.  579 

His  army  was  composed  wholly  of  raw  soldiers,  transported 
suddenly  from  the  plough  to  the  field,  unused  to  discipline, 
and  entirely  deficient  in  military  skill.  He  left  some  troops  at 
Montreal  and  other  posts,  and  sent  detachments  into  different 
parts  of  the  province,  to  encourage  the  Canadians,  and  forward 
supplies  of  provisions.  With  the  remainder  he  pushed  on  to  join 
Arnold.  His  march  lay  over  bad  roads ;  the  first  snows  of  winter 
had  fallen,  and  the  weather  was  severe.  The  troops  suffered 
intense  hardships,  which  they  encountered  with  great  resolution. 

Early  in  December,  Montgomery  effected  a  junction  with 
Arnold,  at  Point  aux  Trembles,  and  proceeded  to  visit  Quebec. 
He  wrote  a  letter  to  the  governor,  magnifying  his  own  strength, 
commenting  on  .the  weakness  of  the  garrison,  the  impossibility  of 
relief,  and  recommending  an  immediate  surrender.  The  flag 
which  carried  this  letter,  was  fired  upon,  as  well  as  every  other 
which  was  sent,  so  that  all  communication  was  cut  off  between 
the  besiegers  and  the  inhabitants.  It  was  a  hopeless  attempt  in 
Montgomery  to  invest  a  fortified  place  with  a  number  of  troops 
not  superior  to  those  who  defended  it.  His  only  prospect  of  suc- 
cess seems  to  have  depended  upon  the  effect  which  his  warlike 
preparations  and  the  violence  of  his  attack  might  have  produced 
upon  the  inhabitants,  who,  being  hastily  embodied,  might  be 
struck  with  panic;  or  he  might  have  hoped,  in  case  his  first 
attack  should  miscarry,  to  weary  out  the  garrison  with  continual 
alarms.  He  accordingly  commenced  a  bombardment  with  five 
small  mortars,  which  continued  for  some  days ;  but  his  metal  was 
too  light  to  produce  any  considerable  effect  against  the  formidable 
walls  of  Quebec.  Meanwhile,  the  snow  lay  deep  upon  the  ground, 
and  such  was  the  severity  of  the  weather,  that  human  strength 
seemed  incapable  of  withstanding  it  in  the  open  field.  The  New 
York  troops  felt  these  sufferings  most  keenly,  and  did  not  show  so 
much  steadiness  and  resolution  as  the  hardy  New  Englanders, 
who  had  traversed  the  wilderness  with  Arnold.  These  men 
exhibited  amazing  constancy  and  intrepidity. 

Montgomery  found  at  last  that  some  decisive  blow  must  imme- 
diately be  struck,  and  resolved  to  storm  the  place.  On  the  31st  of 
December,  under  cover  of  a  violent  storm  of  snow,  he  disposed 
his  little  army  into  four  divisions,  of  which  two  made  false 
attacks  against  the  upper  town,  whilst  Montgomery  and  Arnold 
conducted  the  real  assault  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  place. 
By  this  means  the  alarm  was  excited  in  both  towns,  and  might 
have  disconcerted  the  most  experienced  troops.  .*  From  the  side  of 
the  river  St.  Lawrence,  and  round  to  the  Basin,  every  part  seemed 
aqually  threatened.  Montgomery,  at  the  head  of  the  New  York 


580  ^         THE    UNITED    STATES. 

troops,  advanced  against  the  lower  town,  under  Cape  Diamond ; 
but.  in  consequence  of  some  difficulties  which  had  retarded  his 
approach,  the  signal  for  engaging  had  been  given,  and  the  garri- 
son alarmed  before  he  could  reach  the  spot.  He,  notwithstanding, 
pressed  on  in  a  narrow  file  in  a  straitened  path,  having  a  precipice 
down  to  the  river  on  one  side,  and  a  high  rock  hanging  over  him 
on  the  other.  Having  seized  and  passed  the  first  barrier,  accom- 
panied by  a  few  of  his  bravest  men,  he  marched  boldly  to  attack 
the  second.  This  was  much  stronger  than  the  first,  and  was 
defended  by  a  battery  of  cannon  loaded  with  grape  shot.  The 
troops,  however,  rushed  with  impetuosity  to  the  attack.  Mont- 
gomery was  killed  at  the  first  assault.  His  aide-de-camp  fell  at 
his  side,  with  most  of  the  officers  and  soldiers  near  him.  The 
attempt  was  at  once  foiled  by  this  disaster,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  troops  instantly  retreated. 

In  the  meantime,  Arnold  was  not  idle  in  his  quarter.  With  an 
intrepidity  that  would  have  done  honor  to  veteran  troops,  his 
division  attacked  that  part  of  the  town  called  the  Saut,  at  Mate- 
lot,  and  having  penetrated  through  St.  Roques,  they  stormed  a 
strong  battery,  which  they  carried  after  an  hour's  sharp  engage- 
ment. Here  Arnold  was  wounded,  his  leg  being  shattered  by  a 
bullet,  and  his  men  were  obliged  to  carry  him  back  to  the  camp ; 
but  these  troops  did  not  retreat  hastily  upon  the  departure  of  the 
commander,  like  the  New  York  detachment.  Arnold's  place  was 
supplied  by  other  officers,  who,  with  no  less  intrepidity,  continued 
the  attack.  They  were  as  yet  ignorant  of  Montgomery's  death, 
and  were  so  far  from  being  dejected  by  their  own  loss,  that  they 
pushed  on  with  greater  vigor,  and  made  themselves  masters  of 
another  battery.  Had  all  the  provincial  troops  on  this  occasion 
been  equal  to  those  of  New  England,  notwithstanding  the  misfor- 
tunes they  sustained  by  the  loss  of  their  general  officers,  they 
would  doubtless  have  taken  the  city. 

On  the  retreat  of  Montgomery's  division,  the  garrison  had  time 
to  turn  their  whole  attention  to  Arnold.  The  situation  of  the 
assailants  was  now  such  that  in  attempting  a  retreat,  they  were 
obliged  to  pass  a  considerable  distance  within  fifty  yards  of  the 
walls,  exposed  to  the  whole  fire  of  the  garrison.  A  strong  detach- 
ment, with  several  field-pieces,  issued  through  a  gate  which  com- 
manded that  passage,  and  attacked  them  furiously  in  the  rear, 
while  they  were  already  engaged  with  the  troops  which  poured 
upon  them  in  every  other  quarter.  In  these  desperate  circum- 
stances, without  a  possibility  of  escape,  attacked  on  all  sides,  and 
under  every  disadvantage  of  ground  as  well  as  numbers,  they 


ATTACK   ON   QUEBEC.  581 

obstinately   defended   themselves  for  three  hours,  and   at  last 
surrendered. 

After  the  unsuccessful  attack  of  Quebec,  the  besiegers  imme- 
diately quitted  their  camp,  and  retired  three  miles  from  the  city, 
where  they  strengthened  their  quarters  as  well  as  they  were  able, 
being  apprehensive  of  an  assault  from  the  garrison;  but  the  one 
army  was  as  unfit  for  pursuing,  as  the  other  was  to  sustain  a 
severe  attack.  The  governor  wisely  contented  himself  with  the 
unexpected  advantage  he  had  obtained,  without  hazarding  the 
fate  of  the  province  by  a  rash  enterprise.  Quebec  was  out  of 
danger,  and  the  supplies  that  were  expected,  would  not  fail  to 
relieve  the  whole  province.  Arnold,  who  was  now  commander-in- 
chief,  saw  the  perils  of  his  situation.  The  weather  continued 
uncommonly  severe,  and  the  hope  of  assistance  was  distant. 
Notwithstanding,  the  provincials  bore  all  with  patience  and 
resolution. 


General  Arnold. 

Arnold,  who  had  hitherto  displayed  uncommon  abilities  in  his 
march  into  Canada,  discovered  on  this  occasion  the  vigor  of  a 
determined  mind,  and  a  genius  full  of  resources.  Wounded 
and  defeated,  he  put  his  troops  in  such  a  condition  as  to  keep 
them  still  formidable ;  and  instead  of  appearing  as  one  who  had 
met  with  a  repulse,  he  continued  to  threaten  the  city,  by  turning 
the  siege  into  a  blockade,  and  effectually  obstructed  the  arrival 
of  supplies  of  provisions  and  necessaries  for  the  town.  He 
despatched  an  express  to  General  Wooster,  who  was  at  Montreal, 
to  bring  succors,  and  take  upon  him  the  command ;  but  this  could 
not  immediately  be  done.  It  appears,  from  the  whole  of  his  .oper- 
ations, that  Carleton  considered  it  a  dangerous  expedient  to  attack 

v3 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Arnold  in  the  field,  though  he  had  nearly  double  the  number  of 
his  troops ;  and  that,  had  it  been  in  the  power  of  General  Wooster  to 
send  a  suitable  reinforcement,  the  fate  of  Quebec  would  still  have 
been  doubtful.  Had  not  Arnold  been  wounded,  notwithstanding 
the  death  of  Montgomery,  it  is  not  improbable  that  Quebec  would 
have  been  taken  that  evening. 

The  American  forces,  after  having  blockaded  Quebec  for  five 
months,  found  it  impossible  to  reduce  the  city.  The  British 
received  reinforcements  in  the  spring,  which  augmented  the  num- 
ber of  their  troops  to  thirteen  thousand  men.  The  small-pox, 
together  with  the  hardships  of  the  season,  had  reduced  the  num- 
bers of  the  Americans  so  low  that  it  was  found  necessary  to 
withdraw  from  Canada.  They  accordingly  retreated  from  the 
province  by  the  way  of  Lake  Champlain.  and  by  the  end  of  June, 
1776,  Canada  was  completely  evacuated  by  the  American  armies. 


Retreat  across  the  Jerseys. 

The  cause  of  the  Americans  now  appeared  utteny  hopeless. 
The  British  were  victorious  everywhere;  and  the  defeated  and 
dispirited  continentals  were  flying  before  their  pursuers.  Wash- 
ington had  not  more  than  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thousand  men 
under  his  command ;  and  the  people  of  the  Jerseys,  struck  with 
panic  at  the  overwhelming  disasters  that  had  almost  annihilated 
the  last  vestige  of  resistance  to  the  British  arms,  dared  not  offer 
him  the  smallest  assistance.  The  destitution  and  suffering  of  the 
American  troops  in  their  retreat,  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  In 
midwinter  they  executed  long  and  painful  marches,  half  naked, 
and  without  shoes  to  their  feet.  Their  route  for  miles  through 
the  country  was  marked  by  tracks  of  blood,  and  there  was 
scarcely  a  tent  in  the  whole  army.  Having,  at  length,  crossed  the 
Delaware,  they  deemed  themselves  in  safety  from  the  pursuit  of 


BATTLE    OF    TRENTON. 


583 


their  enemies,  and  halted  for  repose.  The  British,  finding  all  the 
boats  on  the  river  removed  by  the  Americans,  cantoned  them- 
seives  at  Bordentown,  Trenton,  and  other  places  on  the  Delaware, 
with  a  design  to  penetrate  into  Pennsylvania  as  soon  as  possible. 
Desperate  as  his  condition  was,  Washington  did  not  despair, 
but  exhibited,  at  this  trying  moment,  a  degree  of  fortitude  and 
resolution  that  never  was  surpassed.  He  saw  that  nothing  could 
save  the  country  but  some  bold  and  successful  stroke.  To  turn 
round  and  face  his  victorious  enemy  with  the  inconsiderable  force 
under  his  command,  seemed  a  most  hopeless  act  of  desperation ; 
but  as  his  numbers  were  diminishing  every  day.  he  determined  to 
lose  no  time  in  attempting  to  retrieve  his  fortunes.  He  formed  the 
bold  resolution  of  recrossing  the  Delaware,  and  attacking  the 
British  post  ;it  Tivuton.  On  the  evening  of  the  25th  of  December, 


Washingtgt 


1  T76,  the  Americans,  by  a  rapid  movement,  crossed  the  Delaware, 
and  appeared  before  the  town  so  suddenly  that  the  enemy  had  no 
intelligence  of  their  approach  till  the  attack  was  begun.  The 
place  was  garrisoned  by  a  body  of  Hessians  and  British  light 
horse,  amounting  to  fifteen  hundred  men.  The  whole  were  killed 
or  taken  prisoners,  with  the  exception  of  six  hundred  of  the 
cavalry  who  escaped  to  Bordentown.  Colonel  Rahl,  who  com- 
manded the  Hessians,  was  killed.  The  loss  of  the  Americans 
did  not  exceed  five  men,  three  of  whom  were  frozen  to  death  on 
the  march.  Washington  sent  off  his  prisoners  to  Philadelphia, 
and  took  post  at  Trenton,  where  he  was  joined  by  considerable 


584  *  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

numbers  of  the  inhabitants.  A  strong  force  of  the  British,  under 
Lord  Cornwallis,  marched  from  Princeton  to  attack  him.  Wash- 
ington was  much  inferior  in  strength  to  his  antagonist,  yet  he  was 
unwilling  to  retreat  without  striking  another  blow.  The  two 
armies  were  divided  by  only  a  small  stream,  and  cannonaded 
each  other  till  night.  The  British  waited  for  the  morning,  in 
expectation  of  a  complete  victory.  After  dark,  on  the  evening  of 
the  2d  of  January,  1777,  Washington  ordered  a  line  of  fires  to  be 
kindled  in  frpnt  of  his  camp,  to  deceive  the  enemy,  and  then  with- 
drew his  army  in  perfect  order  and  silence.  He  made  a  rapid 
march  to  Princeton,  and  early  in  the  morning,  before  Cornwallis 
suspected  he  had  removed  from  his  encampment,  he  attacked  and 
routed  the  British  force  at  that  place,  capturing  three  hundred 
prisoners. 

These  successful  exploits,  performed  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
discouraging  reverses,  had  a  prodigious  effect  throughout  the 
continent.  They  gave  new  confidence  to  the  Americans,  roused 
them  from  their  despondency,  brought  new  recruits  to  the  stand- 
ard of  Washington,  and  raised  his  military  reputation,  which  had 
been  somewhat  depressed  by  the.  disasters  at  New  York.  TJhe 
British  retreated  with  their  whole  force  to  New  Brunswick.  The 
American  militia  turned  out,  and  in  the  short  space  of  a  month, 
the  invading  armies  were  nearly  expelled  from  the  Jerseys.  It 
must  be  added  that  the  British  and  Hessians  were  guilty  of  the 
most  shameful  atrocities  while  they  overran  the  country,  plunder- 
ing, robbing,  burning  and  ravaging,  in  a  manner  too  shocking  to 
relate. 

Early  in  1777,  Washington  found  himself  at  the  hea,d  of  a 
respectable  army,  amounting  to  above  seven  thousand  men.  The 
British  were  much  superior,  but  Washington,  by  judiciously 
selecting  strong  points  of  defence,  contrived  to  frustrate  every 
attempt,  of  his  enemy  to  penetrate  again  into  the  Jerseys.  Sir 
William  Howe  took  the  field,  at  the  head  of  a  very  strong  force, 
and  by  marching  and  countermarching  through  the  months  of 
June  and  July,  made  every  possible  manoeuvre  to  bring  his 
antagonist  to  battle;  but  Washington  foiled  all  his  endeavors  so 
successfully  that  Howe  gave  up  his  design,  and  determined  to 
make  an  attempt  upon  Philadelphia  by  sailing  up  Delaware  Bay 
The  British  army  was  therefore  embarked,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  August  arrived  at  the  Capes  of  Delaware.  Here,  for  some 
unknown  cause,  the  British  commander  altered  his  plan,  and  the 
squadron  put  to  sea  again,  sailed  up  the  Chesapeake,  and  landed 
the  troops  in  Maryland.  Washington  immediately  broke  up  his 


PHILADELPHIA   OCCUPIED   BY    THE   BRITISH.  585 

camp  before  New  York,  and  advanced  south war,d  to  meet  the 
British. 

From  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Chesapeake,  the  British  army 
moved  towards  Philadelphia,  on  the  3d  of  September.  Washing- 
ton had  crossed  the  Delaware,  determined  to  risk  a  battle  in 
defence  of  the  city.  His  army  consisted  of  about  eight  thousand 
effective  men.  On  the  llth  of  September,  the  two  armies  met  at 
Brandywine  creek,  near  the  Delaware.  The  British  marched  to 
the  attack  in  two  columns,  led  by  General  Knyphausen  and  Lord 
Cornwallis.  Another  column  attacked  the  right  wing  of  the 
Americans.  Washington,  deceived  by  false  intelligence,  delayed 
to  make  the.  proper  dispositions  for  repelling  the  assault  of  Corn- 
wallis. The  right  flank  of  the  Americans  was  turned,  and  the 
troops  compelled  to  retreat.  The  result  was  a  defeat  of  'the 
Americans,  with  the  loss  of  twelve  hundred  killed  and  wounded ; 
among  the  latter  were  La  Fayette  and  General  Woodford.  The 
loss  of  the  British  was  not  above  half  that  of  the  Americans. 
After  this  victory  the  British  continued  to  advance,  and  gained 
possession  of  all  the  roads  leading  to  Philadelphia.  Many  partial 
actions  took  place,  but  it  was  found  impossible  to  defend  the  city. 
Sir  William  Howe  entered  Philadelphia  in  triumph  on  the  26th 
of  September,-  1777.  Congress  retired  to  Lancaster,  and  >  after- 
wards to  Yorktown. 

Most  of  the  British  army  was  cantoned  in  Germantown. 
Washington,  having  received  reinforcements,  attacked  this  place 
on  the  4th  of  October.  He  drove  the  British  into  the  village,  but 
the  latter  took  possession  of  a  strong  stone  house,  from  which  they 
could  not  be  dislodged.  The  morning  was  foggy,  and  this  em- 
barrassed the  movements  of  the  Americans.  Nearly  one  half  their 
troops  were  obliged  to  remain  inactive.  After  a  severe  conflict 
the  assailants  found  it  necessary  to  retire.  The  retreat  was  per- 
formed in  haste,  and  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  the  British  light  horse, 
pursued  the  Americans  for  some  miles.  The  loss  of  the  British 
was  about  five  hundred ;  that  of  the  Americans,  one  thousand. 
Soon  after  the  battle,  the  British  retreated  from  Germantown. 

The  approach  to  Philadelphia  from  the  sea  was  strongly 
guarded  by  forts  on  the  Delaware,  but  the  British  were  aware 
that  without  the  command  of  the  river,  the  possession  of  the 
city  would  be  of  little  value.  Accordingly,  early  in  October,  a 
force  of  two  thousand  men,  under  Count  Donop,  attacked  the  fort 
at  Red  Bank,  which  was  garrisoned  by  four  hundred  men,  under 
Colonel  Greene.  The  Americans  defended  the  place  with  such 
bravery  that  they  compelled  the  assailants  to  retire  with  the  loss 
of  four  hundred  men,  including  their  commander.  The  British 
50 


586 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


also  attacked  Fort  Mifflin  with  no  better  success,  losing  two  ships, 
one  of  them  of  sixty-four  guns,  which  was  burnt.  In  spite  of 
these  repulses,  the  British  renewed  their  attempts,  and  brought  so 
strong  a  force  to  the  attack,  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  evac- 
uate the  forts  on  the  Delaware  in  November.  Some  of  the  Amer- 
ican armed  vessels  escaped  up  the  river,  but  many  of  them  were 
taken  or  burnt. 

Various  military  movements  took  place  during  the  remainder  of 
the  season,  but  none  of  them  produced  any  decisive  result.  About 
the  middle  of  December,  Washington's  army  went  into  winter 
quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  about  sixteen  miles  from  Philadelphia. 
Here  they  built  huts  in  the  midst  of  the  woods,  and  passed  the 
winter  amid  continual  suffering  and  privation.  Many  of  them 
were  without  blankets  and  almost  destitute  of  clothes.  Provis- 
ions, too,  were  scarce.  Yet  neither  the  sufferings-of  hunger  nor 
cold  could  shake  their  constancy  to  the  cause  of  their  country. 
They  submitted  to  all  without  murmurs  or  insubordination. 


CHAPTER    LXI. 

Burgoyne's  expedition, — The  States  invaded  from  Canada. — Alliance  between  the 
British  and  the  savages. — Burgoyne  reaches  Lake  Champlain. — His  proclama- 
tion to  the  Americans. —  Capture  of  Ticonderoga. — Retreat  of  the  Americans. — 
Their  naval  force  destroyed  at  Skenesborough. — Battle  of  Hubbardton. — Barbari- 
ties of  the  Savages. — Murder  of  Miss  M'  Crea. — Siege  of  Fort  Stanwix,  by 
St.  Leger. — Defeat  of  the  militia  under  General  Herkimer. — Stratagem  of  the 
Americans. — Retreat  of  St.  Legerfrom  Fort  Stanwix. — Advance  of  Burgoyne's 
army. —  Victory  of  the  Americans  at  Bennington. —  General  Gates  takes  the 
command  of  the  northern  army. — Burgoyne  crosses  the  Hudson,  and  encamps  at 
Stillwater. — Battle  of  Freeman's  Farm. —  The  Indians  abandon  Burgoyne's 
army. — Battle  of  B emus' s  Heights. — Burgoyne  retreats  to  Saratoga. — Clinton's 
expedition  up  the  Hudson. — Burning  of  JEsopus. —  The  British  army  surrounded 
at  Saratoga. — Surrender  of  Burgoyne. —  Clinton  retreats  to  'Neio  York. 

EARLY  in  1777,  the  British  ministry  struck  out  a  new  plan,  that  of 
forming  a  line  of  military  communication  between  New  York  and 
Canada.  They  considered  the  New  England  people  as  the  soul 
of  the  confederacy,  and  promised  themselves  great  advantages  by 
the  project  of  severing  them  from  all  communication  with  the 
neighboring  states.  They  hoped,  when  this  was  accomplished, 
to  be- able  to  surround  them  so  effectually  with  fleets,  armies,  and 
Indian  allies,  as  to  compel  their  unconditional  submission.  These 
views  led  to  the  scheme  for  the  invasion  of  the  provinces  from 
Canada. 

The  regular  troops,  British  and  German,  allotted  to  this  service 
amounted  to  upwards  of  seven  thousand.  They  were  equipped 
with  the  finest  train  of  brass  artillery  ever  seen  in  a  British  army. 
In  addition  to  the  regulars,  it  was  supposed  that  the  Canadians, 
and  the  loyalists  in  the  neighboring  sXates,  would  send  large 
reinforcements,  well  calculated  for  the  peculiar  nature  of  the 
service.  Arms  and  accoutrements  were  accordingly  provided  to 
supply  them.  Several  nations  of  savages  had  also  been  induced 
to  take  up  the  hatchet,  as  allies  to  the  British ;  but  the  policy  as 
well  as  the  humanity  of  employing  them,  was  questioned  in 
Great  Britain.  The  opposers  of  the  scheme  contended  that 
Indians  were  capricious,  inconstant  and  intractable ;  their  rapac- 
ity insatiate,  and  their  actions  cruel  and  barbarous.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  zeal  of  the  British  ministry  for  reducing  the  revolted 
colonies  was  so  violent,  as  to  cause  them,  in  their  excessive  wrath, 


ADVANCE   OF   BURGOYNfi's   ARMY.  589 

to  forget  that  their  adversaries  were  men.  In  their  opinion  the 
only  method  of  speedily  crushing  the  rebellion  of  the  Americans, 
was  to  involve  them  in  such  complicated  distress,  as  would  render 
their  situation  intolerable.  The  counsels  of  cruelty  prevailed. 
Presents  were  liberally  distributed  among  the  savages.  Induced 
by  these,  and  also  by  their  innate  love  of  war  and  plunder,  they 
poured  forth  their  warriors  in  immense  numbers. 

The  whole  army  was  put  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant 
General  Burgoyne,  an  officer  of  distinguished  abilities,  whose 
spirit  of  enterprise  and  thirst  for  military  fame  were  notorious. 
He  was  accompanied  by  Major  General  Philips,  of  the  artillery, 
who  had  established  a  solid  reputation  daring  the  late  war  in 
Germany,  and  by  Major  General  Reidesel,  and  Brigadier  General 
Specht,  of  the  German  troops,  together  with  the  British  Generals 
Frazer,  Powel,  and  Hamilton,  all  officers  of  distinguished  merit. 
The  army  arrived  at  Quebec  in  the  spring  of  1777. 

The  British  had  undisturbed  possession  of  the  northern  part  of 
Lake  Champlain.  Their  marine  force  on  the  lake,  with  which  in 
the  preceding  campaign  they  had  destroyed  the  American  ship- 
ping, was  considerable.  A  portion  of  the  army  was  to  be  left  in 
Canada  for  its  internal  security,  and  Sir  Guy  Carleton's  military 
command  was  restricted  to  the  limits  of  that  province.  Though 
the  British  ministry  attributed  the  preservation  of  Canada  to  his 
abilities,  in  1775  and  1776,  yet,  by  their  arrangements  for  the 
grand  expedition,  he  was  only  called  upon  to  act  a  secondary 
part  to  Burgoyne.  His  behavior  on  this  occasion  was  moderate 
and  dutiful.  Instead  of  thwarting  or  retarding  a  service  which 
was  virtually  taken  out  of  his  hands,  he  applied  himself  to  sup- 
port and  forward  it  with  the  same  diligence  as  if  the  arrangement 
had  been  entirely  his  own  and  committed  to  himself  for  execu- 
tion. • 

The  plan  of  the  expedition  was  this.  Burgoyne,  with  the  main 
body,  was  to  advance  by  the  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  force 
his  way  to  Albany,  or,  at  least,  so  far  as  to  effect  a  junction  with 
the  royal  army  from  New  York.  '  A  detachment  was  to  ascend 
the  St.  Lawrence,  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  from  that  quarter  to  pene- 
trate towards  Albany,  by  the  way  of  the  Mohawk.  This  body 
was  put  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  St.  Leger,  and 
consisted  of  about  two  hundred  British  troops,  a  regiment  of 
New  York  loyalists,  under  Sir  John  Johnson,  and  a  large  body  of 
savages. 

Burgoyne  set  out  from  Quebec  and  advanced  "rapidly  to  Lake 
Champlain,  where  he  embarked  his  army,  and  landed  at  Crown 
Point  in  June.  Here,  on  the  20th,  he  met  the  Indians,  and 
50*  w3 


590  *  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

welcomed  them  with  a  war-feast,  and  a  speech  well  calculated  to 
excite  them  to  take  part  with  the  royal  army.  He  pointedly  for- 
bade them  to  shed  blood  except  in  battle;  and  commanded  that 
aged  men,  women,  children  and  prisoners,  should  be  held  sacred 
from  the  knife  and  hatchet,  even  in  the  heat  of  actual  conflict.  A 
reward  was  promised  for  prisoners,  and  a  severe  enquiry  threat- 
ened for  scalps;  though  permission  was  granted  to  take  them  from 
those  who  were  previously  killed  in  fair  conflict.  These  restric- 
tions, however,  were  not  sufficient  to  restrain  their  savage 
barbarities.  Burgoyne  then  issued  a  proclamation,  designed  to 
spread  terror  among  the  inhabitants.  The  numbers  of  his  Indian 
associates  were  magnified,  and  their  eagerness  to  be  let  loose  upon 
their  prey  described  in  high-sounding  words.  The  force  of  the 
British  armies  and  fleets,  prepared  to  crush  every  part  of  the 
revolted  colonies,  was  also  displayed  in  swelling  terms.  All  the 
calamities  of  war  were  denounced  against  those  who  should  be 
found  in  arms  against  the  invaders,  and  pardon  and  protection 
were  promised  to  such  as  should  submit.  This  proclamation  was 
further  filled  with  pompous  rhodomontade,  and  did  little  more 
than  provoke  the  ridicule  of  the  Americans.  On  the  30th  of  June, 
the  general  issued  orders,  of  which  the  following  words  are  a 
part:  "The  army  embarks  to-morrow  to  approach  the  enemy. 
The  services  required  in  this  expedition  are  critical  and  conspicu- 
ous. During  our  progress,  occasions  may  occur,  in  which  diffi- 
culty, nor  labor,  nor  life,  are  to  be  regarded.  This  army  must 
not  retreat." 

From  Crown  Point,  the  British  proceeded  to  attack  Ticon- 
deroga.  On  their  approach,  they  advanced  with  equal  caution 
and  order  on  both  sides  of  the  lake,  while  their  naval  force  kept 
in  its  centre.  In  a  few  days,  they  had  surrounded  three-fourths 
of  the  American  works  at  Ticonderoga,  and  at  Mount  Indepen- 
dence ;  and  had  also  advanced  a  battery  on  Mount  Defiance  so 
far  towards  completion,  that  in  twenty-four  hours  it  would  have 
been  ready  to  open.  In  these  circumstances,  General  St.  Clair, 
the  commanding  officer,  resolved  to  evacuate  the  post ;  but  con- 
ceiving it  prudent  to  take  the  sentiments  of  the  general  officers,  he 
called  a  council  of  war.  It  was  represented  to  this  council  that 
the  garrison  was  not  sufficient  to  man  one  half  the  works ;  that 
as  the  whole  must  be  on  constant  duty,  it  would  be  impossible  for 
them  to  sustain  the  necessary  fatigue  for  any  length  of  time ;  and 
that,  as  the  place  would  be  completely  invested  on  all  sides  within 
a  day,  nothing  but  an  immediate  evacuation  of  the  post  could 
save  the  men.  The  situation  of  General  St.  Clair  was  highly 
embarrassing.  Such  was  the  confidence  of  the  American  people 


ACTION   AT    SKENESBOROUGH.  591 

in  the  fancied  strength  of  this  post,  that  to  retreat  without  risking 
a  battle,  could  not  fail  of  drawing  on  him  the  denunciation  of  the 
whole  country.  On'  the  other  hand,  to  stand  still,  and  by  suffering 
himself  to  be  surrounded,  to  risk  his  whole  army  in  the  defence 
of  a  single  post,  was  contrary  to  the  true  interests  of  the  states. 
In  this  trying  situation,  with  the  unanimous  approbation  of  the 
council,  he  adopted  the  heroic  resolution  of  sacrificing  his  personal 
reputation  to  save  his  army.  The  confident  countenance  of  the 
garrison  had  induced  their  adversaries  to  proceed  with  caution. 
While  from  this  cause  they  were  awed  into  respect,  the  retreat  of 
the  Americans  was  completed  with  so  much  secrecy  and  expedi- 
tion, that  a  considerable  part  of  the  stores  was  saved,  and  the 
whole  would  have  been  embarked,  had  not  a  violent  gale  of  wind 
prevented  the  boats  from  reaching  their  station.  The  works 
abandoned  by  the  Americans,  were  chiefly  the  old  French  lines 
constructed  in  the  late  war.  which  had  been  repaired  the  year 
before,  and  were  in  good  order.  New  works  were  begun  on  the 
mount;  but  there  was  neither  time  nor  strength  of  hands  to  com- 
plete them.  Much  timber  had  been  felled  between  the  East  creek 
and  the  foot  of  the  mount,  to  retard  the  approaches  of  the  British. 
All  the  redoubts  on  the  low  ground  were  abandoned,  for  want  of 
men  to  occupy  them.  These  works,  together  with  ninety-three 
pieces  of  ordnance,  and  a  large  collection  of  provisions,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  British. 

The  retreating  army  embarked  as  much  of  their  baggage  and 
stores  as  they  had  any  prospect  of  saving,  and  despatched  it, 
under  convoy  of  five  armed  gallies,  to  Skenesborough.  Their 
main  body  marched  towards  the  same  place  by  way  of  Castleton. 
The  British  instantly  pursued.  General  Frazer,  with  the  light 
troops,  advanced  on  the  main  body  of  the  Americans.  General 
Reidesel  was  also  ordered,  with-  the  greater  part  of  the  Brunswick 
troops,  to  march  in  the  same  direction.  Burgoyne,  in  person,  con- 
ducted the  pursuit  by  water.  The  obstructions  to  the  navigation 
not  having  been  completed,  were  soon  cut  through.  The  two 
frigates,  the  Royal  George  and  the  Inflexible,  together  with  the 
gun-boats,  came  up  with,  and  attacked  the  American  gallies,  near 
Skenesborough  falls.  On  the  approach  of  the  frigates,  all  oppo- 
sition ceased.  Two  of  the  gallies  were  taken,  and  three  blown  up. 
The  Americans  set  fire  to  their  works,  mills  and  batteaux.  They 
were  now  left  in  the  woods,  destitute  of  provisions.  In  this  forlorn 
situation,  they  made  their  escape  up  Wood  Creek  to  Fort  Anne. 
Frazer  pursued  the  retreating  Americans,  and  on  the  7th  of  July, 
came  up  and  attacked  them  at  Hubbardton.  They  made  a  gallant 


SUCCESS    OF    THE    BRITISH   TROOPS.  693 

resistance,  but  after  sustaining  considerable  loss,  were  obliged  to 
give  way. 

Lieutenant  Colonel  Hall,  with  the  9th  British  regiment,  was 
detached  from  Skenesborough,  to  take  post  near  Fort  Anne.  An 
engagement  ensued  between  him  and  a  few  Americans ;  but  the 
latter,  after  a  conflict  of  two  hours,  set  fire  to  the  fort,  and 
retreated  to  Fort  Edward.  The  destruction  of  the  gallies  and 
batteaux  of  the  Americans  at  Skenesborough,  arid  the  defeat  of 
their  rear,  obliged  St.  Clair,  in  order  to  avoid  getting  between  two 
fires,  to  change  the  direction  of  his  main  body,  and  to  wheel 
about  from  Castleton  to  the  left.  After  a  fatiguing  march  of  seven 
days,  he  joined  General  Schuyler,  at  Fort  Edward.  Their  com- 
bined forces,  including  the  militia,  not  exceeding  in  the  whole  four 
thousand  four  hundred  men,  were,  on  the  approach  of  Burgoyne, 
compelled  to  retire  farther  into  the  country,  bordering  on  Albany. 

Such  was  the  rapid  torrent  of  success,  which,  in  this  period  of 
the  campaign,  swept  away  all  opposition  from  before  the  royal 
army.  The  officers  and  men  were  highly  elated  with  their  good 
fortune.  They  considered  their  toils  to  be  nearly  at  an  end; 
Albany  was  within  their  grasp,  and  the  conquest  of  the  adjacent 
provinces  reduced  to  a  certainty.  In  Great  Britain,  intelligence 
of  the  progress  of  Burgoyne  diffused  a  general  joy.  As  to  the 
Americans,  the  loss  of  reputation  which  they  sustained  in  the 
opinion  of  their  European  admirers,  was  greater  than  their  loss  of 
posts,  artillery  and  troops.  They  were  stigmatized  as  wanting 
resolution.  Their  unqualified  subjugation,  or  unconditional  sub- 
mission was  considered  near  at  hand.  The  opinion  now  prevailed 
that  the  war  in  effect  was  over,  or  that  the  further  resistance  of 
the  colonies  would  serve  only  to  make  the  terms  of  their  submis- 
sion more  humiliating.  The  terror  which  the  loss  of  Ticonderoga 
spread  through  the  New  England  states  was  great;  yet  no  dis- 
position to  purchase  safety  by  submission  appeared  in  any 
quarter.  The  people  did  not  sink  under  the  apprehensions  of 
danger,  but  acted  with  vigor  and  firmness. 

The  royal  army,  after  these  successes,  continued  for  some  days 
in  Skenesborough,  waiting  for  their  tents,  baggage  and  provision. 
In  the  meantime,  Burgoyne  put  forth  a  proclamation,  in  which  he 
called  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  country  to  send  a  depu- 
tation of  ten  or  more  persons  from  their  respective  townships  to 
meet  Colonel  Skene  at  Castleton,  on  the  15th  of  July.  The  troops 
were  at  the  same  time  busily  employed  in  constructing  a  road 
and  clearing  a  creek,  to  open  a  passage  for  the"  conveyance  of 
their  stores.  A  party  of  the  royal  army,  which  had  been  left 
behind  at  Ticonderoga,  was  equally  industrious  in  carrying  gun- 


694  ^  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

boats,  provisions  and  vessels,  over  land  into  Lake  George.  An 
immensity  of  labor  in  every  quarter  was  necessary ;  but  animated 
as  they  were  by  past  successes  and  future  hopes,  they  disregarded 
toil  and  danger.  From  Skenesborough,  Burgoyne  directed  his 
course  towards  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson.  Though  the 
distance  in  a  right  line  is  but  a  few  miles,  yet  such  was  the 
wildness  of  the  country,  and  such  were  the  difficulties  thrown 
in  his  way  by  the  Americans,  that  the  army  advanced  hardly  more 
than  a  mile  a  day.  The  Americans,  under  the  direction  of 
Schuyler,  had  felled  large  trees  on  both  sides  of  the  road,  cover- 
ing it,  with  their  branches  interwoven.  The  face  of  the  country 
was  likewise  so  intersected  with  creeks  and  marshes,  that  the 
British  had  no  less  than  forty  bridges  to  construct,  one  of  which 
was  built  with  logs  over  a  morass  two  miles  in  extent. 

The  opinion  formed  by  General  Burgoyne  as  to  the  effect  of  his 
march  from  Skenesborough  to  Fort  Edward,  on  the  American 
garrison,  was  verified  by  the  event;  for,  being  apprehensive  of 
having  their  retreat  cut  off",  they  abandoned  their  fort  and  burnt 
their  vessels.  The  navigation  of  Lake  George  being  thereby  left 
free,  provisions  and  ammunition  were  brought  forward  from  Fort 
George  to  the  navigable  parts  of  the  Hudson.  This  was  a  dis- 
tance of  fifteen  miles,  and  the  roads  were  difficult.  The  intricate 
combination  of  land  and  water  carriage,  together  with  the  insuffi- 
cient means  of  transportation,  and  excessive  rains,  caused  such 
delays,  that,  at  the  end  of  fifteen  days  there  were  not  more  than 
four  days'  provisions  brought  forward,  nor  above  ten  batteaux  in 
the  river.  The  difficulties  of  this  march  through  the  wilderness 
were  encountered  and  overcome  by  the  royal  army  with  a  spirit 
and  alacrity  which  could  not  be  exceeded.  At  length,  on  the  30th 
)f  July,  after  incredible  fatigue  and  labor,  Burgoyne' s  army 
reached  the  Hudson  at  Fort  Edward.  Their  exultation,  on 
accomplishing  what  for  a  long  time  had  been  the  object  of  their 
hopes,  was  now  unbounded. 

While  the  British  were  retarded  in  their  advance  by  the  com- 
bined difficulties  of  nature  and  art,  events  took  place  which 
proved  the  wisdom  and  propriety  of  the  retreat  from  Ticonderoga. 
The  army,  saved  by  that  measure,  still  kept  between  the  inhabi- 
tants and  their  invaders.  This  abated  the  panic  of  the  people, 
and  became  a  point  of  union  for  their  defence.  On  the  other 
hand,  had  they  stood  their  ground  at  Ticonderoga,  they  must 
inevitably  either  have  been  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners.  A 
few  days  after  the  evacuation,  Schuyler  had  issued  a  proclama- 
:ion,  calling  to  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  the  late  barbarities 
of  the  royal  army  in  the  Jerseys ;  warning  them  that  they  would 


BARBARITIES  OF  THE  SAVAGES.  595 

be  dealt  with  as  traitors  if  they  joined  the  Britisn,  and  requiring 
them  to  repair  with  their  arms  to  the  American  standard.  Nu- 
merous parties  were  employed  in  felling  trees  and  throwing 
obstructions  in  the  way  of  the  advancing  army.  At  first,  an 
universal  panic  intimidated  the  inhabitants ;  but  they  soon  recov- 
ered. The  laws  of  self-preservation  operated  in  their  full  force, 
and  diffused  a  general  activity  through  the  adjacent  states.  The 
formalities  of  convening,  drafting,  and  officering  the  militia,  were  in 
many  instances  dispensed  with.  Hundreds  seized  their  firelocks 
and  marched,  on  the  general  call,  without  waiting  for  the  orders 
of  their  commanders.  The  inhabitants  had  no  means  of  security, 
but  to  abandon  their  habitations  and  take  up  arms.  Every  indi- 
vidual saw  the  necessity  of  becoming  a  soldier.  The  terror 
excited  by  the  Indians,  instead  of  disposing  the  inhabitants  to 
court  British  protection,  had  a  contrary  effect, 
.  The  friends  of  the  royal  cause,  as  well  as  its  enemies,  suffered 
from  the  indiscriminate  barbarities  of  the  savages.  Among 
other  instances,  the  murder  of  Miss  M'Crea,  excited  an  universal 


Murder  nf  Miss  M'  Crea. 

horror.  This  maiden,  in  the  innocence  of  youth,  and  the  bloom 
of  beauty, — the  daughter  of  a  loyalist,  and  engaged  in  marriage 
to  a  British  officer, — was,  on  the  very  day  of  her  intended  nuptials, 
massacred  by  the  savage  auxiliaries  of  the  British  army.  This 
barbarity  inflamed  the  American  people,  and  blackened  the  royal 
cause.  The  cruelties  of  the  Indians  and  the  cause  in  which  they 
were  engaged,  were  associated  together,  and  presented  in  one  view 
to  the  alarmed  inhabitants.  In  conjunction  with  other  circum- 
stances, it  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants  a  general 
conviction  that  a  vigorous,  determined  opposition,  was  the  only 


596  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

means  for  their  preservation.  Could  they  have  indulged  the 
hope  of  security  and  protection,  while  they  remained  peaceably 
at  their  homes,  they  would  have  found  many  excuses  for  declining 
to  join  the  army ;  but  when  they  contrasted  the  dangers  of  a  manly 
resistance  with  those  of  a  passive  inaction,  they  chose  the  former, 
as  the  least  of  two  unavoidable  evils.  All  the  feeble  aid  which 
the  royal  army  received  from  their  Indian  auxiliaries  was  infi- 
nitely overbalanced  by  the  odium  which  it  brought  on  their  cause. 
Men  of  abilities  and  of  eloquence^  thus  influenced,  harangued 
the  inhabitants  in  their  several  towns,  and  set  forth  in  high  color- 
ing the  cruelties  of  the  savage  auxiliaries  of  Great  Britain,  and 
the  fair  prospects  of  capturing  the  whole  force  of  their  enemies. 
From  the  combined  influence  of  these  causes,  the  American  army 
soon  amounted  to  upwards  of  thirteen  thousand  men. 

While  Burgoyne  was  forcing  his  way  towards  Albany,  St. 
Leger  was  cooperating  with  him  in  the  Mohawk  country.  He 
had  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence,  crossed  Lake  Ontario,  and  com- 
menced the  siege  of  Fort  Stanwix.  At  his  approach,  on  the  3d 
of  August.  General  Herkimer  collected  about  eight  hundred  of 
the  militia  of  the  parts  adjacent,  for  the  relief  of  the  garrison. 
St.  Leger,  aware  of  the  consequences  of  being  attacked  in  his 
trenches,  detached  Sir  John  Johnson,  with  some  loyalists  and 
Indians,  to  lie  in  ambush,  arid  intercept  the  advancing  militia. 
The  stratagem  took  effect.  Herkimer  and  his  militia  were  sur- 
prised on  the  6th  of  August,  but  several  of  the  Indians  were 
killed  by  their  fire.  A  scene  of  confusion  followed.  Some  of 
Herkimer's  men  ran  off;  but  others  posted  themselves  behind  logs, 
and  continued  to  fight  with  bravery  and  success.  The  loss  on 
the  side  of  the  Americans  was  one  hundred  and  sixty  killed. 
Among  them  was  their  gallant  leader.  St.  Leger  availed  himself 
of  the  terror  excited  on  this  occasion,  and  endeavored,  by  strong 
representations  of  the  Indian  barbarities,  to  intimidate  the  garrison. 
He  sent  messages,  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  fort,  and 
stating  the  impossibility  of  their  obtaining  relief,  as  their  friends 
under  Herkimer  were  entirely  cut  off,  and  that  Burgoyne  had 
forced  his  way  through  the  country,  and  was  daily  receiving  the 
submission  of  the  inhabitants.  He  represented  the  pains  he  had 
taken  to  check  the  Indians,  and  promised  that,  in  case  of  an 
immediate  surrender,  every  man  in  the  garrison  should  be  spared. 
He  particularly  enlarged  on  the  circumstance  "that  the  Indians 
were  determined,  in  case  of  their  meeting  with  further  opposition, 
to  massacre  not  only  the  garrison,  but  every  man,  woman  and 
child  in  the  Mohawk  country."  Colonel  Gansevoort,  who  com- 
manded in  the  fort,  replied,  "  that  he  was  determined  to  defend  it 


SIEGE   OF   FORT    STANWIX.  597 

to  the  last  extremity,  against  all  enemies  whatever,  without  any 
concern  for  the  consequences  of  doing  his  duty." 

Colonel  Willet  and  Lieutenant  Stockwell  undertook  to  give 
information  to  the  neighborhood,  of  the  state  of  the  garrison. 
These  two  adventurous  officers  passed  by  night  through  the 
besiegers'  works,  and,  at  the  hazard  of  falling  into  the  hands  of 
savages,  made  their  way  for  fifty  miles  through  dangers  and 
difficulties,  in  order  to  procure  relief.  In  the  meantime,  the 
British  carried  on  the  siege  with  such  industry,  that,  in  less  than 
three  weeks,  they  had  advanced  within  one  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  of  the  fort.  The  brave  garrison,  in  its  hour  of  danger,  was 
not  forgotten.  General  Arnold,  with  a  brigade  of  troops,  had 
been  previously  despatched  by  Schuyler  for  their  relief,  and  was 
then  near  at  hand.  A  person,  who  had  been  taken  up  by  the 
Americans  on  suspicion  of  being  a  spy,  was  promised  his  life,  on 
consideration  that  he  should  go  and  alarm  the  Indians  with  mag- 
nified representations  of  the  numbers  marching  against  them. 
This  took  immediate  effect,  although  St.  Leger  used  every  art  to 
retain  them.  Part  of  the  savages  decamped  at  once,  and  the 
remainder  threatened  to  follow,  if  the  British  did  not  immediately 
retreat.  St.  Leger  was  forced  to  comply,  and  on  the  22d  of 
August,  the  siege  of  Fort  Stahwix  was  raised.  From  the  disorder 
occasioned  by  the  precipitancy  of  the  Indians,  the  tents  and  much 
of  the  artillery  and  stores  of  the  besiegers  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Americans.  The  discontented  savages,  exasperated  at  their 
ill  fortune,  are  said,  on  their  retreat,  to  have  robbed  their  British 
associates  of  their  baggage  and  provisions. 

While  the  fate  of  this  post  was  in  suspense,  it  occurred  to  Bur- 
goyne  that  a  sudden  and  rapid  movement  forward  would  be  of 
the  utmost  consequence.  As  the  principal  force  of  his  enemy  was 
in  front,  between  him  and  Albany,  he  hoped,  by  advancing  oo 
them,  to  reduce  them  to  the  necessity  of  fighting,  or  of  retreating 
to  New  England.  Had  they  retreated  up  the  Mohawk,  they 
would,  in  case  of  St.  Leger's  success,  have  put  themselves  between 
two  fires.  Had  they  retreated  to  Albany,  it  was  supposed  their 
situation  would  have  been  worse,  as  a  cooperation  from  New 
York  was  expected.  Besides,  in  case  of  that  movement,  an 
opportunity  would  have  been  given  for  a  junction  of  Burgoyne 
and  St.  Leger.  New  England  seemed  to  be  the  only  quarter  left 
for  their  escape.  The  principal  objection  against  Burgoyne's 
project  was  the  difficulty  of  getting  provisions  for  his  troops. 
To  keep  up  a  communication  with  Fort  George,  so  as  to  obtain 
from  that  garrison  regular  supplies,  at  a  distance  daily  increasing, 
was  wholly  impracticable.  The  advantages  which  were  expected 
51  x3 


598  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

'from  the  proposed  measure,  were  too  dazzling  to  be  easily  relin- 
quished. Though  the  impossibility  of  drawing  provisions  from 
stores  in  their  rear  was  known  and  acknowledged,  yet  a  hope 
was  indulged  that  they  might  be  elsewhere  obtained.  Burgoyne 
expected  great  resources  from  the  plentiful  farms  of  Vermont. 
Every  day's  account  induced  him  to  believe  that  one  portion  of 
the  inhabitants  in  that  country  were  panic-struck,  and  that 
another,  and  by  far  the  most  numerous,  were  friends  to  the  royal 
cause,  and  only  waited  for  the  appearance  of  a  protecting  power 
to  show  themselves.  Relying  on  this  intelligence,  on  the  14th  of 
August,  he  detached  a  body  of  five  hundred  troops,  with  one 
hundred  Indians  and  two  field-pieces,  toward  that  quarter. 
This  force  was  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  Baum ;  and 
its  immediate  purpose  was  to  seize  upon  a  magazine  of  supplies, 
which  the  Americans  had  collected  at  Bennirigton,  and  which  was 
guarded  only  by  the  militia. 

Baum  was  instructed  to  avoid  all  danger  of  being  surrounded, 
or  of  having  his  retreat  cut  off.  On  approaching  Bennington,  he 
found  the  American  militia  stronger  than  he  had  supposed.  He. 
therefore,  took  post  in  the  vicinity,  entrenched  his  party,  and  de- 
spatched an  express  to  Burgoyne,  with  an  account  of  his  situation. 
Colonel  Breyman  was  detached  to  reinforce  him.  Though  every 
exertion  was  made  to  push  forward  this  reinforcement,  yet,  from 
the  impracticable  face  of  the  country  and  defective  means  of 
transportation,  thirty-two  hours  had  elapsed  before  they  had 
marched  twenty-four  miles. 

General  Stark,  who  commanded  the  American  militia,  instead 
of  acting  only  on  the  defensive,  determined  to  attack  the  enemy. 
On  the  16th  of  August,  he  fell  upon  Baum  in  his  entrenchments, 
before  Breyman  could  arrive.  After  a  sharp  action,  the  entrench- 
ments were  carried,  and  the  whole  detachment  made  prisoners. 
Thus  a  body  of -raw  militia,  without  bayonets  or  artillery, 
attacked  and  routed  five  hundred  regular  troops,  advantageously 
posted  behind  entrenchments,  furnished  with  the  best  arms,  and 
defended  with  two  pieces  of  cannon.  Breyman,  with  his  regi- 
ment of  bne  thousand  German  troops  and  two  field-pieces,  arrived 
just  as  the  battle  was  decided  and  the  Americans  had  dispersed 
in  .pursuit  of  the  fugitives.  The  tide  of  success  seemed  to  be 
instantly  turned,  and  the  victory  was  about  to  be  wrested  from 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  But,  in  this  critical  moment,  a  fresh 
regiment  of  militia,  under  Colonel  Warner,  made  its  appearance. 
The  Americans  rallied,  and  the  battle  commenced  anew.  Both 
parties  fought  with  great  courage ;  but  on  the  approach  of  night, 
the  Germans  gave  way,  and  were  utterly  routed.  The  victory  of 


BATTLE    OF   BENNINGTON.  599 

the  American  militia  was  complete.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  was 
nine  hundred  and  thirty-four  men,  one  thous'and  stand  of  arms, 
four  brass  cannon,  two  hundred  and  fifty  dragoon  swords,  twelve 
drums,  eight  loads  of  baggage,  and  twenty  horses.  Baum  died 
of  his  wounds.  The  American  loss  did  not  exceed  one  hundred 
men. 

This  unexpected  success  reanimated  the  drooping  spirits  of  the 
Americans,  and  at  once  turned  the  tide  of  war  against  the  inva- 
ders. It  was  the  first  occurrence,  which,  for  a  long  time,  had 
taken  place  in  favor  of  the  American  northern  army.  From 
December,  1775,  it  had  experienced  a  series  of  misfortunes  tread- 
ing on  each  other's  heels,  and  a  succession  of  defeats  succeeding 
defeats.  Almost  every  movement  had  been  a  retreat.  The 
transactions  after  this  period  present  a  remarkable  contrast. 
Fortune,  which,  previous  to  the  battle  of  Bennington,  had  not  for 
a  moment  quitted  the  British  standard,  seemed,  after  that  event, 
totally  to  desert  it.  Congress  had  placed  General  Gates  at  the 
head  of  the  northern  army.  His  arrival,  on  the  19th  of  August, 
gave  fresh  vigor  to  the  exertions  of  the  inhabitants.  The  militia, 
flushed  with  their  recent  victory,  flocked  in  great  numbers  to  his 
standard,  and  were  soon  animated  with  a  hope  of  capturing  the 
whole  British  army.  A  spirit  of  adventure  burst  forth  in  many 
points.  While  Burgoyne  was  urging  his  preparations  for  advanc- 
ing towards  Albany,  an  enterprise  was  undertaken  by  General 
Lincoln,  to  recover  Ticonderoga  and  other  posts  in  the  rear  of 
the  British.  He  detached  Colonel  Brown,  with  five  hundred 
men,  to  the  landing  at  Lake  George.  The  colonel  conducted  his 
operations  with  so  much  address,  that,  on  the  18th  of  September, 
he  surprised  all  the  outposts  between  the  landing  at  the  north 
end  of  Lake  George  and  Ticonderoga.  He  also  captured  Mount 
Defiance  and  Mount  Hope,  the  French  lines,  and  a  block  house, 
two  hundred  batteaux,  several  gun-boats,  and  an  armed  sloop, 
together  with  two  hundred  and  ninety  prisoners,  and  at  the  same 
time  released  one  hundred  Americans.  His  own  loss  was  trifling. 

When  the  stores  for  thirty  days'  subsistence  were  brought  for- 
ward from  Lake  George,  Burgoyne  gave  up  all  communication 
with  the  magazines  in  his  rear,  and,  on  the  14th  of  September, 
crossed  the  Hudson.  This  movement  was  the  subject  of  much 
discussion.  Some  accused  the  impetuosity  of  the  general,  and 
alleged  that  it  was  premature,  as  he  was  not  yet  sure  of  aid  from 
New  York ;  but  he  pleaded  the  peremptory  orders  of  his  superiors. 
Burgoyne,  after  crossing  the  Hudson,  advanced  southward  along 
its  bank,  and  in  four  days  encamped  at  Freeman's  Farm,  about 
two  miles  from  Gates's  army,  which  was  then  posted  near  Still- 


600  *  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

water.  The  Americans,  elated  with  their  successes  at  Bennington 
ind  Fort  Stanwix,  thought  no  longer  of  retreating,  but  advanced 
Co  meet  the  enemy.  The  first  battle  of  Stillwater  was  fought  on 
;he  19th  of  September.  The  action  began  a  little  before  noon, 
between  the  scouting  parties  of  the  two  armies.  The  comman- 
ders, on  both  sides,  supported  and  reinforced  their  respective 
parties.  The  conflict,  though  severe,  was  only  partial  for  an 
hour  and  a  half;  but  after  a  short  pause,  it  became  general,  and 
continued  for  three  hours,  without  any  intermission.  A  constant 
blaze  of  musketry  was  kept  up,  and  both  armies  seemed  deter- 
mined on  death  or  victory.  The  Americans  and  British  alter- 
nately drove  and  were  driven  by  each  other.  Men  and  officers 
dropped  every  moment.  Several  of  the  Americans  mounted  the 
trees,  and,  as  often  as  they  could  distinguish  an  officer's  uniform, 
took  him  off  by  deliberate  aim.  Few  actions  have  been  charac- 
terized by  more  obstinacy  in  attack  or  defence.  The  British 
repeatedly  tried  their  bayonets,  but  without  their  visual  success. 
At  length,  night  put  an  end  to  the  effusion  of  blood.  The  British 
lost  upwards  of  five  hundred  men,  including  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners.  The  Americans,  inclusive  of  the  missing,  lost  three 
hundred  and  nineteen.  Thirty-six,  out  of  forty-eight  British 
matrosses  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  62d  British  regiment, 
which  was  five  hundred  strong,  when  it  left  Canada,  was  reduced 
to  sixty  men. 

This  hard-fought  battle  decided  nothing  apparently;  yet  hardly 
anything  could  have  been  more  disastrous  to  the  British.  The 
resolution  and  obstinacy  with  which  the  Americans  had  faced 
their  veteran  troops,  struck  them  with  the  most  alarming  appre- 
hensions. Burgoyne,  who,  up  to  this  time,  had  persisted  in  the 
delusive  notion  that  the  Americans  were  cowards,  found  all  his 
hopes  and  calculations  confounded  by  this  unexpected  display  of 
courage.  In  his  confidential  letters  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  at 
this  period,  he  reluctantly  confesses  that  his  opinion  as  to  the 
military  character  of  the  enemy  had  totally  changed.  Moreover, 
this  indecisive  battle  was  soon  followed  by  important  consequen- 
ces. Of  these,  one  was  the  diminution  of  the  zeal  and  alacrity  of 
the  Indians  in  the  British  army.  The  dangerous  service  in  whicli 
they  were  engaged,  was  by  no  means  suited  to  their  habits  of 
war.  They  were  disappointed  of  their  expected  plunder,  and  saw 
nothing  before  them  but  hardships  and  danger.  Fidelity  and 
honor  were  too  feeble  motives  in  the  minds  of  savages  to  retain 
them  in  such  a  profitless  service.  By  deserting  in  the  season 
when  their  aid  would  have  been  most  useful,  they  furnished  a 
second  instance  of  the  impolicy  of  depending  upon  them.  Very 


BATTLE   OF   BEMUs's   HEIGHTS.  601 

little  more  perseverance  was  exhibited  by  the  Canadians  and 
other  British  provincials.  They  also  abandoned  the  British 
standard,  when  they  found  that  instead  of  a  flying  and  dispirited 
enemy,  they  had  a  numerous  and  resolute  force  opposed  to  them. 
These  desertions  were  not  the  only  disappointments  which  Bur- 
goyne  experienced.  From  the  commencement  of  the  expedition, 
he  had  promised  himself  a  strong  reinforcement  from  New  York. 
He  depended  on  its  being  able  to  force  its  way  to  Albany,  and  to 
join  him  there  or  in  the  vicinity.  This  cooperation,  though 
attempted,  failed  in  the  execution,  while  the  expectation  of  it  con- 
tributed to  involve  him  in  some  difficulties  to  which  he  would  not 
otherwise  have  been  exposed. 

On  the  21st  of  September,  Burgoyne  received  intelligence  in 
cipher,  that  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  who  then  commanded  in  New 
York,  intended  to  make  a  diversion  in  his  favor,  by  attacking  the 
fortresses  on  the  Hudson,  between  New  York  and  Albany.  In 
answer  to  this,  he  despatched  to  Clinton  a  trusty  person  with  a 
full  account  of  his  situation,  and  instructions  to  press  the  imme- 
diate execution  of  his  design,  and  to  assure  him  that  he  should  be 
able  to  hold  his  present  position  till  the  12th  of  October.  The 
reasonable  expectation  of  succor  from  New  York,  founded  on  this 
intelligence,  made  it  disgraceful  for  Burgoyne  to  retreat,  and  at 
the  same  time  improper  to  urge  offensive  operations.  In  this 
posture  of  affairs,  a  delay  of  two  or  three  weeks  became  neces- 
sary. 

In  the  meantime,  the  provisions  of  the  royal  army  were  lessen- 
ing, and  the  confidence  and  riurrfbers  of  the  American  army 
increasing.  The  New  England  people  were  fully  sensible  that 
their  all  was  at  stake,  and  at  the  same  time  sanguine,  that  by 
vigorous  exertions  on  their  part,  Burgoyne  would  be  so  entangled 
that  his  surrender  would  be  unavoidable.  Every  moment  made 
the  situation  of  the  British  more  critical.  From  the  uncertainty  of 
receiving  further  supplies,  Burgoyne,  on  the  1st  of  October,  lessened 
the  soldiers'  provisions.  On  the  7th  no  intelligence  of  the  expected 
cooperation  had  arrived,  and  Burgoyne  marched  to  force  a  passage 
round  the  left  of  the  Americans,  at  Freeman's  Farm.  The  body 
of  troops  employed  for  this  purpose,  consisted  of  fifteen  hundred 
chosen  men,  commanded  by  Generals  Burgoyne,  Philips,  Reidesel 
and  Frazer.  .As  they  advanced  from  the  camp  at  Bemus's 
Heights,  they  were  checked  by  a  sudden  and  impetuous  attack  of 
the  Americans,  under  Arnold.  The  British  grenadiers  sustained  it 
with  great  firmness.  The  Americans  extended  their  attack  along 
the  whole  front  of  the  German  troops,  who  were  posted  on  the 
right  of  the  grenadiers;  and  they  also  marched  a  large  >ody 
51* 


602  THE    UNITED    STATES, 

round  their  flank,  in  order  to  cut  off  their  retreat.  To  oppose  this 
bold  enterprise,  the  British  light  infantry  were  directed  to  form  a 
second  line,  and  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  troops  into  the  camp. 
In  the  meantime,  the  Americans  pushed  forward  a  fresh  and 
strong  reinforcement,  to  renew  the  action  on  Burgoyne's  left. 
That  part  of  his  army  was  obliged  to  give  way ;  but  the  light 
infantry  and  24th  regiment,  by  a  quick  movement,  came  to  its 
help,  and  saved  it  from  total  ruin. 

The  British  camp  being  now  exposed  to  great  danger,  the 
troops  began  to  retreat  within  the  lines.  Arnold's  corps  followed 
close  upon  their  heels,  and  attacked  the  works  defended  by  Lord 
Balcarras  at  the  head  of  the  light  infantry ;  but  the  Americans, 
having  an  abbatis  and  many  other  obstructions  to  cross,  were 
compelled  to  retire.  Arnold  joined  another  regiment,  and  attacked 
the  lines  and  redoubt  defended  by  Breyman,  at  the  head  of  the 
German  grenadiers.  The  assailants  pushed  on  with  great  intre- 
pidity, in  the  face  of  a  tremendous  storm  of  grape  shot,  and  carried 
the  works.  Arnold  was  one  of  the  first  who  entered  them.  Brey- 
man was  killed,  and  his  troops  were  driven  from  their  post.  They 
gained  their  tents,  about  thirty  or  forty  yards  from  their  works ; 
but,  on  finding  that  the  assault  was  general,  they  gave  one  fire, 
after  which  some  retreated  to  the  British  camp,  and  others  threw 
down  their  arms.  The  night  put  an  end  to  the  action. 

This  day  was  fatal  to  many  brave  men.  The  British  officers 
suffered  more  than  their  common  proportion.  Among  their  slain, 
General  Frazer,  on  account  of  his  distinguished  merits,  was  the 
subject  of  particular  regret.  Sir  James  Clark,  Burgoyne's  aid-de- 
camp, was  mortally  wounded.  The  general  himself  had  a  nar- 
row escape ;  a  shot  passed  through  his  hat,  and  another  through 
his  waistcoat.  Majors  Williams  and  Ackland  were  taken  pris- 
oners. The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  inconsiderable.  Arnold, 
to  whose  courage  they  were  much  indebted  for  the  success  of  the 
day,  was  among  the  wounded.  They  took  more  than  two  hun- 
dred prisoners,  besides  nine  pieces  of  brass  artillery,  and  the 
encampment  of  a  German  brigade,  with  all  their  equipage. 

The  royal  troops  remained  under  arms  the  whole  of  the  next 
day,  in  expectation  of  another  battle;  but  nothing  more  than 
skirmishes  took  place.  The  position  of  the  British  army,  after 
the  battle  at  Bemus's  Heights,  was  so  dangerous,  that  an  imme- 
diate retreat  was  necessary.  This  hazardous  movement  was  exe- 
cuted in  the  course  of  a  single  night,  and  the  sick  and  wounded  in 
the  hospitals  were  abandoned  to  the  Americans.  Gates  now  saw 
a  fair  prospect  of  capturing  his  enemy,  without  exposing  his  army 
to  the  dangers  of  another  battle.  His  measures  were  therefore 


RAVAGES    OF   THE   BRITISH   UNDER   CLINTON.  603 

principally  designed  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  British  and  pre- 
vent their  receiving  any  further  supplies.  Burgoyne  entrenched 
himself  at  Saratoga. 

In  the  meantime,  Clinton  had  heen  making  an  attempt  to 
relieve  him  from  New  York.  On  the  5th  of  October,  he  con- 
ducted an  expedition  up  the  Hudson.  This  consisted  of  about 
three  thousand  men,  with  a  suitable  naval  force.  After  making 
many  feints,  he  landed  at  Stony  Point,  marched  across  the  hills, 
and  attacked  and  took  Forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton,  on  the 
river.  He  then  proceeded  to  ravage  the  country,  and  a  detach- 
ment, under  General  Vaughan,  sacked  the  fine  village  of  Esopus, 
burning  every  house  to  the  ground.  Charity  would  lead  us  to 
suppose  that  these  devastations  were  designed  to  answer  military 
purposes.  Their  authors  might  have  hoped  to  divert  the  attention 
of  General  Gates,  and  thus  indirectly  relieve  Burgoyne ;  but  the 
artifice  did  not  take  effect.  The  preservation  of  property  was 
only  a  secondary  object  with  the  Americans.  The  capture  of 
Burgoyne's  army  promised  such  important  advantages,  that  they 
would  not  suffer  any  other  consideration  to  interfere  with  it. 
Gates  did  not  make  a  single  movement  that  lessened  his  chance 
of  effecting  this  grand  object. 

The  passage  of  the  North  River  was  made  so  practicable  by 
the  capture  of  the  two  forts,  that  Clinton,  with  his  whole  force, 
amounting  to  three  thousand  men,  might  have  reached  Albany, 
and  penetrated  to  Gates's  encampment,  before  the  12th  of  October, 
the  day  till  which  Burgoyne  had  agreed  to  wait  for  aid  from  New 
York.  While  the  British  were  laying  the  country  waste,  they 
might,  by  pushing  forward  about  one  hundred  and  forty  miles 
in  six  days,  have  brought  the  Americans  between  two  fires,  at 
least  twenty-four  hours  before  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne.  Why 
this  opportunity  was  neglected,  has  never  yet  been  satisfactorily 
explained. 

Gates  now  posted  fourteen  hundred  men  on  the  heights  oppo- 
site the  fords  of  Saratoga,  two  thousand  more  in  the  rear  of  the 
British,  to  prevent  a  retreat  to  Fort  Edward,  and  fifteen  hundred 
at  a  fort  higher  up.  Burgoyne,  receiving  intelligence  of  these 
movements,  concluded  that  Gates  meant  to  turn  his  right  flank. 
This,  if  effected,  would  have  entirely  enclosed  him.  To  prepare 
for  a  retreat  to  Lake  George,  he  ordered  a  detachment  of  arti- 
ficers, with  a  strong  escort  of  British  and  loyalists,  to  repair  the 
bridges,  and  open  the  road  leading  thither.  .Part  of  the  escort 
was  withdrawn  on  other  duty;  and  the  remainder,  on  a  slight 
attack  by  an  inconsiderable  party  of  Americans,  took  to  flight. 
The  workmen,  thus  left  without  support,  were  unable  to  effect 


604  *  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

their  purpose.  The  only  practicable  line  of  retreat  which  now 
remained  was  hy  a  night  march  to  Fort  Edward.  Before  this 
attempt  could  be  made,  scouts  returned  with  the  intelligence  that 
the  Americans  were  entrenched  opposite  those  fords  on  the  Hud- 
son, over  which  it  was  necessary  to  pass,  and  that  they  were  also 
in  force  on  the  high  ground  between  Fort  Edward  and  Fort 
George.  They  had,  at  the  same  time,  parties  along  the  whole 
shore,  and  posts  so  near  as  to  observe  every  motion  of  the  royal 
army.  Their  lines  now  extended  nearly  in  a  circle  round  the 
British,  and  they  were,  by  the  nature  of  the  ground,  in  a  great 
measure  secured  from  attacks.  The  royal  army  could  not  long 
remain  stationary  for  want  of  provisions ;  nor  could  it  advance 
towards  Albany,  without  attacking  a  force  greatly  superior  in 
number;  nor  could  it  retreat  without  crossing  a  river,  in  the  face 
of  the  enemy. 

Bnrgoyne  now  found  his  condition  truly  desperate;  abandoned 
in  the  most  critical  moment  by  his  Indian  allies,  unsupported  by 
the  force  from  New  York,  his  army  weakened  by  the  timidity 
and  desertion  of  the  Canadians,  worn  down  by  a  series  of 
incessant  efforts,  greatly  reduced  in  their  numbers  by  repeated 
battles,  and  invested  by  an  army  nearly  three  times  their  number. 
A  continual  cannonade  annoyed  his  camp,  and  rifle  and  grape 
shot  fell  in  all  parts  of  the  lines.  The  soldiers,  nevertheless, 
retained  a  great  share  of  fortitude.  The  12th  of  October  at  length 
arrived.  The  day  was  spent  in  anxious  expectation.  But  as  no 
prospect  of  assistance  appeared,  and  their  provisions  were  nearly 
expended,  the  hope  of  receiving  any  in  due  time  for  their  relief, 
could  not  be  further  indulged.  On  the  evening  of  that  day  Bur- 
goyne  took  an  account  of  the  provisions  left  in  his  camp,  and 
found'only  a  scanty  subsistence  for  three  days.  In  this  state  of 
distress  a  council  of  war  was  called,  and  it  was  made  so  general 
as  to  comprehend  both  the  field  officers  and  the  captains.  Their 
unanimous  opinion  was  that  their  present  situation  justified  a 
capitulation  on  honorable  terms.  A  negotiation  was  then  opened 
with  the  American  commander,  which  ended  in  Burgoyne's 
surrendering  his  whole  army,  on  condition  that  they  should  be 
transported  to  England,  and  not  serve  against  the  Americans 
during  the  war.  As  soon  as  the  capitulation  was  signed,  on  the 
16th  of  October,  the  Americans  marched  into  their  lines,  and  were 
kept  there  till  the  royal  army  had  deposited  their  arms  at  the 
place  appointed.  The  delicacy  with  which  this  business  was 
conducted  reflected  honor  on  the  American  general.  Nor  did  the 
politeness  of  Gates  end  here.  Every  circumstance  was  withheld 
that  could  look  like  an  ostentation  of  triumph  in  the  American 


SURRENDER  OF  BURGOYNE.  605 

army.  The  captive  general  was  received  by  his  conqueror  with 
respect  and  kindness.  A  number  of  the  principal  officers  of  both 
armies  met  at  General  Gates' s  quarters,  and  for  a  while  seemed  to 
forget,  in  social  and  convivial  pleasures,  that  they  had  been  ene- 
mies. The  British  troops  partook  liberally  of  the  plenty  that 
reigned  in  the  American  army.  It  was  the  more  acceptable  to 
them,  as  they  were  destitute  of  bread  and  flour,  and  had  only  as 
much  meat  left  as  was  sufficient  for  a  day. 


Surrender  of  Burgoyne. 

By  this  capitulation,  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  ninety 
men  were  surrendered  prisoners.  The  sick  and  wounded  left  in 
camp,  when  the  British  retreated  to  Saratoga,  together  with  the 
numbers  of  the  British,  German  and  Canadian  troops,  who  were 
killed  wounded  or  taken,  and  who  had  deserted  in  the  preceding 
part  of  the  expedition,  were  reckoned  at  four  thousand  six  hundred 
and  eighty-nine.  The  whole  royal  force,  exclusive  of  Indians, 
was  probably  much  above  ten  thousand.  The  stores  which 
the  Americans  acquired  were  considerable.  The  captured  artil- 
lery consisted  of  thirty-five  brass  field-pieces.  There  were  also 
four  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-seven  muskets,  and  a  variety 
of  other  useful  articles,  which  fell  into  their  hands.  The  regular 
troops  of  Gates's  army  amounted  to  nine  thousand  and  ninety- 
three,  the  militia,  to  four  thousand  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine. 
Of  the  former,  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  three  were  sick,  or 
on  furlough,  and  five  hundred  and  sixty-two  of  the  latter  were  in 
the  same  situation.  The  number  of  the  militia  was  constantly 
fluctuating. 

The  general  exultation  of  the  Americans,  on  receiving  the 
agreeable  intelligence  of  the  capture  of  Burgoyne,  disarmed  them 

Y3 


606  .     "     THE   UNITED    STATES. 

of  much  of  their  resentment.  The  burnings  and  devastations 
which  had  been  practised  by  the  invaders,  were  sufficient  to  have 
inflamed  their  minds ;  but  private  feelings  were  in  a  great  measure 
absorbed  in  the  general  joy  at  the  ultimate  success  of  the  Ameri- 
can arms.  Immediately  after  the  convention  was  signed,  Gates 
moved  down  the  river  to  stop  the  devastations  of  the  British  on 
the  Hudson ;  but  on  hearing  of  the  fate  of  Btirgoyne,  they  retired 
to  New  York. 

About  the  same  time,  the  British  who  had  been  left  in  Burgoyne's 
rear  as  he  advanced  from  Canada,  destroyed  their  cannon,  and, 
abandoning  Ticonderoga,  retreated  towards  Montreal.  The  whole 
country,  after  experiencing  for  several  months  the  ravages  of 
war,  was  in  a  moment  restored  to  perfect  tranquillity. 

Great  was  the  surprise  and  mortification  of  the  British  ministry, 
on  receiving  the  intelligence  of  the  fate  of  Burgoyne.  The  expe- 
dition had  been  undertaken  with  the  most  confident  hopes  of 
success.  The  quality  of  the  troops  he  commanded  was  such, 
that,  by  their  bravery,  and  his  zeal,  talents  and  courage,  it  was 
presumed  that  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States  would 
be  subdued  before  the  end  of  the  campaign.  The  good  fortune 
which  for  some  time  followed  him  justified  these  expectations; 
but  the  catastrophe  proved  the  shallowness  of  the  ministerial 
views  and  the  presumption  of  their  general..  The  capture  of 
Burgoyne  was  the  main  event  on  which  the  course  of  the  revolu- 
tion turned.  While  it  encouraged  the  Americans  to  persevere, 
by  well  grounded  hopes  of  final  success,  it  increased  the  em- 
barrassment of  that  ministry  which  had  so  ineffectually  labored 
to  compel  their  submission.  Opposition  to  their  measures  at  home 
gathered  new  strength,  and  formed  a  stumbling-block  in  the  road 
to  conquest.  This  prevented  Great  Britain  from  acting  with  that 
collected  force,  which  an  union  of  sentiments  and  councils  would 
have  enabled  her  to  exert.  Hitherto,  the  best  informed  Americans 
had  entertained  doubts  of  success  in  establishing  their  independ- 
ence; but  henceforward  their  language  was,  "that  whatever 
might  be  the  event  of  their  present  struggle,  they  were  forever 
lost  to  Great  Britain."  Nor  were  they  deceived. 

Much  effect  was  produced,  in  the  early  part  of  the  struggle  for 
independence,  by  the  writings  of  Thomas  Paine,  an  author  whose 
ingenuity  and  vigorous  intellect,  added  to  the  command  of  a 
simple  and  forcible  style  of  writing,  gained  him  great  influence 
with  the  multitude  of  readers.  At  this  period  of  his  life  he 
labored  under  none  of  the  odium  which  subsequently  fell  upon 
his  name,  on  account  of  his  irreligious  works.  He  came  to 
America  in  1774,  and  his  pamphlet;  entitled  "  Common  Sense," 


THOMAS    PAINE. 


607 


which  he  published  soon  after  hostilities  broke  out,  was  so  popular 
and  effective  that  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  voted  him  a 
reward  of  five  hundred  pounds.  His  other  revolutionary  writings, 
the  "Rights  of  Man,"  the  "Crisis,"  and  many  more,  had  much 
effect  in  strengthening  the  cause  of  independence. 


Thomas  Paine. 


CHAPTER    LXI1. 

Franklin's  mission  to  the  French  Court. — Alliance  with  France. — A  French  fleet, 
under  D'Estaing,  arrives  in  America. — The  British  evacuate  Philadelphia. — • 
Battle  of  Monmouth. — Misconduct  of  General  Lee. — Narroiu  escape  of  the 
British  squadron. — Expedition  of  the  Americans  and  French  against  Rhode 
Island. — Inactivity  of  D'Estaing. — Failure  of  the  expedition. —  Catastrophe  of 
Colonel  Baylor's  regiment. — Abortive  expedition  against  Florida. — Georgia 
invaded  by  the  British. —  Capture  of  Savannah,  and  subjugation  of  the  whole 
State. 


Franklin. 

THE  capture  of  Burgoyne's  army  led  the  way  to  important  con- 
sequences in  Europe.  Congress  had,  at  an  early  date,  attempted 
negotiations  with  the  European  powers ;  but  the  disasters  of  the 
campaign  of  1776,  and  the  early  part  of  the  following  year,  ren- 
dered the  affairs  of  the  revolution  too  unpromising  to  admit  of  a 
successful  result.  Dr.  Franklin,  who  had  proceeded  to  Paris 
shortly  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  received  with 
civility  by  the  French  court,  and  laid  before  them  the  plan  of  a 
treaty  of  alliance  drawn  up  by  Congress.  The  jealous  spirit 
which  had  always  subsisted  between  France  and  England,  offered 
a  strong  motive  for  the  cabinet  of  Versailles  to  take  up  the  cause 
of  the  colonies,  and  aim  a  deadly  blow  at  their  ancient  rival.  But 


TREATY   OF   ALLIANCE   WITH    FRANCE.  609 

the  victorious  march  of  Burgoyne  from  Quebec  to  the  Hudson, 
had  completely  discouraged  the  friends  of  American  indepen- 
dence in  Europe,  and  all  hope  of  successful  resistance  on  the  part 
of  the  colonists  was  considered  at  an  end.  The  intelligence  that 
soon  followed,  completely  reversed  this  impression.  The  capture 
of  a  whole  British  army  was  an  achievement  so  striking  and 
brilliant,  that  it  immediately  arrested  the  attention  of  all  Europe, 
and  impressed  the  people  with  a  full  confidence  in  the  courage 
and  perseverance  of  the  Americans.  Under  the  influence  of  these 
impressions,  Franklin  pushed  his  negotiations  so  ably,  that  the 
wavering  policy  of  the  French  cabinet  was  fixed,  and  France 
entered  into  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  wifh  the 
thirteen  American  colonies,  agreeing  not  to  lay  down  her  arms 
till  their  independence  should  be  acknowledged.  On  the  6th  of 
February,  1778,  this  treaty  was  signed  by  the  American  commis- 
,  Franklin,  Deane  and  Lee.  It  is  not  unworthy  of  notice, 


Silas  Deane. 

as  an  interesting  anecdote  of  Franklin,  that  on  the  day  he  accom- 
plished this  important  work,  which  set  the  seal  to  American 
independence,  he  arrayed  himself  in  the  identical  suit  of  clothes 
which  he  had  worn  in  the  British  House  of  Lords,  when  his  plea 
in  behalf  of  the  colonies  brought  upon  his  head  a  torrent  of  foul 
and  intemperate  abuse  from  the  king's  solicitor,  Wedderburne. 
On  that  occasion,  the  philosopher  is  said  to  Jmve  suffered  the 
attack  with  firm  complacency,  making,  however,  the  significant 
remark — "Ais  master  sJiallpay  for  it" 
52 


610  '     THE   UNITED   STATES. 

The  Marquis  de  la  Fayette,  a  young  Frenchman,  had,  at  an 
early  period  of  the  struggle,  embraced  the  American  cause,  and 
signalized  himself  by  his  courage  in  the  field.  The  new  treaty 
was  now  to  afford  the  Americans  the-  assistance  of  a  formidable 
fleet  and  army.  A  squadron,  of  twelve  ships  of  the  line  and  four 
frigates,  was  immediately  despatched  from  Toulon,  und^r  the 
Count  D'Estaing.  On  the  9th  of  July,  1778,  they  arrived  in  the 
Delaware.  Meantime,  war  had  broken  out  between  France  and 
Great  Britain,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  alliance. 

The  British,  despairing  of  being  able  to  hold  Philadelphia, 
evacuated  the  city  on  the  18th  of  June,  shortly  before  the  arrival 
of  the  French  fleet,  and  took  up  their  march  across  the  Jerseys 
for  New  York,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  Wash- 
ington, having  penetrated  into  their  design,  had  previously 
detached  a  force  to  cooperate  with  the  Jersey  militia  in  obstruct- 
ing their  progress.  The  British  were  encumbered  with  an  enor- 
mous baggage,  which,  together  with  the  impediments  thrown  in 
their  way,  greatly  retarded  their  march.  The  American  army 
having,  in  pursuit  of  the  British,  crossed  the  Delaware,  six  hun- 
dred additional  men  were  immediately  detached  under  Colonel 
Morgan,  to  pursue  the  British.  Washington  halted  his  troops 
when  they  had  marched  to  the  vicinity  of  Princeton.  When 
Clinton  had  advanced  to  Allen  town,  he  determined,  instead  of 
keeping  the  direct  course  towards  Staten  Island,  to  move  towards 
the  sea-coast,  near  Sandy  Hook.  Washington,  on  receiving 
intelligence  that  Clinton  was  proceeding  towards  Monmouth, 
despatched  one  thousand  men,  under  General  Wayne,  and  sent 
La  Fayette  to  take  command  of  the  whole  advanced  corps,  with 
orders  to  seize  the  first  opportunity  of  attacking  the  enemy's  rear. 
General  Lee,  who,  having  been  lately  exchanged,  had  joined  the 
army,  was  first  offered  this  command ;  but  he  declined  it,  as  he 
was  against  hazarding  an  attack.  The  whole  army  followed  at  a 
proper  distance  for  supporting  the  advanced  corps.  Clinton,  sus- 
pecting the  approach  of  the  Americans,  placed  his  grenadiers, 
light  infantry  and  chasseurs,  in  his  rear,  and  his  baggage  in  his 
front. 

Washington  increased  his  advanced  corps  with  two  brigades, 
sending  Lee,  who  now  wished  for  the  command,  to  take  charge 
of  the  whole ;  and  followed  with  the  main  army.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  28th  of  June,  he  ordered  Lee  to  attack  the  enemy. 
When  Washington  had  marched  about  five  miles  to  support  the 
advanced  corps,  he  found  Lee  retreating  at  the  head  of  his  troops, 
and  without  having  struck  a  blow.  Washington,  highly  excited, 
rode  up  to  him,  and  demanded  what  he  was  about,  Lee  answered 


EATTLE   OF    MONMOUTH.  611 

with  warmth  and  unsuitable  language.  Washington  then  ordered 
Stewart's  and  Ramsey's  battalions  to  form  a  line  and  check  the 
advance  of  the  enemy.  Lee  was  then  asked  if  he  would  com- 
mand on  that  ground ;  to  which  he  consented.  A  warm  cannon- 
ade immediately  commenced  between  the  advanced  troops  of  the 
British  army  and  the  two  battalions.  These  stood  their  ground 
till  they  were  intermixed  with/a  part  of  the  British  army. 
Lieutenant  Colonel  Ramsey,  the  commander  of  one  of  them,  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  General  Lee  continued  till  the  last 
on  the  field  of  battle,  and  brought  off  the  rear  of  the  retreating 
troops.  The  day  was  intensely  hot,  and  the  men  suffered 
greatly. 

The  check  the  British  received,  gave  time  to  make  a  disposition 
of  the  left  wing  and  second  line  of  the  American  army  in  a 
wood,  and  on  the  eminence  to  which  Lee  was  retreating.  Here 
some  cannon  were  placed  by  Lord  Stirling,  who  commanded  the 
American  left  wing ;  which,  with  the  cooperation  of  some  parties 
of  infantry,  effectually  stopped  the  advance  of  the  British  in  that 
quarter.  General  Greene  took  a  position  on  the  right  of  Stirling. 
The  British  attempted  to  turn  the  left  flank  of  the  Americans, 
but  were  checked.  They  also  made  a  movement  to  the  right 
with  as  little  success ;  Greene,  with  his  artillery,  repulsed  them. 
Wayne  now  advanced  with  a  body  of  troops,  and  kept  up  so 
severe  and  well-directed  a  fire,  that  the  British  were  soon  com- 
pelled to  give  way.  They  retired,  and  took  the  position  that  Lee 
had  before  occupied.  Washington  resolved  to  attack  them,  and 
ordered  General  Poor  to  move  round  upon  their  right,  and  General 
Woodford  to  their  left;  but  this  attack  could  not  be  made  before 
it  was  dark.  The  troops  remained  upon  the  ground  during  the 
night,  with  the  intention  of  attacking  early  the  next  morning ; 
and  the  main  body  lay  on  their  arms  in  the  field,  to  be  ready  for 
supporting  them. 

Washington  reposed  himself  in  his  cloak  under  a  tree,  in  hopes 
of  renewing  the  action  the  next  day ;  but  these  hopes  were  frus- 
trated. The  British  troops  marched  away  in  the  night,  in  such 
silence,  that  General  Poor,  though  very  near  them,  knew  nothing 
of  their  departure.  They  left  behind  them  four  officers  and 
about  forty  privates,  all  so  badly  wounded,  that  they  could  not  be 
removed.  The  British,  on  the  30th  of  June,  pursued  their  march 
without  further  interruption,  and  soon  reached  the  neighborhood 
of  Sandy  Hook.  The  American  General  declined  all  further  pur- 
suit of  the  royal  army,  and  soon  after  drew  off  his  troops  to  the 
border  of  the  Hudson.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  at  the  battle 
of  Monmouth,  was  about  two  hundred  and  fifty.  The  loss  of  the 


612  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

royal  array,  inclusive  of  prisoners,  was  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  The  emotions  of  the  mind,  added  to  fatigue,  in  a  rery  hot 
day,  had  such  a  fatal  effect,  that  some  of  the  Americans  and 
fifty-nine  of  the  British,  were  found  dead  on  the  field  of  battle, 
without  any  marks  of  violence  upon  their  bodies. 


Sir  H.  Clinton. 

It  is  probable  that  Washington  intended  to  take  no  further 
notice  of  Lee's  misconduct  ;0  but  the  latter  could  not  brook  the 
expressions  used  by  Washington  at  their  first  meeting,  and  wrote 
him  two  passionate  letters.  This  occasioned  his  being  arrested 
and  brought  to  trial.  He  was  found  guilty  of  misbehavior  and 
disobedience  of  orders,  and  suspended  from  his  command  for  a 
year.  Soon  after  the  action  of  Monmouth,  Washington  took  post 
at  the  White  Plains,  a  few  miles  beyond  Kingsbridge ;  and  the 
British,  though  not  far  distant,  did  not  molest  him.  The  two 
armies  remained  in  this  position  from  an  early  day  in  July,  till 
late  in  the  autumn ;  when  the  Americans  retired  to  Middlebrook, 
in  Jersey,  where  they  quartered  themselves  for  the  winter,  in 
huts,  in  the  same  manner  as  they  had  done  at  Valley  Forge. 

Immediately  on  the  departure  of  the  British  from  Philadelphia, 
congress,  after  an  absence  of  nine  months,  returned  to  that  city. 
On  the  6th  of  August,  1778,  they  were  called  upon  to  give  a 
public  audience  to  a  minister  plenipotentiary  from  the  court  of 
France.  The  person  appointed  to  this  office  was  M.  Gerard,  the 
same  who  had  been  employed  in  the  negotiations  antecedent  to 
the  treaty. 


ARRIVAL   OF   THE   FRENCH   FLEET.  613 

The  British  had  barely  completed  the  removal  of  their  fleet 
and  army  from  the  Delaware  to  New  York,  when  they  received 
intelligence  that  a  French  fleet  was  on  the  coast.  The  first  object 
of  D'Estaing  was  the  surprise  of  Lord  Howe's  fleet  in  the  Dela- 
ware ;  but  the  French  arrived  too  late.  In  naval  history  there 
are  few  more  narrow  escapes  than  that  of  the  British  fleet  on 
this  occasion.  It  consisted  only  of  six  sixty-four  gun  ships, 
three  of  fifty,  and  two  of  forty,  with  some  frigates  and  sloops. 
Most  of  these  had  been  on  long  service  and  were  in  a  bad  condi- 
tion. Their  force,  when  compared  with  that  of  the  French  fleet, 
was  so  greatly  inferior,  that  had  the  latter  reached  the  mouth  of 
the  Delaware  in  seventy-five  days  after  leaving  Toulon,  their 
capture  was  inevitable.  This  was  prevented  by  the  various 
hindrances  which  retarded  D'Estaing  in  his  voyage  to  the  term 
of  eighty-seven  days ;  in  the  last  eleven  of  which,  Lord  Howe's 
fleet  not  only  quitted  the  Delaware,  but  reached  the  harbor  of 
New  York.  D'Estaing,  disappointed  in  his  first  scheme,  sailed 
for  Sandy  Hook',  where  he  arrived  on  the  llth  of  July.  The 
sight  of  the  French  fleet  roused. all  the  active  passions  of  their 
adversaries.  Transported , with  indignation  against  the  French, 
for  interfering  in  what  they  called  a  domestic  quarrel,  the  British 
displayed  a  spirit  of  zeal  and  bravery,  which  could  not  be 
exceeded.  A  thousand  volunteers  were  despatched  from  their 
transports  'to  man  their  fleet.  The  masters  and  mates  of  their 
merchantmen  at  New  York  took  their  stations  at  the  guns  like 
common  sailors.  Others  put  to  sea  in  light  vessels  to  watch  the 
motions  of  the  enemy.  The  officers  and  privates  of  the  army  con- 
tended with  so  much  eagerness  to  serve  on  board  the  men-of-war, 
as  marines,  that  it  became  necessary  to  decide  the  honor  by  lot. 

D'Estaing  came  to  anchor  and  continued  without  the  Hook  for 
eleven  days.  During  this  time,  the  British  had  the  mortification 
of  seeing  the  blockade  of  their  fleet,  and  the  capture  of  about 
twerlty  vessels  under  English  colors.  On  the  22d  of  July,  the 
French  fleet  appeared  under  weigh.  It  was  an  anxious  moment 
for  the  British.  They  expected  an  immediate  attack.  Nothing 
less  than  destruction  or  victory  would  have  ended  the  contest.  If 
the  first  had  been  their  lot,  the  vast  fleet  of  transports  and 
victuallers  and  the  army  must  have  fallen.  But  the  attack  never 
took  place.  The  pilots  of  the  French  fleet  declared  it  impossible 
to  carry  the  large  ships  over  the  bar;  and  D'Estamg,  by  the 
advice  of  Washington,  sailed  for  Newport.  ,By  his  departure, 
the  British  had  a  second  escape ;  for  had  he  remained  at  the  Hook 
,  but  a  few  days  longer,  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Byron  must  have 
fallen  into  his  hands.  That  officer  had  been  sent  from  England 
52*  z3 


614  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

to  relieve  Lord  Howe,  who  had  solicited  to  be  recalled;  and 
Byron's  fleet  was  designed  to  reinforce  that  which  had  been 
previously  in  service  on  the  coast  of  America.  Byron  had  met 
with  bad  weather,  and  his  ships  were  separated  by  storms.  They 
now  arrived  in  a  dispersed  and  shattered  condition.  Within 
eight  days  after  the  departure  of  the  French  fleet,  four  British 
ships  of  the  line  arrived  singly  at  Sandy  Hook. 

The  next  attempt  of  D'Estaing  was  against  Rhode  Island, 
of  which  the  British  had  been  in  possession  since  December,  1776. 
A  combined  attack  by  sea  and  land  was  projected,  in  which  it 
was  agreed  that  General  Sullivan  should  command  the  American 
land  forces.  Such  was  the  eagerness  of  the  people  of  New  Eng- 
land to  cooperate  with  their  new  allies,  and  so  confident  were 
they  of  success,  that  some  thousands  of  volunteers  engaged  in 
the  service.  The  militia  of  Massachusetts  were  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Hancock.  The  royal  troops  on  the  Island, 
having  been  lately  reinforced,  were  about  six  thousand.  Sullivan's 
force  was  about  ten  thousand.  Lord  Howe  followed  D'Estaing, 
and  came  within  sight  of  Rhode  Island  the  day  after  the  French 
fleet  entered  the  harbor  of  Newport.  •>  The  British  fleet  exceeded 
the  'French  in  number  of  ships,  but  was  inferior  in  effective  force 
and  weight  of  metal.  On  the  appearance  of  Howe,  the  French 
admiral  put  to  sea  with  his  whole  fleet  to  engage  him.  While 
the  two  commanders  were  exerting  their  naval  skill  to  gain  re- 
spectively the  advantages  of  position,  a  strong  gale  of  wind  came 
on  which  greatly  damaged  both  fleets.  In  this  conflict  of  the 
elements,  two  large  French  ships  were  dismasted.  A  partial 
engagement  took  place,  but  no  vessel  was  captured  on  either  side. 
The  British  suffered  less  in  the  storm  than  their  adversaries;  yet 
enough  to  make  it  necessary  to  return  to  New  York.  The  French 
fleet  came  to  anchor  on  the  20th  of  August,  near  Rhode  Island ; 
but  sailed  on  the  22d  for  Boston.  Before  their  departure,  Generals 
Greene  and  La  Fayette  went  on  board  the  admiral  ship  to  consult 
on  measures  proper  to  be  pursued.  They  urged  D'Estaing  to 
return  with  his  fleet  into  the  harbor;  but  his  principal  officers 
opposed  the  measure.  He  had  been  instructed  to  go  to  Boston  if 
his  fleet  met  with  any  misfortune.  His  officers  insisted  on  his 
ceasing  to  prosecute  the  expedition  against  Rhode  Island. 

The  American  officers  protested  against  withdrawing  the  fleet 
to  Boston,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  by  a  diligent  cooperation 
of  the  land  and  sea  forces,  Rhode  Island  might  have  been  sub- 
dued. To  the  great  dissatisfaction  and  chagrin  of  the  Americans, 
they  were  unable  to  prevail  upon  the  French  commander,  and 
the  opportunity  of  striking  a  decisive  blow  was  lost.  In  conse- 


EXPEDITION   TO    RHODE   ISLAND. 


615 


quence,  it  became  necessary  for  the  Americans  to  retreat  from  the 
island.  Sullivan  drew  off  his  army  from  the  camp  with  great 
order,  but  he  had  not  been  five  hours  at  the  north  end  of  the 
island,  when  his  troops  were  fired  upon  by  the  British,  who  had 


la  Fayette. 

pursued  them  on  discovering  their  retreat.  By  degrees  the  action 
became  general,  and  near  twelve  hundred  Americans  were  en- 
gagted,  and  the  British  were  repulsed.  The  loss  on  each  side  was 
between  two  and  three  hundred. 

Lord  Howe's  fleet,  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  and  four  thousand 
troops  on  board,  being  seen  off  the  coast,  Sullivan  hurried  the 
evacuation  of  Rhode  Island.  As  the  sentries  of  both  armies  were 
within  four  hundred  yards  of  each  other,  the  greatest  caution  was 
necessary.  To  cover  the  design  of  retreating,  the  show  of  resist- 
ance was  kept  up,  and  on  the  night  of  the  28th  of  August,  the 
army  decamped  from  the  island  in  such  perfect  order  that  not  the 
smallest  article  of  camp  equipage  was  left  behind. 

With  the  abortive  expedition  to  Rhode  Island,  there  was  an 
end  to  the  plans  of  this  first  campaign  of  the  allies.  The  Amer- 
icans had  been  intoxicated  with  hopes  of  the  most  decided  success 
from  their  united  arms,  but  in  every  instance  they  were  disap- 
pointed. Lord  Howe,  with  an  inferiority  of  .force,  not  only  pre- 
served his  own  fleet,  but  defeated  all  the  attempts  of  D'Estaing. 
The  French  fleet  gained  no  victories  for  the  Americans ;  yet  its 
arrival  was  of  some  service  to  their  cause,  by  deranging  the  plans 
of  the  British.  Clinton,  finding  that  the  Americans  had  left 


616  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Rhode  Island,  returned  to  New  York ;  but  despatched  General 
Grey  to  New  Bedford  and  the  neighborhood,  where  several  Amer- 
ican privateers  resorted.  Here  the  British  landed,  and  destroyed 
seventy  sail  of  shipping  and  other  small  craft.  They  also  burnt 
magazines,  wharves,  stores,  warehouses,  vessels  on  the  stocks,  and 
many  dwelling-houses.  They  then  proceeded  to  Martha's  Vine- 
yard, where  they  destroyed  a  few  vessels,  obtained  considerable 
plunder  in  arms  and  cash,  with  three  hundred  oxen  and  two 
thousand  sheep. 

One  of  the  most  disastrous  events  which  occurred  at  this  period 
of  the  campaign,  was  the  surprise  and  massacre  of  an  American 
regiment  of  light  dragoons,  commanded  by  Colonel  Baylor. 
While  employed  in  a  detached  situation,  to  intercept  and  watch  a 
British  foraging  party,  they  took  up  their  lodging  in  a  barn  near 
Tappaan,  on  the  Hudson.  General  Grey  commanded  the  British. 
He  acquired  the  name  of  the  "No-flint  General,"  from  the  com- 
mon practice  of  ordering  his  men  to  take  the  flints  out  of  their 
muskets,  and  trust  to  the  bayonet.  A  party  of  militia,  which  had 
been  stationed  on  the  road  by  which  the  British  advanced,  quit- 
ted their  posts  without  giving  any  notice  to  Colonel  Baylor.  This 
disorderly  conduct  was  the  occasion  of  the  disaster  which  fol- 
lowed. Grey's  men  proceeded  with  such  silence,  that  they  cut  off 
a  sergeant's  patrol,  and  surrounded  Tappaan,  without  being  dis- 
covered. They  then  rushed  in  upon  Baylor's  regiment  while 
they  were  in  a  profound  sleep,  and  incapable  of  defence.  The 
surprised  dragoons  cried  for  quarter.  But,  unmoved  by  their 
supplications,  the  British  despatched  nearly  the  whole  of  them 
with  the  bayonet.  A  few  escaped,  and  others,  after  having 
received  from  five  to  eleven  wounds,  were  restored  in  a  course  of 
time  to  perfect  health.  Baylor  himself  was  wounded,  but  not 
dangerously.  He  lost  in  killed,  wounded  and  taken,  sixty-seven 
privates  out  of  one  hundred  and  four. 

In  the  summer  of  1777,  an  expedition  was  undertaken  against 
Florida,  which  had  been  ceded  by  Spain  to  Great  Britain  in  1763. 
General  Robert  Howe,  who  conducted  this  enterprise,  had  under 
him  about  two  thousand  men,  a  few  hundreds  of  whom  were  conti- 
nental troops,  and  the  remainder  militia  of  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia.  They  proceeded  as  far  as  St.  Mary's  river  without 
much  opposition.  At  this  place  the  British  had  a  fort,  which,  on 
the  approach  of  the  Americans,  they  destroyed,  and  after  some 
slight  skirmishing,  retreated  towards  St.  Augustine.  The  climate 
was  more  fatal  to  the  Americans  than  any  opposition  from  their 
enemies.  Sickness  and  death  raged  to  such  a  degree,  that  an 


618  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

immediate  retreat  became  necessary ;  but  before  this  was  effected, 
they  lost  nearly  one-fourth  of  their  whole  number. 

Hitherto,  the  conquest  of  the  states  had  been  attempted  by  pro- 
ceeding from  north  to  south ;  but  that  order  was  now  reversed, 
and  the  southern  states  became  the  theatre  of  war.  Georgia, 
being  one  of  the  weakest  states  in  the  union,  and  at  the  same 
time  abounding  in  provisions,  was  marked  out  as  the  first  object 
of  attack.  Lieutenant  Colonel  Campbell,  an  officer  of  courage 
and  ability,  embarked  from  New  York  for  Savannah,  November 
27th,  1777,  with  a  force  of  about  two  thousand  men,  and  a  fleet 
under  Commodore  Hyde  Parker.  At  the  same  time,  Major  Gen- 
eral Prevost,  who  commanded  the  royal  forces  in  East  Florida, 
was  directed  to  advance  into  the  southern  part  of  Georgia.  The 
fleet  from  New  York  effected  a  landing  about  the  middle  of 
December,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Savannah.  From  the 
landing-place,  a  narrow  causeway  of  six  hundred  yards  in  length, 
with  a  ditch  on  each  side,  led  through  a  swamp.  A  body  of  the 
British  light  infantry  moved  forward  along  this  causeway.  On 
their  advance  they  received  a  heavy  fire  from  a  small  party, 
posted  for  the  purpose  of  impeding  their  passage ;  but  the  British 
forced  them  to  retreat.  General  Howe,  the  American  comman- 
der, posted  his  little  army,  consisting  of  about  six  hundred  regu- 
lars and  a  few  militia,  between  the  landing-place  and  Savannah, 
with  the  river  on  his  left,  and  a  morass  in  front.-  This  disposition 
checked  the  approach  of  the  British.  While  Campbell  hesitated 
in  his  attack,  he  received  intelligence  from  a  negro,  of  a  private 
path  through  the  swamp,  on  the  right  of  the  Americans,  where  he 
might  pass  unseen.  Sir  James  Baird,  with  the  light  infantry, 
was  despatched  by  this  route  to  turn  the  right  wing  of  the 
Americans,  and  attack  their  rear.  As  soon  as  it  was  supposed 
that  Baird  had  cleared  this  passage,  the  British  in  front  advanced 
to  the  assault.  Howe,  finding  himself  attacked  in  front  and  rear, 
was  obliged  to  retreat.  The  British  pursued  and  gained  a  com- 
plete victory.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  of  the  Americans  were 
killed.  Thirty-eight  officers,  four  hundred  and  fifteen  privates, 
forty-eight  pieces  of  cannon,  twenty-three  mortars,  the  fort,  with 
its  ammunition  and  stores,  the  shipping  in  the  river,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  provisions,  with  the  capital  of  Georgia,  were  all,  in  the 
space  of  a  few  hours,  in  the  possession  of  the  conquerors.  The 
broken  remains  of  the  American  army  retreated  up  the  river 
Savannah  for  several  miles,  and  then  took  shelter  by  crossing  into 
South  Carolina.  . 

Campbell  acted  with  great  policy  in  securing  the  submission  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Georgia.  He  not  only  put  an  end  to  military 


SUBJUGATION    OF    GEORGIA. 


619 


opposition,  but  removed  for  some  time  every  trace  of  republican 
government  in  the  colony,  and  paved  the  way  for  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  a  royal  legislature.  Georgia,  soon  after  the  reduction  of 
its  capital,  exhibited  a  singular  spectacle.  It  was  the  only  state 
of  the  union  in  which,  after  the  declaration  of  independence,  a 
legislative  body  was  convened  under  the  authority  of  the  crown 
of  Great  Britain. 


CHAPTER     LXIII. 


Marauding  expeditions  of  the  British  in  Virginia  and  Connecticut. — Adventure  oj 
General  Putnam. — Exploits  of  Paul  Jones. —  Capture  of  Stony  Point. — Expe- 
dition of  Saltonstall  and  Lovell  to  the  Penobscot. —  Campaign  in  the  South  — 
Invasion  of  South  Carolina. — Repulse  of  D'Estaing  from  Savannah. — Pulaski 
and  Kosciusko. — Capture  of  Charleston  by  the  British. — Ravages  of  war  in 
Carolina. — Barbarity  of  Tarleton. — Arrival  of  DeTiernay  and  Rochambeau 
from  France. — Transactions  in  the  Jerseys. —  Continental  paper  currency. — 
Gates  appointed  to  the  command  in  the  south. — Defeat  of  the  Americans  at 
Camden. — Sufferings  of  the  Carolinians. — Battle  'of  King's  Mountain,  and 
defeat  of  the  British. — A  British  force  arrives  in  the  Chesapeake. — Capture  of 
Mr.  Laurens. 


Six 

THIS  Bill  entitles  * 
DcareT  to  Tec«M 


SIS  SPANISH  NULLED 
DOLLARS*  or  iVie 
VtOue  thereof  in  GOLD 
or  SILVEfl'«Mor<iin#  to 
dResolufi-on  Of 
GRESS  pi&li&ltl  Phi 
l<«lelij)ti.o  Now-2'  1776 


Continental  money. 

THE  predatory  excursions  of  the  year  1779,  were  begun  early  in 
the  summer.  An  expedition  to  the  Chesapeake,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  George  Collier,  of  the  navy,  and  General  Mathews, 
of  the  army,  served  no  other  purpose  than  to  alarm  and  distress 
the  towns  of  Portsmouth,  Suffolk,  and  other  places  in  Virginia. 
The  pleasant  line  of  towns  bordering  Long  Island  Sound,  in  Con- 
necticut, were  the  next  objects  of  plunder  and  conflagration. 
About  the  beginning  of  July,  Governor  Tryon,  with  a  number  of 


ADVENTURE  OF  GENERAL  PUTNAM. 


521 


disaffected  Americans,  and  General  Garth,  with  a  ravaging  party 
of  British  troops  and  Germans,  landed  at  New  Haven,  took  pos- 
session of  the  town,  plundered  and  insulted  the  inhabitants,  on 
whom  every  outrage  was  perpetrated.  Leaving  New  Haven,  they 
repaired  to  Fairfield,  where  they  landed  on  the  seventh  of  the 
month.  This  place  suffered  a  still  more  cruel  fate.  The  houses 
were  rifled,  the  inhabitants  abused,  and  after  the  general  pillage 
and  burning  of  everything  valuable  in  the  town,  some  of  these 
miserable  victims  were  found  half  distracted  in  the  swamps  and 
fields,  whither  they  had  fled  in  the  agonies  of  despair.  This 
band  of  marauders  were  by  no  means  satiated  by  the  distresses 
of  New  Haven  and  Fairfield ;  the  neighboring  towns  of  Norwalk 
and  Greenfield  suffered  a  similar  fate ;  the  \vaste  of  property  in 
shipping  and  merchandise  was  there  still  greater.  The  whole 
coast,  equally  defenceless  and  exposed  to  their  ravages,  expected 
the  same  horrors.  General  Putnam,  with  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  men,  was  attacked  at  Horse  Neck,  by  Tryon,  at  the  head  of 
a  body  of  fifteen  hundred  British.  Putnam  took  his  station  on  a 
high  ground  near  the  meeting-house,  and  by  a  well-directed  fire, 
kept  the  enemy  in  check  for  some  time.  At  length,  finding  their 
force  overwhelming,  and  a  strong  body  of  dragoons  close  upon 
him,  ready  to  charge,  he  ordered  his  men  to  withdraw  rapidly  into 
a  neighboring  swamp  inaccessible  to  cavalry.  Being  mounted 
himself,  he  plunged  fearlessly  down  a  steep  flight  of  a  hundred 


Adventure  of  Putnam. 

stone  steps  on  the  side  of  the  hill.    The  dragoons  dared  not  follow 

him,  and  before  they  could  descend  by  another  route,  Putnam  was 

in  safety,  far  beyond  their  reach,  notwithstanding   a  shower  of 

53  A  4 


622  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

bullets  which  were  discharged  at  him.  Arriving  at  Stamford,  he 
raised  the  militia,  and  pursued  Tryon,  who  shortly  retreated  to 
New  York. 

In  naval  affairs,  the  Americans  had  met  with  much  success  by 
means  of  their  small  privateers,  which  greatly  annoyed  the  com- 
merce of  the  British,  and  beriefitted  the  colonists  by  the  capture 
of  many  valuable  prizes,  not  only  of  merchant  ships,  but  also  of 
store-ships  and  transports,  laden  with  arms,  ammunition  and 
supplies,  for  the  British  armies.  The  most  famous  among  the 
American  naval  commanders,  was  John  Paul  Jones,  a  native  of 
Scotland,  who  had  settled  in  Virginia  previous  to  the  breaking  out 
of  the  revolution.  He  received  the  first  appointment  of  Lieuten- 
ant in  the  American  navy,  and  was  so  successful  in  his  early 
cruises  with  a  small  vessel,  in  1776,  that  he  was  sent  by  congress 
to  France  the  next  year,  where  he  obtained  a  larger  vessel,  and 
in  1778.  sailed  for  the  coast  of  Scotland.  Here  he  kept  the  coun- 
try in  a  constant  state  of  alarm,  captured  Whitehaven,  with  two 
forts  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  burnt  the  shipping  in  the 
harbor.  He  returned  to  Brest  with  two  hundred  prisoners.  In 
1779,  he  put  to  sea  again,  in  the  frigate  Bon  Homme  Richard, 
and  on  the  23d  of  September,  fought  his  celebrated  action  with 
the  British  frigate  Serapis,  off  Flamborough  Head,  on  the  coast 


Paul  Jones, 


of  England.  The  Serapis  was  much  superior  in  strength  to  the 
Richard.  This  was  the  most  desperate  naval  battle  ever  fought 
The  ships  were  grappled  together,  and  the  guns  met  muzzle  to 


BATTLE  OF  STONY  POINT.  623 

muzzle.  Jones's  ship  lost  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  killed  and 
wounded,  most  of  the  latter  mortally.  The  loss  of  the  Serapis 
was  quite  as  great.  Victory  decided  for  the  Americans ;  hut  the 
Bon  Homme  Richard  was  so  shattered,  that  she  sunk  immediately 
after,  and  the  victors  saved  themselves  on  hoard  their  prize. 

Meantime,  Washington  had  kept  himself  on  the  defensive  in 
New  Jersey,  but  without  a  movement  for  any  capital  stroke  after 
the  derangement  of  a  well-concerted  plan  of  an  attack  on  New 
York.  He  had  expected  the  aid  of  the  French  squadron  from 
the  West  Indies ;  the  militia  of  several  states  had  been  collected  to 
assist  in  the  design;  the  army  was  in  high  spirits;  sanguine 
expectations  were  formed ;  and  everything  promised  success  to 
the  enterprise.  But  the  Count  D'Estaing,  instead  of  cooperating 
with  Washington  and  covering  his  attempt  on  New  York,  thought 
proper  to  attempt  the  reduction  of  Georgia,  on  his  way.  His 
attack  on  Savannah,  his  unexpected  repulse  and  retreat,  which 
we  shall  presently  relate,  not  only  retarded,  but  totally  prevented 
the  movements  contemplated  by  Washington,  whose  designs 
caused  great  alarm  to  Clinton,  and  induced  him  to  order  the 
evacuation  of  Newport,  and  draw  off  all  his  troops  from  that 
quarter. 

These  circumstances  put  it  out  of  the  power  of  Washington  to 
prosecute  the  scheme  he  had  meditated.  The  militia  were 
dismissed,  and  many  of  the  regular  troops  returned  home  as  usual 
at  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  enlistment.  Clinton  had  made 
several  attempts  to  draw  the  American  commander  from  his 
strong  post  in  the  Jerseys,  by  desultory  invasions  and  depreda- 
tions on  the  defenceless  sea-coast.  But  Washington  knew  the 
advantages  he  might  lose  by  weakening  the  main  body  of  his 
army,  and  was  too  wise  to  be  ensnared  by  the  manoeuvres  of  the 
British  commander. 

The  cause  of  Sir  George  Collier's  speedy  recall  from  ravag- 
ing the  coast  of  Virginia,  was  a  design  to  unite  him  with  General 
Vaughan,  in  an  expedition  up  the  Hudson.  Vaughan,  who  had 
before  distinguished  himself  in  that  quarter,  still  commanded  on 
the  Hudson.  On  the  arrival  of  Collier  with  his  fleet,  they  united, 
and  immediately  made  themselves  masters,  of  Stony  Point,  and 
the  post  on  Verplank's  Neck.  These  forts  had  been  dismantled 
the  preceding  autumn,  by  Clinton,  but  the  Americans  had  in  part 
repaired  the  works.  In  their  defence  they  behaved  with  resolu- 
tion ;  but  as  their  numbers  were  inconsiderable  and  their  works 
unfinished,  they  soon  surrendered.  Washington,  ordered  a  detach- 
ment, under  General  Wayne,  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  Stony 
Point.  This  enterprise  was  conducted  in  a  bold  manner.  The 


624 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


soldiers  were  directed  not  to  load  their  pieces,  but  to  depend  on 
the  bayonet.  One  man,  who  appeared  discontented  at  the  order, 
was  instantly  shot.  Though  this  summary  mode  of  punishment 
was  severe,  it  was  designed  to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood. 
Doubtless,  had  the  British  been  early  alarmed  by  the  fire  of  the 
American  arms,  the  carnage  would  have  been  greater. 


Battle  of  Stony  Point. 

The  works  had  been  repaired  and  strengthened  with  great 
expedition,  and  two  British  regiments,  some  loyal  Americans,  and 
several  companies  of  artillery  were  left  as  a  garrison  by  General 
Vaughan.  On  the  evening  of  the  5th  of  July,  after  a  difficult  and 
hazardous  march,  Wayne  surprised  and  recovered  the  fort  at 
Stony  Point,  in  spite  of  the  resolute  defence  of  the  British.  The 
acquisition  of  this  post  was  more  creditable  than  useful  to  the 
Americans.  An  attempt  to  maintain  it  would  have  been  fruitless. 
It  had  been  previously  determined,  in  a  council  of  war,  that  on 
the  success  of  Wayne,  the  works  should  be  demolished  arid  the 
stores  brought  off,  which  was  accordingly  done. 

Several  manoeuvres  took  place  about  this  time  near  New 
York  and  the  more  central  parts  of  the  country,  which  kept  up 
the  spirit  of  enterprise  and  the  honor  of  the  American  arms;  but 
a  more  important  affair  occupied  the  public  attention  in  the  east- 
ern states.  A  Colonel  Maclean  had  been  sent  with  a  party  of 
British  troops  from  Halifax,  to  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penob- 
scot.  He  erected  a  fort  and  established  a  strong  post  in  a  con- 
venient situation  for  harassing  the  trade  and "  distressing  the 
settlements  in  the  neighborhood.  When  this  intelligence  was 
received  at  Boston,  the  hardy  and  enterprising  men  of  Massachu- 


EXPEDITION   TO   THE   PENOBSCOT.  625 

setts  made  immediate  preparation  to  dislodge  the  enemy.  Within 
ten  days  after  Maclean's  attempt  was  known  at  Boston,  the 
Warren,  a  handsome  new  frigate,  commanded  by  Commodore 
Saltonstall,  and  seventeen  other  public  and  private  ships,  were 
equipped  and  ready  for  sea.  They  were  accompanied  by  a 
number  of  transports,  with  a  considerable  body  of  land,  forces, 
who  embarked  in  high  spirits,  and  with  the  sanguine  expectation 
of  a  short  and  successful  campaign.  The  expedition  was  princi- 
pally conducted  by  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  continental  navy  board  would  not  consent  to  hazard 
the  public  ships,  unless  the  commanding  officers  were  ordered  to 
execute  their  design  immediately.  They  were  apprehensive  that 
any  delay  might  give  opportunity  for  the  British  to  send  a  supe- 
rior force  from  New  York.  By  the  dilatory  conduct  of  the 
Americans,  they  did  not  reach  the  Penobscot  till  the  25th  of  July, 
1779.  A  few  days  afterwards,  Sir  George  Collier,  with  a  heavy 
squadron  from  New  York,  appeared  for  the  relief  of  Maclean. 

General  Lovell,  who  commanded  the  American  land  troops, 
was  a  man  of  little  military  experience,  and  took  no  effective 
measures  to  dislodge  the  British  from  their  post,  or  in  any  way  to 
complete  an  undertaking  that  required  decision,  promptitude  and 
judgment.  Commodore  Saltonstall  showed  even  less  activity, 
talent  and  decision  than  Lovell.  Thus,  by  the  shameful  delay 
of  both,  and  to  the  mortification  of  the  brave  officers  who  accom- 
panied them,  the  expedition  terminated  in  the  disgrace  of  both 
army  and  navy,  and  the  total  destruction  of  the  fleet.  On  the 
first  appearance  of  Collier,  the  American  shipping  moved  up  the 
river,  with  a  show  of  resistance,  but  in  reality  to  enable  the  men 
to  escape  by  land.  Two  of  their  best  ships  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  British ;  the  remainder  were  burnt  by  the  crews.  The 
panic-stricken  troops,  after  leaving  their  own  ships,  chagrined  at 
the  conduct  of  Saltonstall  and  Lovell,  made  their  escape  through 
the  woods,  in  small  parties  of  soldiers  and  sailors.  After  much 
fatigue,  hunger  and  difficulty,  they  reached  the  settlements  on  the 
Kennebec,  and  brought  the  intelligence  of  their  own  defeat. 

It  was  not  in  the  power  of  the  infant  states  to  repair  their  mar- 
itime loss  during  the  war ;  and  to  complete  the  ruin  of  their  little 
navy,  some  of  their  best  ships  were  lost  in  the  defence  of 
Charleston,  the  year  following,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter.  What 
added  to  the  mortification  caused  by  this  last  calamity  was, 
that  these  ships  were  prepared  and  ready  to  sail,  in  order  to 
prosecute  a  very  flattering  expedition  projected  b'y  the  navy  board, 
in  the  eastern  department,  when  they  received  an  express  order 
from  Congress  to  send  them  to  South  Carolina. 
53* 


4 
626  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  hazardous  situation  of  Georgia,  and  the  imminent  danger 
of  South  Carolina,  had  spread  a  wide  alarm.  General  Lincoln 
had  been  sent  forward  to  take  the  command  in  the  southern 
department.  He  reached  Savannah  a  short  time  after  Colonel 


General  Lincoln. 

Campbell's  arrival  there ;  but  he  found  himself  not  in  so  eligible 
a  situation  as  might  have  been  wished.  The  number  of  troops 
under  his  command  fell  far  short  of  his  expectation ;  the  artillery 
and  stores  were  insufficient ;  and  every  difficulty  was  enhanced 
by  the  want  of  order  and  discipline  in  the  militia,  who  refused  to 
submit  to  the  necessary  subordination  of  armies;  they  left  their 
posts  and  retired  at  pleasure.  Lincoln  maintained  his  character 
for  bravery  and  good  conduct  under  a  variety  of  disappointments. 
He  was,  however,  forced  into  a  circuitous  march  from  place  to 
place,  by  the  rapid  movements  of  General  Prevost  through  the 
state  of  Georgia,  until  he  was  obliged  to  move  with  more  serious 
prospects  towards  Charleston. 

The  British  seized  a  moment  of  advantage ;  suddenly  crossed 
the  Savannah  at  different  points,  and  penetrated  into  South 
Carolina,  with  little  or  no  opposition.  A  party  under  Colonel 
Moultrie,  consisting  chiefly  of  militia,  on  seeing  themselves 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  British  troops,  retreated  hastily,  and 
secured  themselves  within  the  city  of  Charleston.  Prevost  hav- 
ing succeeded  even  beyond  his  most  sanguine  expectations,  and 
prompted  by  the  importunities  of  the  loyalists,  formed  the  bold 
resolution  of  marching  directly  upon  Charleston.  He  crossed  the 


SIEGE    OF    SAVANNAH.  627 

river  Ashley  on  the  llth  of  May,  1779,  and  within  a  few  days, 
summoned  Charleston  to  surrender.  He  had  every  assurance 
from  the  disaffected  Americans  that  the  city  would  submit  with- 
out resistance.  Prevost  did  not  immediately  succeed  to  (he  full 
completion  of  his  hopes ;  but,  on  the  first  summons,  the  citizens 
assured  him  that  no  opposition  should  be  made,  provided  they 
might  be  permitted  to  continue  in  a  state  of  neutrality  till  the 
conclusion  of  the  war. 

This  was  the  only  instance  in  America  of  an  offer  made  so 
derogatory  to  the  honor  of  the  union.  No  single  state,  whatever 
might  have  been  its  distress,  ever  expressed  a  wish,  during  the 
contest,  to  be  bound  to  a  neutral  repose,  while  the  other  states 
were  making  every  sacrifice  in  support  of  the  common  cause. 
The  conduct  of  the  citizens  of  Charleston  cannot  be  accounted 
for,  but  from  the  momentary  panic  to  which  communities  are 
liable,  when  sudden  danger  presses  upon  them.  Prevost,  en- 
couraged by  success,  and  animated  with  the  hope  of  subduing 
Charleston,  rejected  the  offer  of  neutrality,  and  all  further  negoti- 
ation ceased.  The  city  immediately  recovered  its  former  spirit, 
and  preparation  was  made  on  both  sides  for  the  most  vigorous 
attack  and  defence, 

Lincoln  had  been  slow  in  his  movements,  in  consequence  of  a 
belief  that  Prevost  had  no  farther  design  in  crossing  the  Savannah 
than  to  procure  forage  and  provisions.  But  soon  finding  more 
serious  consequences  were  to  be  expected,  he  pushed  onward  his 
whole  force  with  so  much  alacrity  that  Prevost  thought  it  pru- 
dent to  withdraw  from  Charleston,  lest  his  retreat  should  be  cut 
off.  He  encamped  his  troops  on  the  islands  near  the  harbor,  in 
anxious  expectation  of  reinforcements  from  New  York.  This 
being  delayed  until  the  advance  of  the  summer  heats  and  the 
sickly  season  of  that  country,  all  active  hostilities  were  suspended 
for  1779  in  Carolina.  Affairs  in  Georgia  requiring  his  presence, 
Prevost  repaired  thither  soon  after  the  siege  of  Charleston  was 
raised.  He  left  a  force  in  Port  Royal,  to  encourage  his  friends  by 
keeping  up  the  appearance  of  some  permanent  establishment  in 
that  province.  But  early  in  the  autumn,  the  unexpected  arrival 
of  the  squadron  under  Count  D'Estaing,  on  the  southern  coast, 
gave  the  most  flattering  promise  to  the  Americans  of  a  new  turn 
of  affairs  in  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas. 

D'Estaing,  on  his  arrival  in  the  Savannah,  in  September,  1779, 
landed  his  troops  with  all  possible  expedition,  and  in  conjunction 
with  the  Americans,  laid  siege  to  the  capital  .of  Georgia.  On  the 
16th  of  September  he  demanded  a  surrender  of  Savannah.  The 
place  was  not  very  strongly  fortified,  but  Prevost  resolved  not  to 


028  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

yield  but  at  the  last  extremity.  He  returned  a  polite,  but  evasive 
answer  to  the  French  commander ;  and  had  the  address  to  obtain 
a  truce  of  twenty- four  hours  to  deliberate.  In  this  interval,  the 
arrival  of  Colonel  Maitland,  with  a  body  of  troops  from  Port 
Royal,  put  an  end  to  the  deliberation.  The  most  resolute  defence 
was  made,  and  D'Estaing  proceeded  to  bombard  the  place.  On 
the  llth  of  October,  an  attempt  was  made  to  carry  it  by  storm, 
but  the  assailants  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  They, 
however,  kept  up  the  appearance  of  a  blockade  until  the  16th, 
when  they  requested  a  truce  to  carry  off  their  dead  and  wounded. 
This  was  readily  granted.  The  conflict  had  been  bloody,  indeed, 
and  both  sides  equally  wished  for  repose.  Soon  after,  the  French 
and.  Americans  took  advantage  of  a  dark  and  foggy  night,  and 
retreated  with  all  possible  precipitation,  breaking  down  the  bridges 
as  they  passed,  to  prevent  a  pursuit. 

D'Estaing  had  now  an  opportunity  to  survey  the  condition  of 
his  fleet;  when  he  found  the  sailors  sickly  and  dispirited;  nor 
was  the  army  less  so,  from  the  unhealthiness  of  the  climate,  and 
the  failure  of  their  late  enterprise.  D'Estaing  himself  had  been 
wounded  in  the  course  of  the  siege,  and  had  lost  several  of  his 
best  officers  and  many  men.  This  disaster  deeply  affected  the 
French  commander.  He  left  the  coast  of  Georgia,  and  shortly 
afterwards  gave  up  all  his  designs  of  conquest  in  America,  and 
left  the  country,  never  to  return.  Among  those  who  fell  at  the 
siege  of  Savannah,  was  Count  Pulaski,  a  Polish  nobleman,  cele- 
brated for  his  bravery  and  enterprising  spirit,  not  only  in  America, 
but  in  his  own  country.  He  had  once,  amid  the  fierce  contests  of 
the  Polanders,  seized  on  the  person  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and 
for  a  time  held  him  his  prisoner,  though  he  had  only  two  or  three 
associates.  One  of  these  betrayed  him,  and  the  king  was  rescued. 
The  count  was  obliged  to  fly  his  country,  and  a  few  years  after 
he  repaired  to  America.  Pulaski  was  not  the  only  officer  of  his 
natjon  who  distinguished  himself  in  the  American  war.  Kos- 
ciusko,  for  his  firmness,  valor,  and  sufferings,  merits  particular 
notice.  He  was  amiable  and  virtuous,  as  well  as  brave,  and 
maintained  a  character  that  will  not  be  passed  over  in  silence  in 
the  history  of  either  Poland  or  America. 

From  the  unavoidable  inactivity  of  the  Americans  in  some 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  the  misfortunes  that  had  attended 
their  arms  in  others,  in  the  summer  of  1779,  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
was  left  without  any  impediment  to  prosecute  his  expedition  to 
the  southern  colonies.  The  opulence  of  the  planters  there,  the 
want  of  discipline  in  their  militia,  the  difficulty  of  reinforcing 
them,  and  the  sickly  state  of  the  inhabitants,  promised  an  easy 


SURRENDER   OF   CHARLESTON. 

conquest,  and  a  rich  harvest  to  their  invaders.  In  December, 
1779,  Clinton  embarked  from  New  York,  with  a  strong  body  of 
troops,  and  a  squadron  under  Admiral  Arbuthnot ;  but  they  pro- 
ceeded slowly  on  their  way;  and  it  was  not  until  the  ensuing 
spring  was  far  advanced  that  the  admiral  arrived  before  Charles- 
ton. The  first  summons  to  surrender,  on  the  16th  of  April,  1780, 
was  rejected  by  General  Lincoln,  the  American  commander, 
though  it  announced  the  threat  of  a  cannonade  and  storm.  The 
most  vigorous  operations  then  ensued  on  both  sides,  but  with 
great  advantage  in  favor  of  the  British,  till  the  eighth  of  May, 
when  Clinton  again  summoned  the  American  commander  to 
prevent  the  further  effusion  of  blood,  by  an  immediate  surrender. 
He  warned  him  that,  "  if  he  refused  this  last  summons,  he  should 
throw  on  him  the  charge  of  whatever  vindictive  severity  an  exas- 
perated soldiery  might  inflict  on  the  unhappy  people."  Lincoln 
summoned  a  council  of  war,  who  were  unanimously  of  opinion 
that  articles  of  capitulation  should  be  proposed.  Some  of  the 
terms  offered  were  rejected,  others  were  mutilated,  and  all  relaxa- 
tion or  qualification  being  refused  by  the  British  commander,  it 
was  unanimously  agreed  that  hostilities  should  re-commence. 
Accordingly,  an  incessant  fire  was  kept  up  from  the  9th  to  the 
1 1th  of  May,  when  an  address  from  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
the  town  and  a  number  of  the  country  militia  expressed  their 
satisfaction  with  the  terms  already  offered  by  Clinton.  At  the 
same  time,  the  lieutenant-governor  and  council  requested  that 
negotiations  might  be  renewed,  and  that  they  might  not  be  sub- 
jected to  the  horrors  of  a  city  taken  by  storm.  The  militia  had 
thrown  away  their  arms ;  the  troops  on  the  lines  were  worn  down 
with  fatigue,  and  their  provisions  were  exhausted.  Thus  closely 
invested  on  every  side,  a  disaffected,  factious  party  within,  no 
hopes  of  succor  from  without,  and  all  possibility  of  retreat  cut 
off,  Lincoln  again  offered  terms,  and  Charleston  was  surrendered 
on  the  12th  of  May,  1780. 

Though  the  conditions  were  not  the  most  favorable  to  the 
inhabitants,  nor  honorable  to  the  soldiery,  yet,  perhaps,  they  were 
as  lenient  as  could  be  expected  from  an  enemy  confident  of  suc- 
cess. The  continental  troops  were  to  retain  their  baggage,  but  to 
remain  prisoners  of  war  until  exchanged.  Seven  general  officers 
were  among  the  prisoners.  The  inhabitants,  of  all  conditions, 
were  to  be  considered  as  on  parole ;  but  they  soon  experienced 
the  severities  usually  felt  by  a  conquered  city.  All  who  were 
capable  of  bearing  arms  were  enrolled  in  the  British  service;  and 
the  whole  state  was  laid  under  heavy  coniributions.  Before 
Clinton  left  Charleston,  some  new  and  severe  regulations  were 

B4 


630  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

established,  that  could  not  well  be  justified  either  by  the  letter  or 
the  spirit  of  the  capitulation.  All  persons  in  the  city  were  for- 
bidden the  exercise  of  their  commercial  pursuits,  excepting  such 
as  were  friends  of  the  British  government.  Confiscation  and 
death  were  threatened,  by  proclamation,  to  any  who  should  be 
found  in  arms,  unless  in  support  of  royal  authority, 

Clinton,  vainly  flattering  himself  that  he  had  entirely  subdued 
one  wealthy  colony  at  the  extremity  of  the  continent,  and  that 
everything  was  in  a  hopeful  train  for  other  brilliant  strokes  of 
military  prowess,  left  the  command  of  the  southern  forces  to  Lord 
Cornwallis,  and  repaired  to  New  York,  from  whence  he  imme- 
diately detached  a  strong  body,  under  the  command  of  Lord 
Rawdon,  to  Carolina.  Marches,  countermarches,  bloodshed, 
pillage  and  massacre,  had  for  some  months  distressed  all  parts  of 
the  state,  and  whichever  party  gained  the  advantage,  the  inhabi- 
tants were  equally  wretched.  But  a  particular  detail  of  the 
miseries  of  the  southern  states  through  this  period  would  be  more 
painful  than  entertaining  to  the  reader,  and  is  a  task  from  which 
every  writer  of  humanity  would  wish  to  be  excused.  Imagination 
may  easily  paint  the  distress,  when  surveying  a  proud  and  potent 
army,  flushed  with  recent  success,  and  irritated  by  opposition 
from  an  enemy  they  despised ;  their  spirit  of  revenge  continually 
stimulated  by  the  refugees  who  followed  them,  embittered  beyond 
description  against  their  countrymen.  No  partisan  distinguished 
himself  on  either  side  more  than  Colonel  Tarleton,  who  became 
notorious  in  the  ravage  of  the  Carolinas.  He  was  equally 
conspicuous  for  bravery  and  barbarity,  and  had  the  effrontery 
afterwards  in  England  to  boast,  in  the  presence  of  a  lady  of 
respectability,  that  he  had  killed  more  men,  and  ravished  more 
women,  than  any  man  in  America.  Sumter,  Morgan,  Marion, 
Lee,  and  other  brave  officers,  continually  counteracted  the 
intrigues  of  the  loyalists,  and  attacked,  harassed  and  frequently 
defeated  the  British  parties.  Nor  did  the  repulse  in  Georgia,  the 
loss  of  Charleston,  nor  the  armament  sent  to  the  Chesapeake  by 
Sir  Henry  Clinton,  to  aid  Lord  Cornwallis,  check,  in  the  smallest 
degree,  the  vigorous  efforts  of  these  spirited  leaders. 

France  had  this  year  given  a  new  proof  of  her  zeal  in  favor  of 
American  independence.  The  Count  de  Rochambeau  arrived, 
on  the  llth  of  July,  1780,  at  Newport,  with  six  thousand  land 
forces,  and  a  numerous  squadron  commanded  by  Admiral  de 
Tiernay.  They  brought  the  promise  of  further  and  immediate 
support.  Some  ineffectual  movements  were  made  on  both  sides, 
in  consequence  of  these  expectations ;  and  on  the  arrival  of  the 
British  Admiral  Graves,  at  New  York,  with  six  sail  of  the  line 


FINANCIAL   EMBARRASSMENTS   OF    CONGRESS.  631 

and  some  transports,  an  attempt  was  made  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
with  the  assistance  of  these  fresh  reinforcements,  to  attack  the 
French  at  Rhode  Island.  This  plan  was  frustrated  by  Wash- 
ington, who  now  threatened  New  York  with  an  attack.  This  de- 
sign, however,  was  counteracted  by  the  intelligence  from  the  West 
Indies,  that  the  French  Admiral,  De  Guichen,  had  sailed  directly 
for  France,  instead  of  repairing  with  all  his  fleet,  as  was  expected, 
to  aid  the  united  operations  of  Washington  and  Rochambeau.  Ad- 
miral de  Tiernay  died  soon  after  at  Newport.  It  was  thought  by 
many  that  this  brave  officer  fell  a  sacrifice  to  chagrin  and  disap- 
pointment. After  the  failure  of  these  brilliant  hopes;  little  more 
was  done  through  the  summer,  in  the  middle  and  eastern  states, 
except  by  skirmishing  parties,  which  served  only  to  keep  up  the 
hope  of  conquest  on  the  side  of  Britain,  while  it  preserved  alive 
some  military  ardor  in  the  American  army. 

While  thus  situated,  the  British  troops  were  frequently  de- 
tached from  New  York  and  Staten  Island,  to  make  inroads  and 
destroy  the  settlements  in  the  Jerseys.  The  most  important  of 
their  movements  was  in  June,  1780,  when  General  Knyphausen, 
with  about  five  thousand  regular  troops,  aided  by  some  new 
levies,  advanced  upon  the  right  wing  of  the  American  army, 
under  General  Greene.  Their  progress  was  slow  until  they 
arrived  at  Springfield,  where  they  were  checked  by  a  party  of 
Americans.  After  various  manoeuvres  and  skirmishes,  Greene 
took  post  on  a  ridge  of  hills,  from  whence  he  detached  parties  to 
prevent  the  ravages'  of  the  enemy ;  who  committed  all  sorts  of 
havoc  wherever  it  was  in  their  power,  and  retreated  towards 
Elizabethtown.  This  detachment  from  the  British  army  fin- 
ished their  marauding  excursion,  and  recrossed  to  Staten  Island  in 
July. 

The  year  1780,  witnessed  a  combination  of  powers  in  Europe 
against  Great  Britain.  Spain  had  now  declared  war,  and  acted 
with  decision;  and  many  new  indications  among  other  nations 
threatened  both  the  maritime  and  internal  state  of  Great  Britain 
with  serious  troubles.  At  the  same  time  neither  the  pen  of  the 
historian  nor  the  imagination  of  the  reader  can  fully  depict  the 
embarrassments  suffered  by  congress,  by  the  commander-in-chief, 
and  by  men  of  firmness  and  principle  in  the  several  legislative 
bodies,  at  this  period.  These  embarrassments  were  caused  chiefly 
by  financial  troubles.  Specie  was  scarce,  and  the  decline  in  the 
value  of  paper  money  tended  strongly  to  diminish  confidence  in 
all  public  bodies. 

One  of  the  first  proceedings  of  congress,  after  the  commence- 
ment of  hostilities,  was  to  provide  money, — the  sinews  of  war. 


632  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

There  was  hardly  any  specie  in  the  country,  and  it  was  impossi- 
ble to  obtain  loans  in  Europe  on  the  credit  of  an  insurgent  people 
struggling  for  political  existence.  The  only  expedient  was  the 
establishment  of  a  paper  currency,  and  this  was  effected  in  1776. 
Above  twenty  millions  of  paper  dollars  were  issued  the  first  year, 
and,  by  the  end  of  the  year -1781,  more  than  three  hundred  and 
fifty-seven  millions  were  issued.  This  money  had  .nothing  but 
the  authority  of  congress  to  give  it  value,  and  although  no  means 
existed  for  its  redemption,  yet  such  was  the  patriotism  of  the 
people,  that  it  continued  to  pass  current,  in  spite  of  a  constant 
depreciation,  till  the  close  of  the  struggle.  The  ultimate  holders 
of  the  bills  received  nothing  for  them.  Yet,  as  the  decline  in 
their  value  was  gradual,  and  the  loss  common  to  every  one,  the 
proceeding  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  a  new  form  of  taxa- 
tion.- The  continental  currency  proved  one  of  the  most  efficient 
means  of  the  salvation  of  the  country,  and  perhaps  history  does 
not  afford  another  instance  of  so  bold  and  gigantic  a  scheme  of 
finance. 

Immediately  after  the  news  reached  congress,  that  Charleston 
had  surrendered,  the  Baron  de  Kalb,  a  brave  and  experienced 
Russian  officer,  who  had  been  some  time  in  the  American  service, 
was  ordered  to  Virginia,  with  sanguine  hopes  of  checking  the 
further  progress  of  the  British  arms.  General  Gates,  the  success- 
ful conqueror  in  the  north,  was  now  vested  with  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  southern  states ;  it  was  an  appointment  very  popular. 
The  presence  of  an  officer  of  his  fame  and  experience  at  once 
emboldened  the  friends  of  independence  and  intimidated  the 
wavering  and  disaffected.  The  renowned  soldier,  who  had  cap- 
tured one  British  general  and  his  army,  was  at  this  lime  viewed 
with  peculiar  awe  and  respect  by  the  others. 

De  Kalb  had  been  previously  despatched  from  head-quarters ; 
he  led  a  detachment  of  fourteen  hundred  men;  halted  a  few 
weeks  in  Virginia,  and  proceeded  to  Carolina,  where  he  soon 
after  met  General  Gates.  After  the  junction  of  Gates  and  De 
Kalb,  these  officers,  with  unexampled  patience  and  fatigue, 
marched  an  army  of  several  thousand  men  through  a  barren 
country,  that  afforded  no  subsistence  except  green  fruits.  They 
reached  the  borders  of  South  Carolina,  and  encamped  at  Clermont 
on  the  13th  of  August,  1780.  On  his  arrival  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  British  head-quarters,  Gates  published  a  proclamation,  invi- 
ting the  patriotic  inhabitants  of  South  Carolina  to  join  him. 
His  situation  at  Clermont  was  not  very  advantageous,  but  his 
design  was,  by  a  sudden  movement,  to  fall  unexpectedly  on  Lord 
Rawdon,  who  had  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Camden.  This 


BATTLE   OF    CAMDEN. 

place  was  about  thirteen  miles  from  Clermont,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Santee,  from  whence  the  communication  was  easy  to  the  in- 
terior parts  of  the  country. 

Cornwallis  had  gained  intelligence  of  the  movements  of  the 
American  army,  and  had  arrived  at  Camden  himself,  intending 
with  a  sudden  blow  to  surprise  Gates.  He  effected  his  purpose 
with  a  facility  beyond  his  own  expectations.  The  two  armies 
met  at  Camden,  on  the  night  of  the  fifteenth  of  August.  Mu- 
tually surprised  by  the  sudden  necessity  of  action,  a  loose  skir- 
mish was  kept  up  until  morning,  when  a  general  engagement  com- 
menced. The  British  troops  were  not  equal  in  number  to  the 
Americans,  including  their  militia,  while  the  renowned  char- 
acter of  General  Gates  heightened  the  confidence  of  his  troops. 
The  onset  on  both  sides  began  with  equal  spirit  and  bravery,  and 
was  continued  with  valor  equally  honorable  to  both  parties,  until 
the  militia  gave  way,  threw  down  their  arms  and  fled.  The 
order  of  the  army  was  immediately  broken,  and  the  utter  defeat 
of  the  Americans  was  the  immediate  consequence.  De  Kalb  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  rejoicing  in  the  services  he  had  ren- 
dered America.  The  proportion  of  slain  among  the  Americans 
was  much  greater  than  among  the  British.  Brigadier  General 
Gregory  was  killed,  with  several  other  brave  officers.  The  total 
rout  of  the  Americans  was  completed  by  the  pursuit  and  destruc- 
tion of  a  corps  at  some  distance  from  the  scene  of  the  battle,  com- 
manded by  Colonel  Sumter. 

Censure  for  a  time  fell  heavily  on  General  Gates,  for  the  pre- 
cipitation of  his  retreat.  He  scarcely  halted  until  he  reached 
Hillsborough,  an  hundred  miles  from  the  field  of  battle.  Yet 
neither  the  courage  nor  the  fidelity  of  the  long  tried  veteran  could 
be  called  in  question;  the  strongest  human  fortitude  has  fre- 
quently suffered  a  momentary  eclipse  from  that  panic  under  which 
the  mind  of  man  sometimes  unaccountably  falls,  when  there  is  no 
real  or  obvious  cause  of  despair.  Gates,  though  he  had  lost  the 
day  at  Camden,  lost  no  part  of  his  courage,  vigilance,  or  firmness. 
After  he  reached  Hillsborough,  he  made  several  efforts  to  collect  a 
force  sufficient  again  to  meet  Cornwallis  in  the  field ;  but  the  public 
opinion  bore  hard  upon  his  reputation.  He  was  immediately 
superseded,  and  a  court  martial  appointed  to  inquire  into  his  con- 
duct. He  was  fully  justified  by  the  result  of  this  military  investi- 
gation, and  treated  with  the  utmost  respect  by  the  army  and  by 
the  inhabitants,  on  his  return  to  Virginia.  > 

Cornwallis  did  not  reap  all  the  advantages  he  had  expected 
from  his  victory  at  Camden.  His  severity  did  not  aid  his  designs, 
though  he  sanctioned  by  proclamations  the  summary  execution 
54 


634  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

of  the  unfortunate  men  who  had,  by  compulsion,  borne  arms  in  the 
British  service,  and  were  afterwards  found  enlisted  under  the 
American  banner.  Many  of  these  persons  suffered  immediate 
death.  Their  houses  were  burnt,  and  their  families  obliged  to  fly, 
naked,  to  the  wilderness  to  seek  some  miserable  shelter. 

From  the  desultory  movements  of  the  British  after  the  battle  of 
Camden,  and  the  continual  resistance  and  activity  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, attack  and  defeat,  surprise  and  escape,  plunder,  burning, 
and  devastation,  pervaded  the  whole  country,  when  the  aged,  the 
helpless,  the  women,  and  the  children,  alternately  became  the  prey 
of  opposite  partisans.  But  the  defeat  of  Major  Ferguson,  a  favor- 
ite British  officer,  early  in  the  autumn  of  1780,  was  a  blow  that 
discovered  at  once  the  spirit  of  the  people,  and  displayed  to  Corn- 
wallis  the  general  disaffection  of  that  part  of  the  country  where 
he  had  been  led  to  place  the  most  confidence.  Ferguson  had  for 
several  weeks  taken  post  in  Tryon  county,  near  the  mountains  in 
the  western  part  of  Carolina.  He  had  there  collected  a  body  of 
royalists,  who,  united  with  his  regular  detachments,  spread  terror 
and  dismay  through  all  the  adjacent  country.  This  aroused  to 
action  all  the  patriots  who  were  capable  of  bearing  arms.  A  body 
of  militia  collected  in  the  highlands  of  North  Carolina,  and  a  party 
of  riflemen,  forming  a  numerous  and  resolute  band,  determined  to 
drive  him  from  his  strong  hold  at  King's  Mountain.  The  Ameri- 
cans were  under  various  commanders,  who  had  little  knowledge 
of  each  other,  yet  they  combined  their  operations  with  so  much 
skill  and  resolution  that  they  totally  defeated  the  British.  This 
action  was  fought  on  the  7th  of  October,  1780.  Ferguson  with 
one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  men  were  killed,  and  seven  hundred 
made  prisoners,  from  whom  were  selected  a  few,  who,  from 
motives  of  public  zeal  or  private  revenge,  were  immediately  exe- 
cuted. This  bloody  deed  was  done  by  some  of  those  fierce  and 
uncivilized  chieftains,  who  had  spent  most  of  their  lives  in  the 
mountains  and  forests. 

While  Cornwallis  was  thus  embarrassed  by  various  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  in  the  Carolinas,  Clinton  made  a  diversion  in  the 
Chesapeake,  in  favor  of  his  designs.  A  body  of  about  three 
thousand  men  was  sent  thither,  under  General  Leslie.  He  was 
directed  to  take  his  orders  from  Cornwallis;  but  not  hearing  from 
him  for  some  time  after  his  arrival,  he  was  at  a  loss  in  what 
manner  to  proceed.  In  October,  he  received  letters  from  Corn- 
wallis, directing  him  to  repair  to  Charleston,  to  assist  with  all  his 
forces,  in  the  complete  subjugation  of  the  Carolinas. 

Early  in  the  year  1780,  the  Hon.  Henry  Laurens,  of  South  Car- 
olina, late  president  of  congress,  was  entrusted  with  a  mission  to 


MISSION    TO   HOLLAND. 


636 


Holland,  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  Dutch,  but  he  was  unfor- 
tunately captured  on  his  voyage  by  the  British,  and  sent  to 
England,  where  he  experienced  all  the  suffering  of  a  severe 
imprisonment  in  the  tower  of  London,  usually  inflicted  on  state 
criminals. 


CHAPTER    LXIV. 

Treason  of  General  Arnold. —  Capture  and  execution  of  Major  Andre. — Fidelity  of 
three  American  soldiers. —  Catastrophe  of  Captain  Hale. — Adventure  of  Champe. 
— Revolt  of  the  Pennsylvania  line. — Mutiny  of  the  Jersey  troops  quelled. — Hos- 
tile movements  of  Spain  against  Great  Britain. —  Conquest  of  West  Florida  by 
the  Spaniards  of  Louisiana. — Conduct  of  the  Dutch  government. —  War  between 
Great  Britain  and  Holland. — Imprisonment  of  Mr.  Laurens  in  London. — Mis- 
sion of  Mr.  Adams  to  Holland. 


Major  Andrt. 

THE  year  1780  was  marked  by  the  treason  of  General  Arnold, 
who  deserted  the  American  cause,  sold  himself  to  the  enemies  of 
his  country,  and  engaged  in  the  British  service.  He  was  a  man 
without  principle  from  the  beginning ;  and  before  his  treachery 
was  discovered,  he  had  sunk  a  character,  raised  by  impetuous 
valor  attended  with  success,  without  being  the  possessor  of  any 
other  intrinsic  merit.  He  had  accumulated  a  fortune  by  pecula- 
tion, and  squandered  it  discreditably,  long  before  he  formed  the 
plan  to  betray  his  country.  Montreal  he  had  plundered  in  haste ; 
but  in  Philadelphia  he  went  to  work  deliberately  to  seize  every- 
thing he  could  lay  hands  on,  which  had  been  the  property  of  the 
disaffected  party,  and  converted  it  to  his  own  use.  He  entered 


.TREASON   OF   GEN.    ARNOLD.  637 

into  contracts  for  speculating  and  privateering,  and  at  the  same 
time  made  exorbitant  demands  on  congress,  for  compensation 
for  his  services.  In  his  speculations  he  was  disappointed  by  the 
common  failure  of  such  adventures ;  in  the  other  attempt  he  was 
rebuffed  and  mortified  by  the  commissioners  appointed  to  examine 
his  accounts,  who  curtailed  a  great  part  of  his  demands  as  unjust, 
and  for  which  he  deserved  severe  reprehension.  Involved  in  debt 
by  his  extravagance,  and  reproached  by  his  creditors,  his  resent- 
ment wrought  him  up  to  a  determination  of  revenge  for  this  public 
ignominy. 


West  Point. 


The  command  of  the  important  post  at  West  Point,  on  the 
Hudson,  had  been  given  to  Arnold.  No  one  suspected,  notwith- 
standing the  censures  that  had  fallen  upon  him,  that  he  had  a 
heart  base  enough  treacherously  to  betray  his  military  trust. 
Who  made  the  first  advances  to  negotiation,  is  uncertain ;  but  it 
appeared,  on  a  scrutiny,  that  Arnold  had  proposed  overtures  to 
Clinton,  characteristic  of  his  own  baseness,  and  not  very  honor- 
able to  the  British  commander,  if  viewed  apart  from  the  usages 
of  war,  which  too  frequently  sanction  the  blackest  crimes.  His 
treacherous  proposals  were  listened  to,  and  Clinton  authorized 
Major  Andre,  his  adjutant  general,  a  young  officer  of  great  integ- 
rity and  worth,  to  hold  a  personal  and  secret  conference  with  the 
traitor.  The  British  sloop  of  war  Vulture  had  been  stationed  for 
some  time  at  a  convenient  place  in  the  river  to  facilitate  the 
design ;  it  was  also  said  that  Andre  and  Arnold  had  kept  up  a 
friendly  correspondence  on  some  trivial  matters',  previous  to  their 
personal  interview,  which  took  place  on  the  twenty-first  of  Sep- 
tember, 1780.  Andre  was  landed  in  the  night  near  West  Point 
54*  c4 


638  THE   UNITED    STATES.      1%,    ' 

on  a  beach,  without  the  military  boundaries  of  either  army.  He 
there  met  Arnold,  who  communicated  to  him  the  state  of  the 
army  and  garrison  at  West  Point,  the  number  of  men  considered 
as  necessary  for  its  defence,  and  a  return  of  the  ordnance,  and  the 
artillery  corps.  These  accounts  he  gave  Andre  in  writing,  with 
plans  of  all  the  works. 

The  conference  continued  so  long  that  it  did  not  finish  in  time 
for  the  safe  retreat  of  Andre.  He  was  conducted,  though  without 
his  knowledge  or  consent,  within  the  American  posts,  where  he 
was  obliged  to  conceal  himself  in  company  with  Arnold,  until 
the  ensuing  morning.  The  Vulture,  in  the  meantime,  from  which 
he  had  been  landed,  shifted  her  station  while  he  was  on  shore, 
and  lay  so  much  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  Americans,  that  the 
boatmen  whom  Arnold  had  bribed  to  bring  Andre  to  the  confer- 
ence, refused  to  venture  a  second  time  on  board.  This  rendered 
it  impossible  for  him  to  return  to  New  York  by  water ;  and  he 
was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  hurrying,  like  a  disguised  criminal, 
through  the  posts  of  his  enemies.  Furnished  with  a  passport 
from  Arnold,  under  the  name  of  Anderson,  he  had  nearly  reached 
the  British  lines,  when  he  was  suddenly  arrested  within  the 
American  posts,  by  three  private  soldiers.  He  was  instantly 
aware  of  his  desperate  situation, — taken  in  the  night,  in  a  dis- 
guised habit,  under  a  fictitious  name,  with  a  plan  of  the  works  at 
West  Point  concealed  in  his  boots,  containing  the  situation,  the 
numbers  and  the  strength  of  the  American  army.  He  offered  a 
purse  of  gold,  an  elegant  gold  watch,  and  other  very  tempting 
rewards,  if  he  might  be  permitted  to  pass  unmolested  to  New 
York.  But  his  captors,  rejecting  all  pecuniary  rewards,  had 
the  fidelity  to  convey  their  prisoner  immediately  to  the  head 
quarters  of  the  American  army.  Such  instances  of  patriotism  and 
such  contempt  for  private  interest,  when  united  with  duty  and 
obligation  to  the  public,  are  so  rare,  that  the  names  of  John  Paul- 
ding,  David  Williams  and  Isaac  Vanwert  ought  never  to  be 
forgotten  in  American  history. 

When  Arnold  was  first  apprized  of  the  detection  of  Andre,  he 
was  struck  with  astonishment  and  terror.  He  called  for  a  horse, 
mounted  instantly,  and  rode  down  a  craggy  steep,  never  before 
passed  on  horseback.  He  took  a  barge,  and  showing  a  flag  of 
truce,  passed  the  fort  at  Verplank's  Point,  and  soon  found  himself 
safe  beneath  the  guns  of  the  Yulture.  Before  he  took  leave  of 
the  bargemen,  he  made  them  very  generous  offers,  if  they  would 
act  as  dishonorably  as  he  had  done ;  he  promised  them  higher 
*•  and  better  wages,  if  they  would  desert  their  country,  and  enlist 
in  the  service  of  Britain ;  but  they  spurned  at  the  offer.  Arnold 


EXECUTION   OF   MAJOR   ANDRE.  639 

got  safe  to  New  York,  and  wrote  to  Washington  in  behalf  of  his 
wife.  In  this  letter  he  endeavored  to  justify  his  own  conduct, 
and  urged  the  release.of  Andre,  with  much  insolence.  He  also 
shortly  afterwards  published  an  address  to  the  people  of  America, 
fabricated  by  his  new  masters,  and  couched  in  very  insolent  and 
overbearing  language.  He  cast  many  indecent  reflections  on 
congress,  on  the  French  nation,  and  on  the  alliance  between 
America  and  France.  Soon  after  his  arrival  in  New  York,  he 
received  ttie  price  of  his  treason, — ten  thousand  pounds  sterling, 
in  cash,  with  a  general's  commission  under  the  crown-of  Great 
Britain. 

A  court-martial  of  the  American  officers  was  convened  for  the 
trial  of  Andre.  Much  influence  was  exerted  to  save  his  life,  even 
by  the  Americans.  He  was,  however,  convicted  of  being  a  spy, 
and  agreeably  to  the  common  usages  of  war,  condemned  to  death. 
He  was  hanged  at  Tappaan,  on  the  2d  of  October.  The  fate  of 
Andre  was  lamented  by  his  enemies;  his  sufferings  were  soothed 
by  the  politeness  and  generosity  of  the  commander-in-chief 
and  the  officers  of  the  American  army;  while  the  unfortunate 
Nathan  Hale,  an  American  officer,  who  was  captured  while 
attempting  to  gain  intelligence  of  the  designs  of  the  British,  in 
the  same  clandestine  manner,  had  been  hanged  in  New  York,  in 
1776,  without  a  day  to  prepare  himself  for  death.  This  event 
took  place  soon  after  the  action  on  Long  Island.  The  dilemma 
to  which  Washington  was  reduced,  and  the  situation  of  his  army, 
rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  gain  some  intelligence  of  the 
movements  of  the  British.  This  being  intimated  to  Captain 
Hale,  a  young  man  of  unimpeachable  character,  and  rising  hopes, 
he  generously  offered  to  risk  his  life  for  the  service  of  his  coun- 
try. He  ventured  into  the  city,  was  detected,  and  acknowledged 
that  he  was  employed  in  a  business  that  could  not  be  forgiven  by 
his  enemies.  Without  the  smallest  token  of  compassion  from  any 
one.  he  was  cruelly  insulted,  and  execiUed  with  disgraceful  rigor. 

The  Americans  would  willingly  have  exchanged  Andre  for 
Arnold,  hut  the  British  commander-in-chief  would  not  consent  to 
give  up  the  traitor.  A  bold  and  desperate  scheme  was  planned 
by  Sergeant  Major  Champe,  of  the  American  dragoons,  in  New 
Jersey,  to  seize  Arnold  by  a  stratagem.  Champe,  by  a  connivance 
with  his  commanding  officer,  deserted  from  the  camp  and  galloped 
towards  the  shores  of  the  Hudson,  just  above  New  York.  He 
was  so  hotly  pursued  by  several  of  the  American  troopers,  who 
were  not  in  the  secret,  that  he  was  obliged  to. leap  from  his  horse 
into  the  river,  and  swim  on  board  a  British  vessel  of  war  in  the 
stream.  He  was  sent,  to  New  York,  and  joined  a  body  of  troops 


640 


THE  UNITED   STATES. 


which  Arnold  was  raising.  Here  he  had  nearly  matured  his 
phm  for  seizing  Arnold  in  the  night  and  conveying  him  across  the 
river  in  a  boat,  when  the  design  was  suddenly  frustrated  by  the 
general's  changing  his  quarters.  Champe  remained  for  some  time 
with  the  British,  but  found  no  other  opportunity  for  executing  his 
design.  He  subsequently  had  the  good  fortune  to  get  back  in 
safety  to  the  American  army. 


Sergeant  Major  Champe' 's  adventure. 

In  addition  to  the  alarming  circumstances  already  recapitulated, 
the  most  dangerous  symptoms  were  exhibited  in  the  conduct  of  a 
part  of  the  army,  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1780.  The  revolt 
of  the  whole  Pennsylvania  line  spread  a  temporary  dismay 
throughout  the  country.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1781,  upwards  of 
a  thousand  men,  belonging  to  that  portion  of  the  army,  marched  in 
a  body  from  the  camp,  in  the  Jerseys.  Others,  equally  disaffected, 
soon  followed  them.  They  took  post  on  an  advantageous  ground, 
chose  for  their  leader  a  sergeant  major,  a  British  deserter,  and 
saluted  him  as  their  major  general.  On  the  third  day  of  their 
revolt,  a  message  was  sent  from  the  officers  of  the  American 
camp ;  this  they  refused  to  receive  ;  but  to  a  flag  which  followed, 
requesting  to  know  their  complaints  and  intentions,  they  replied, 
that  "  they  had  served  three  years ;  that  they  had  engaged  to 
serve  no  longer;  nor  would  they  return  or  disperse  until  their 
grievances  were  redressed  and  their  arrearages  paid." 

General  Wayne,  who  commanded  the  line,  had  been  greatly 
beloved  and  respected  by  the  soldiers,  nor  did  he  at  first  doubt 
but  that  his  influence  would  soon  bring  them  back  to  their  duty. 
He  did  everything  in  the  power  of  a  spirited  and  judicious  officer. 


REVOLT    OF    THE   PENNSYLVANIA   LINE.  641 

to  quiet  their  clamors,  in  the  beginning  of  the  insurrection;  but 
many  of  them  pointed  their  bayonets  at  his  breast;  told  him  to 
be  on  his  guard ;  that  they  were  determined  to  march  to  congress 
to  obtain  a  redress  of  grievances ;  that  though  they  respected  him 
as  an  officer,  and  loved  his  person,  yet,  if  he  attempted  to  fire  on 


General  Wayne. 

them,  "he  was  a  dead  man."  Sir  Henry  Clinton  soon  gamed 
intelligence  of  the  confusion  and  danger  into  which  the  Ameri- 
cans were  plunged.  He  improved  the  advantageous  moment,  and 
made  the  revolters  every  tempting  offer.  But  the  intrigues  of  the 
British  officers,  and  the  measures  of  their  Commander-in-chief, 
had  not  the  smallest  influence ;  the  revolted  troops,  though  dissat- 
isfied, appeared  to  have  no  inclination  to  join  the  British  army. 
They  declared,  with  one  voice,  that  if  there  was  an  immediate 
necessity  to  call  out  the  American  forces,  they  would  still  fight 
under  the  orders  of  congress.  Several  British  spies  were  detected, 
busily  employed  in  endeavoring  to  increase  the  ferment,  who 
were  tried  and  executed  with  little  ceremony. 

The  prudent  conduct  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  the  dis- 
position which  appeared  in  government  to  do  justice  to  their 
demands,  subdued  the  mutiny.  A  committee  was  sent  from  con- 
gress to  hear  their  complaints  and  as  far  as  possible  to  relieve 
their  sufferings.  Those  whose  ,term  of  enlistment  had  expired, 
were  paid  off  and  discharged ;  the  reasonable*  demands  of  others 
were  satisfied ;  and  a  general  pardon  was  granted  to  the  offenders, 
who  cheerfully  returned  to  their  duty.  But  the  contagion  and 


642  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

mutinous  example  of  the  Pennsylvania  line,  had  spread  in  some 
degree  its  dangerous  influence  over  other  parts  of  the  army;  it 
operated  more  particularly  on  a  part  of  the  Jersey  troops,  soon 
after  the  pacification  of  the  disorderly  Pennsylvania  soldiers, 
though  not  with  equal  success  and  impunity  to  themselves.  A 
few  of  the  principal  leaders  of  the  revolt  were  tried  by  a  court- 
martial  and  found  guilty.  As  a  second  general  pardon,  without 
any  penal  inflictions,  would  have  had  a  fatal  effect  on  the  army, 
two  of  them  suffered  death  for  their  mutinous  conduct.  This 
example  of  severity  put  a  period  to  every  symptom  of  open  revolt, 
though  not  to  the  silent  murmurs  of  the  army.  They  still  felt 
heavily  the  immediate  inconveniences  of  the  deficiency  of  almost 
every  article  necessary  to  life;  they  had  little  food  and  seldom 
any  covering,  except  what  was  forced  from  the  adjacent  inhabi- 
tants by  military  power. 

France  had  acknowledged  the  independence  of  America ;  and 
the  whole  house  of  Bourbon  now  supported  the  claim  of  the 
United  States,  though  there  had  yet  been  no  direct  treaty  between 
America  and  Spain.  It  had  been  the  general  expectation,  for  some 
time  before  it  took  place,  that  Spain  would  soon  unite  with  France 
in  support  of  the  American  cause.  From  this  expectation,  the 
Spaniards  in  South  America  had  prepared  themselves  for  a  rup- 
ture, a  considerable  time  before  any  formal  declaration  of  war  had 
taken  place.  They  were  in  readiness  to  take  the  earliest  advan- 
tage of  such  an  event.  They  had  accordingly  seized  Pensacola, 
in  West  Florida,  and  several  British  posts  on  the  Mississippi, 
before  the  troops  stationed  there  had  any  intimation  that  hostilities 
were  declared,  in  the  usual  style,  between  England  and  Spain. 

Don  Bernard  de  Galvez,  the  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana, 
had  proclaimed  the  independence  of  America,  in  New  Orleans,  at 
the  head  of  all  the  forces  he  could  collect,  as  early  as  the  19th  of 
August,  1779,  and  had  proceeded  immediately  to  surprise  and 
conquer,  wherever  he  could,  the  unguarded  British  settlements. 
The  British  navy,  generally  masters  of  the  ocean,  had,  early  after 
hostilities  commenced,  beaten  some  of  the  Spanish  ships,  inter- 
cepted the  convoys,  and  captured  or  destroyed  several  of  the 
homeward  bound  fleets  of  merchantmen.  But  by  this  time  the 
arms  of  Spain  had  been  successful  in  several  enterprises  by  sea; 
at  the  Bay  of  Honduras  and  in  the  West  Indies  they  also  soon 
gained  several  other  advantages.  Galvez  had  concerted  a  plan 
with  the  governor  of  Havana,  to  surprise  Mobile.  He  encoun- 
tered storms,  dangers,  disappointments  and  difficulties,  almost 
innumerable.  This  enterprising  Spaniard  recovered,  however,  in 
some  measure,  his  losses;  and  receiving  a  reinforcement  from 


POLICY   OF    THE    DUTCH    GOVERNMENT.  643 

Havana,  with  a  part  of  the  regiment  of  Navarre,  and  some  other 
auxiliaries,  he  landed  near  Mobile,  and  reduced  the  whole  province 
of  West  Florida,  in  May,  1781. 

It  was  indeed  some  time  after  the  accession  of  Spain,  that  any 
other  European  power  explicitly  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  United  States ;  but  Mr.  Izard,  who  was  sent  by  congress 
*to  Tuscany,  and  Mr.  William  Lee,  to  the  court  of  Vienna,  in 
1778,  inspired  with  that  lively  assurance  which  is  sometimes  the 
pledge  of  success,  had  met  with  no  discouraging  circumstances. 
Holland  had  a  still  more  difficult  part  to  act  than  France,  Spain, 
or  perhaps  any  other  European  power,  who  actually  had  adhered 
to,  or  appeared  inclined  to  favor  the  cause  of  America.  Her 
embarrassments  arose  in  part  from  existing  treaties  with  Great 
Britain,  by  which  the  latter  claimed  the  Dutch  republic  as  their 
ally. 

The  unfortunate  capture  of  Mr.  Laurens,  the  American  envoy, 
prevented  for  a  time  all  public  negotiations  with  Holland.  He 
had  been  vested  with  discretionary  powers,  and  had  suitable 
instructions  given  him,  to  enter  into  private  contracts  and  negoti- 
ations, as  exigencies  might  offer,  for  the  interest  of  his  country, 
until  events  had  ripened  for  his  full  admission  as  ambassador  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  The  British  commander  knew  not 
the  rank  of  his  prisoner,  until  the  packages  thrown  overboard  by 
Mr.  Laurens  were  recovered  by  a  British  sailor.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  resentment  of  the  British  envoy  at  the  Hague,  the  conduct 
of  the  Dutch  court  remained  for  some  time  so  equivocal,  that 
neither  Great  Britain  nor  America  were  fully  satisfied  with  their 
determinations.  It  is  true  a  treaty  with  the  United  States  was 
for  some  time  postponed;  but  the  answer  of  the  Dutch  govern- 
ment to  the  remonstrances  of  Sir  Joseph  Yorke,  the  British  envoy, 
not  being  sufficiently  condescending  and  decided,  his  resentment 
daily  increased.  He  informed  his  court,  in  very  strong  terms,  of 
the  effect  of  his  repeated  memorials,  of  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch 
government,  arid  of  that  of  the  principal  characters  of  the 
Batavian  provinces.  Great  Britain  soOn  after,  in  the  recess  ot 
parliament,  amidst-all  her  other  difficulties,  at  war  with  France, 
Spain  and  America,  and  left  alone  by  all  the  other  powers  of 
Europe  to  decide  her  own  quarrels,  declared  hostilities  against 
the  Netherlands ;  and  a  long  manifesto  from  the  king  was  sent 
abroad  in  the  latter  part  of  December,  1780. 

The  capture  of  Mr.  Laurens  was,  however,  no  small  embar- 
rassment to  the  British  ministry.  Their  pride  would  not  suffer 
them  to  recognise  his  public  character ;  they  dared  not  condemn 
him  as  a  rebel ;  the  independence  of  America  was  too  far 


644  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

advanced,  and  there  were  too  many  captured  noblemen  and 
officers  in  the  United  States,  to  allow  of  such  a  step,  lest  imme- 
diate retaliation  should  be  made.  He  was  confined  in  the  Tower, 
forbidden  the  use  of  pen,  ink  and  paper,  and  all  social  intercourse 
with  any  one;  and  was  even  interdicted  converse  with  his  young 
son,  who  had  been  several  years  in  England  for  his  education. 

Immediately  after  the  news  of  the  capture  and  imprisonment 
of  Mr.  Laurens,  the  American  congress  directed  John  Adams, 
who  had  a  second  time  been  sent  to  Europe  in  a  public  character, 
to  leave  France  and  repair  to  Holland,  there  to  transact  the  affairs 
with  the  States-General,  which  had  before  been  entrusted  to  Mr. 
Laurens.  Mr.  Adams's  commission  was  enlarged.  From  a  confi- 
dence in  his  talents  and  integrity,  he  was  vested  with  ample 
powers  for  negotiation,  for  the  forming  treaties  of  alliance  and 
commerce,  or  the  loan  of  monies,  for  the  United  States  of  America. 
Not  fettered  by  precise  instructions,  he  exercised  his  discretionary 
powers  with  judgment  and  ability.  Thus,  in  strict  amity  with 
France  and  Spain;  on  the  point  of  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the 
Batavian  Republic,  and  in  the  meantime  Sweden  and  Denmark 
balancing  and  nearly  determined  on  a  connexion  with  America, 
the  foreign  relations  of  the  United  States  in  general  wore  a  very 
favorable  aspect. 


-•IK, 


CHAPTER    LXV. 


Cessation  of  the  continental  currency. — Invasion  of  Virginia  by  Arnold. —  Greene's 
campaign  in  the  Carolinas. —  Victory  of  the  Americans  at  the  Cowpens. — Battle 
of  Guilford. —  Vicissitudes  of  the  American  army. — Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs. — 
Cornwallis  marches  towards  Virginia. — Designs  of  Washington  upon  New 
York. — New  plan  of  the  campaign. —  Washington  marches  towards  the  south. — 
Arrival  of  De  Grasse  in  the  Chesapeake. — Battle  between  De  Grasse  and  Admiral 
Graves. — Siege  of  Yorktown. — Surrender  of  Cornwallis. — Arnold's  expedition 
to  Connecticut. — British  treatment  of  American  prisoners. — Conclusion  of  the 
campaign  in  the  south. — Change  of  ministry  in  England. — American  Independ- 
ence acknowledged. — Troubles  in  the  American  army. — General  peace. — Ameri- 
can army  disbanded. 


Surrender  oj  Cornnallis. 

THE  year  1781  witnessed  an  important  change  in  the  financial 
system  of  the  United  States.  The  continental  paper  money, 
issued  by  congress,  ceased  to  circulate.  The  sums  emitted  now 
amounted  to  upwards  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of 
dollars,  in  addition  to  what  had  been  counterfeited  by  the  British 
and  introduced  into  the  country.  The  utter  impossibility  of  pro- 
viding any  means  of  redeeming  these  bills  had  been  so  long 
apparent,  that  nothing  could  hinder  their  constant  and  rapid 
depreciation.  At  last,  when  they  had  surlk  to  the  value  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  for  one,  they  were,  by  common  consent, 
thrown  aside.  The  necessity  foi  this  measure  was  so  obvious, 
55  D4 


640  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

that  it  excited  little  murmuring  and  no  disturbance.  Trade  had 
been  opened  with  the  French  and  Spanish  West  India  islands,  by 
which  means  a  considerable  supply  of  gold  and  silver  was  intro- 
duced into  the  country.  A  subsidy  of  six  millions  of  livres  was 
obtained  from  the  king  of  France ;  and  ten  millions  more  were 
borrowed  from  the  Dutch,  for  which  the  French  king  became 
security.  The  finances  of  the  country  soon  assumed  a  more 
promising  aspect. 

The  British  were  determined  to  push  the  war  vigorously  in  the 
south.  General  Leslie,  who  had  been  sent  to  the  Chesapeake, 
towards  the  close  of  1780,  with  a  force  of  two  thousand  men, 
had  marched  to  Charleston,  by  order  of  Cornwallis.  An  addi- 
tional force  of  sixteen  hundred  men  was  despatched  from  New 
York,  under  Arnold,  now  a  brigadier  general  in  the  British 
service.  In  January,  1781,  they  made  a  descent  on  the  coast  of 
Virginia,  burning,  plundering  and  ravaging  in  every  direction. 
Washington  detached  La  Fayette,  with  twelve  hundred  American 
troops,  against  Arnold.  A  French  ship  of  the  line  and  two  frig- 
ates accompanied  them  to  the  Chesapeake.  They  captured  a 
British  forty-four  gun  frigate  and  ten  other  vessels.  An  engage- 
ment ensued  between  the  British  fleet  under  Admiral  Arbuthnot 
and  the  French  under  D'Estouches,  off  the  Capes  of  Virginia.  The 
action  was  not  decisive,  but  the  French  ships  were  so  much 
crippled  that  they  were  forced  to  put  back  to  Rhode  Island,  with- 
out accomplishing  the  main  object  of  the  expedition.  A  British 
fleet,  with  two  thousand  additional  troops  under  General  Philips, 
arrived  in  the  Chesapeake.  They  formed  a  junction  with  Arnold's 
force,  captured  Petersburg,  Williamsburg  and  Yorktown,  destroy- 
ing tobacco  and  other  merchandise  to  an  immense  amount. 

The  command  of  the  American  army  in  the  south  had  been 
transferred  from  General  Gates  to  General  Greene.  The  army,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1781,  amounted  to  no  more  than  two 
thousand  men,  half  of  whom  were  militia*.  They  had  been  for  a 
long  time  without  pay,  and  were  very  deficient  in  clothing.  The 
army  of  Cornwallis  was  much  superior  in  numbers  and  discipline; 
his  troops  were  well  clothed  and  regularly  paid ;  and  when  Greene 
first  arrived,  they  were  flushed  with  recent  successes,  particularly 
the  defeat  of  Gates  at  Camden.  It  is  true  the  death  of  Major 
Ferguson,  and  the  rout  of  his  party,  was  a  serious  disappoint- 
ment, but  not  of  sufficient  consequence  to  check  the  designs  and 
expectations  of  a  British  army,  commanded  by  officers  of  the  first 
military  experience.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Carolinas  were 
divided  in  opinion ;  bitter,  rancorous  and  cruel  in  their  animosities, 
and  many  of  them  without  any  fixed  political  principles.  Fluctu- 


BATTLE    OF   THE   COWPENS.  647 

ating  and  unstable,  sometimes  they  were  the  partisans  of  Britain, 
and  huzzaed  for  royalty ;  at  other  times,  they  were  the  militia 
of  the  state  in  continental  service,  and  professed  themselves 
zealots  for  American  independence.  But  General  Greene,  with 
remarkable  coolness  and  intrepidity,  checked  their  licentious 
conduct,  and  punished  desertion  and  treachery  by  necessary 
examples  of  severity;  and  thus  in  a  short  time  he  established  a 
more  regular  discipline. 

The  British  troops  had  yet  met  with  no  check,  which  in  any 
degree  damped  their  ardor,  except  the  defeat  of  Ferguson.  The 
most  important  movement  which  took  place  for  some  time  after 
this  affair,  was  an  action  between  Morgan  and  Tarleton,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1781.  General  Morgan  was  an  early  volunteer  in  the  Amer- 
ican warfare ;  he  had  marched  from  Virginia  to  Cambridge,  at  the 
head  of  a  body  of  riflemen,  to  the  aid  of  Washington,  in  1775. 
General  Greene,  convinced  that  no  officer  could  more  effectually 
accomplish  any  bold  undertaking,  ordered  Morgan,  with  a  consid- 
erable force,  to  march  to  the  western  parts  of  South  Carolina. 
Cornwallis,  having  gained  intelligence  of  this  movement,  de- 
spatched Tarleton  in  pursuit  of  Morgan.  In  a  few  days,  they  met 
near  the  river  Paulet.  General  Morgan  had  reason  to  expect, 
from  the  rapid  advance  of  Tarleton,  that  a  meeting  would  have 
taken  place  sooner ;  but  by  various  manosuvres  he  kept  his  troops 
at  a  distance,  until  a  moment  of  advantage  might  present.  The 
Americans  had  kept  up  the  appearance  of  retreat,  until  they 
reached  a  spot  called  the  Cowpens.  Tarleton  came  up,  and  a 
resolute  engagement  ensued  on  the  17th  of  January,  when,  after 
a  short  conflict,  the  British  were  totally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
above  eight  hundred  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  The  loss  of 
the  Americans  was  only  twelve  killed,  and  sixty  wounded. 

Tarleton's  defeat  was  a  blow  entirely  unexpected  by  Cornwallis, 
and  induced  him  to  march  from  Wynesborough,  to  the  Yadkjn, 
in  pursuit  of  Morgan,  with  the  hope  of  overtaking  him  and 
recovering  the  prisoners.  The  British  troops  endured  this  long 
and  fatiguing  march,  under  every  species  of  difficulty,  crossing 
rivers, 'Swamps,  marshes  and  creeks,  with  uncommon  resolution 
and  patience.  Greene,  on  hearing  that  Cornwallis  was  in  pursuit 
of  Morgan,  left  his  post  near  the  Pedee,  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Huger,  pushed  rapidly  forward  with  a  small  party,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles,  and  joined  Morgan  before  Cornwallis  arrived 
at  the  Catawba.  In  this  pursuit  Cornwallis  cut  off  some  of  the 
small  detachments,  not  in  sufficient  force  for  effectual  opposition. 
General  Davison  made  a  successful  stand  on  the  banks  of  the 
Catawba,  with  three  or  four  hundred  men ;  but  the  British  fording 


648  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

the  river  unexpectedly,  he  was  himself  killed  and  his  troops  dis- 
persed. The  passage  of  the  river  by  the  British  army  was  no 
farther  impeded. 

Greene  had  ordered  Colonels  Huger  and  Williams,  whom  he 
had  left  some  days  before  at  the  Pedee,  to  join  him  with  their 
troops ;  however,  it  was  but  a  short  time  after  this  junction,  before 
Greene  had  the  strongest  reason  to  conclude  that  the  safety  of 
his  troops  lay  only  in  retreat ;  nor  was  this  accomplished  without 
the  utmost  difficulty.  His  march  was  frequently  interrupted  by 
steep  ascents  and  unfordable  rivers.  But  he  adroitly  escaped 
a  pursuing  and  powerful  army,  whose  progress  was,  fortunately 
for  the  Americans,  checked  by  the  same  impediments,  and  at 
much  less  favorable  moments  of  arrival.  The  freshets  swelled, 
and  retarded  the  passage  of  the  British  army,  while  they  seemed 
at  times  to  suspend  their  rapidity  in  favor  of  the  Americans. 
After  a  flight  and  pursuit  of  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  supported  by 
the  most  determined  spirit  and  perseverance  on  both  sides,  Greene 
reached  Guilford,  about  the  middle  of  February,  where  he  ordered 
all  the  troops  he  had  left  near  the  Pedee,  under  officers  on  whom 
he  could  depend,  to  repair  immediately  to  him. 


Cornwallis. 


Greene  and  Cornwallis  lay  at  no  great  distance  from  each  other ; 
but  Greene  kept  his  position  as  much  as  possible  concealed,  as 
he  was  not  yet  in  a  situation  to  venture  upon  a  decisive  action  ; 
and  though  he  was  obliged  to  move  earlier  towards  the  British 
encampment,  no  engagement  took  place  until  the  middle  of  March. 


ACTION    AT    GUILFORD.  649 

In  the  meantime,  by  his  ability  and  address,  he  eluded  the  vigi- 
lance of  his  enemies,  and  kept  himself  secure  by  a  continual 
change  of  posts,  until  strengthened  by  fresh  reinforcements  of  the 
North  Carolina  and  Virginia  militia.  The  few  continental  troops 
he  had  with  him,  joined  by  these  and  a  number  of  volunteers 
from  the  interior  of  the  mountainous  tracts  of  the  western  wilder- 
ness, induced  him  to  risk  a  battle. 

On  the  15th  of  March,  1781,  the  two  armies  met  at  Guilford, 
and  seemed  at  first  to  engage  with  equal  ardor;  but,  as  usual,  the 
raw  militia  were  intimidated  by  the  valor  and  discipline  of  the 
British  veterans.  Almost  the  whole  corps  of  Carolinians  threw 
down  their  arms  and  fled,  many  of  them  without  even  discharg- 
ing their  firelocks.  This  deranged  the  order  of  the  American 
army;  yet  they  supported  the  action  with  great  spirit  and  bravery 
for  an  hour  and  a  half,  when  they  were  entirely  broken,  and 
obliged  to  retreat  with  the  utmost  precipitation.  Both  armies 
suffered  much  by  the  loss  of  many  gallant  officers  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  men.  Cornwallis  kept  the  field  and  claimed 
the  victory;  but  the  subsequent  transactions  discovered  that  the 
balance  of  real  advantage  lay  on  the  other  side.  Cornwallis  soon 
decamped  from  the  neighborhood,  and  marched  with  all  possible 
expedition  toward  the  eastern  parts  of  North  Carolina.  He  found 
many  difficulties  in  his  way,  but  pursued  his  route  with  great  per- 
severance. His  army  cheerfully  sustained  the  severest  fatigue; 
but,  as  they  had  frequently  done  before,  they  marked  their  way 
with  the  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants,  through  a  territory  of  many 
hundred  miles  in  extent  from  Charleston  to  York  town.  It  was 
afterwards  computed  that  fourteen  hundred  widows  were  made, 
during  this  year's  campaign  only,  in  the  district  Ninety-Six. 

A  detail  of  all  the  small  rencounters  that  took  place  this  year 
in  both  the  Carolinas,  would  only  fatigue  the  reader.  It  is  enough 
to  observe  that  the  Americans,  under  various  leaders,  were  con- 
tinually attacking,  with  alternate  success  and  defeat,  the  chain  of 
British  posts  planted  from  Camden  to  Ninety-six ;  and  as  Greene 
himself  expressed  his  sentiments  in  this  embarrassed  situation, 
"We  fight,  get  beaten ;  rise  and  fight  again;  the  whole  country 
is  one  continued  scene  of  slaughter  and  blood."  Fierce  encoun- 
ters were  still  kept  up  between  the  British  detachments  posted  on 
advantageous  heights,  and  on  the  banks  of  deep  and  unfordable 
rivers  which  intersected  each  other,  and  the  hardy  chieftain  who 
led  the  Carolinian  bands  over  mountains,  declivities,  swamps  and 
rivers,  to  the  vicinity  of  Charleston.  Thence  they  were  often 
obliged  to  retreat  back  from  the  borders  of  civilization,  again  to 
seek  safety  in  the  dreary  wilderness;  until  the  British,  wearied  by 
55* 


650  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

a  perpetual  course  of  hostilities  without  decision,  drew  in  their 
cantonments,  and  took  post,  about  the  beginning  of  September,  at 
the  Eutaw  Springs,  nearly  fifty  miles  from  Charleston. 

General  Greene,  when  near  the  waters  of  the  Congaree,  where 
the  two  armies  were  separated  at  the  distance  of  only  fifteen 
miles,  had  attempted  to  bring  the  enemy  to  a  close  engagement; 
but  there  appeared  at  that  time  no  inclination  in  the  British  com- 
mander to  meet  him.  Greene  now  found  the  enemy  were  about 
to  take  a  new  position.  This  induced  him  to  follow  them  by  a  cir- 
cuitous march  of  seventy  or  eighty  miles.  Desultory  skirmishes 
continued  through  the  month  of  August ;  and  in  the  next  month, 
Greene  again  renewed  his  challenge,  and  advanced  to  the  Springs, 
where  the  main  body  of  the  British  troops  were  collected.  He 
had  with  him  only  about  two  thousand  men;  but  these  were 
commanded  by  some  of  the  best  of  his  officers.  They  attacked 
the  British  encampment  on  the  8th  of  September.  The  battle 
was  severe,  but  the  Americans  obtained  the  advantage.  The  loss 
of  the  British  amounted  to  eleven  hundred  men;  that  of  the 
Americans  to  five  hundred.  Colonel  Stewart,  the  British  com- 
mander, claimed  the  victory,  though  it  was  a  drawn  battle. 
Greene  suffered  the  loss  of  many  brave  soldiers,  and  some  very 
valuable  officers.  Colonel  Campbell,  of  Virginia,  fell  towards  the 
termination  of  the  action,  and  had  time,  after  the  mortal  wound, 
only  to  observe,  that,  "as  the  British  fled,  he  died  contented." 

Stewart  wrote  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton  a  detail  of  the  affair,  in  the 
pompous  style  of  a  victor;  but  notwithstanding  he  arrogated  so 
much  on  the  occasion,  the  action  at  Eutaw  Springs  put  a  period 
to  all  further  offensive  operations  in  that  quarter ;  and  the  British 
troops  after  this,  seldom  ventured  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
Charleston.  Besides  the  numbers  slain  in  this  action,  four  or  five 
hundred  of  the  British  troops  were  taken  prisoners.  The  Ameri- 
cans suffered  equally,  and  perhaps  in  greater  proportion  to  their 
numbers  than  the  British.  After  this  action,  Greene  retired  again 
for  a  time  to  the  heights  bordering  on  the  Santee.  He  had 
accomplished  much  during  the  year.  He  opened  the  campaign 
with  the  most  gloomy  prospects ;  he  closed  it  with  honor  to  him- 
self and  great  advantage  to  the  country. 

Cornwallis,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Guilford,  marched  to  Wil- 
mington, in  North  Carolina.  In  the  expectation  that  the  force  left 
in  South  Carolina,  under  Lord  Rawdon,  would  be  able  to  hold 
the  Americans  in  check  in  that  quarter,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
Virginia.  The  conquest  of  that  state  by  the  British,  appeared  to 
be  the  most  efficacious  method  of  striking  a  blow  which  should 
overwhelm  all  the  southern  colonies.  Their  force  was  strong. 


BRITISH   FORTIFY   THEMSELVES   AT   YORKTOWN.  651 

The  Americans  had  no  considerable  army  in  Virginia.  Washing- 
ton lay  in  his  cantonments  about  New  York,  where  the  hostile 
attitude  of  Clinton  demanded  his  constant  vigilance.  With  these 
inviting  prospects,  Cornwallis  marched  from  Wilmington,  in  April, 
1781,  and  with  some  occasional  resistance  from  small  parties  of 
the  Americans,  reached  Petersburg,  in  Virginia,  on  the  20th  of 
May.  Here  he  was  joined  by  the  British  forces  under  General 
Philips,  and  shortly  after  by  a  reinforcement  of  fifteen  hundred 
men  from  New  York. 

Cornwallis  now  found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  amount- 
ing nearly  to  ten  thousand  men, — a  force  sufficiently  formidable 
to  bear  down  all  opposition.  The  troops  of  the  Americans  did 
not  exceed  three  thousand  men,  two-thirds  of  whom  were  militia. 
These  were  commanded  by  La  Fayette,  who  retired  as  Cornwallis 
advanced.  After  crossing  James  river,  the  British  marched  and 
countermarched  for  some  weeks.  They  took  Charlotteville,  and 
destroyed  a  great  quantity  of  stores.  Cornwallis  then  fell  back 
upon  Richmond,  and  on  the  26th  of  June,  retreated  to  Williams- 
burg.  La  Fayette  had  the  address  to  make  his  force  appear  much 
greater  than  it  really  was ;  and  by  keeping  in  an  imposing  atti- 
tude, he  compelled  his  adversary  to  act  with  caution.  Many 
skirmishes  took  place,  but  no  decisive  action  ensued.  About  the 
first  of  July,  Cornwallis  received  letters  from  Clinton,  stating  his 
fears  of  being  attacked  in  New  York,  and  requesting  a  reinforce- 
ment from  the  army  of  Cornwallis.  He  recommended  that  the 
troops  remaining  in  Virginia,  should  take  post  in  some  strong 
situation,  till  the  danger  at  New  York  had  passed.  To  comply 
with  these  suggestions,  Cornwallis  resolved  to  retreat  toward  the 
shores  of  the  Chesapeake.  Portsmouth,  near  Norfolk,  where  the 
British  had  a  strong  garrison,  was  first  fixed  upon  as  the  station 
for  the  army;  but  on  account  of  the  fleet,  Yorktown  was  after- 
ward found  a  preferable  spot.  The  troops  were  therefore  removed 
from  Portsmouth  to  Yorktown,  and  here  the  whole  British  army 
fortified  themselves  in  July,  1781.  The  detachment,  however, 
to  reinforce  Clinton  was  not  sent  away.  Cornwallis  expected  to 
be  further  strengthened  by  the  speedy  arrival  of  a  British  squa- 
dron from  the  West  Indies. 

Washington,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  eyeing  the  movements 
of  Cornwallis  in  the  south  with  great  anxiety.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  he  had  hopes  of  striking  an  important  blow, 
by  attacking  New  York,  in  conjunction  with  the  French  land  and 
sea-forces,  and  a  strong  body  of  militia,  to  be*  suddenly  raised  for 
that  purpose.  The  failure  of  several  of  the  states  to  forward 
their  militia  in  season,  and  the  arrival  of  three  thousand  German 


652  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

troops  at  New  York,  caused  this  design  to  miscarry.  Washing- 
ton felt  the  deepest  mortification  at  this  disappointment;  yet, 
before  long,  he  had  cause  to  regard  it  as  one  of  the  most  fortunate 
events  of  his  life.  He  was  soon  enabled  to  employ  his  army  with 
the  most  brilliant  success  in  another  quarter. 

Early  in  August,  intelligence  was  received  that  a  powerful 
French  fleet,  under  the  Count  de  Grasse,  was  to  sail  immediately 
from  the  West  Indies  for  the  Chesapeake,  with  several  thousand 
land  troops  on  board.  Washington  now  saw  an  opportunity  for 
making  a  most  important  change  in  the  campaign.  Cornwallis 
had  shut  himself  up  in  Yorktown,  and  Washington  discerned  at 
once  tfye  possibility  of  uniting  his  army  with  the  French  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  overpowering  his  enemy  at  a  single  stroke.  This  plan 
required  great  skill  and  address ;  but  the  American  commander 
accomplished  it  with  an  ability  that  has  seldom  been  equalled. 
To  abandon  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  with  all  his  forces, 
would  lay  the  country  open  to  the  incursions  of  the  strong  British 
army  in  that  city ;  but  a  stratagem  of  Washington  obviated  the 
danger  from  this  source.  He  wrote  letters  to  the  officers  at  the 
south,  stating  his  inability  to  assist  them  with  any  part  of  his 
army,  as  he  was  about  to  make  an  immediate  attack  on  New 
York.  These  letters  were  intercepted  by  the  British,  as  had  been 
foreseen,  and  Clinton  was  completely  deceived  as  to  the  real 
intentions  of  Washington.  Fearing  an  immediate  attack,  he 
dared  not  send  aid  to  CornWallis,  but  left  that  officer  to  his  fate. 

Washington,  by  a  variety  of  well-combined  manoeuvres,  kept 
New  York  and  its  dependencies  in  a  continual  state  of  alarm  for 
several  weeks,  when,  towards  the  end  of  August,  judging  that  the 
proper  conjuncture  had  arrived,  he  suddenly  broke  up  his  camp, 
made  a  rapid  march  across  the  Jerseys  and  Pennsylvania,  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Chesapeake,  embarked  the  army  in  boats, 
descended  the  bay,  and  landed  safely  in  Virginia.  He  reached 
Williamsburg  on  the  14th  of  September. 

In  the  meantime,  the  fortunate  arrival  of  a  French  fleet  under 
the  Count  de  Grasse,  in  the  Chesapeake,  on  the  30th  of  August, 
hastened  the  decision  of  important  events.  No  intelligence  of  this 
had  reached  New  York ;  nor  could  anything  have  been  more  un- 
expected to  the  British  admiral,  Sir  Samuel  Hood,  who  arrived 
soon  after  in  the  Chesapeake,  than  to  find  a  French  fleet,  of  twenty- 
eight  sail  of  the  line,  lying  there  in  perfect  security.  About  the 
same  time,  near  twenty  British  ships  of  the  line,  from  the  West 
Indies,  joined  the  squadron  under  Admiral  Graves,  before  New  York. 

This  fleet  sailed  for  the  Chesapeake,  and  entered  the  bay  six 
days  after  the  arrival  of  the  Count  de  Grasse.  The  French 


SIEGE   OF   YORRTOWN.  653 

squadron  had  not  been  discovered  by  the  British  commander,  nor 
had  he  gained  any  intelligence  that  de  Grasse  was  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast,  until  the  morning  of  the  fifth  of  September,  when  the 
English  observed  them  in  full  view  within  Cape  Henry.  The 
fleets  were  nearly  equal  in  strength,  and  a  spirited  action  ensued; 
equal  gallantry  was  exhibited  on  both  sides,  but  neither  could 
boast  of  victory.  Both  squadrons  were  considerably  injured,  and 
one  British  seventy-four  was  rendered  totally  unfit  for  service,  and 
set  on  fire  by  the  crew.  The  English,  indeed,  were  not  beaten,  but 
the  French  gained  a  double  advantage ;  for  while  the  Count  de 
Grasse  remained  at  a  distance,  watched  by  the  British  navy,  he 
secured  a  passage  for  the  fleet  of  the  Count  de  Barras  from  Rhode 
Island,  and  gained  to  himself  the  advantage  of  blocking  up  the 
Chesapeake  against  the  enemy.  Barras  brought  with  him  the 
French  troops  from  Rhode  Island,  amounting  to  about  three  thou- 
sand men.  These  joined  La  Fayette,  whose  numbers  had  been 
greatly  reduced.  This  reinforcement  enabled  him  to  support  him- 
self by  defensive  operations,  until,  in  a  short  time,  they  were  all 
united  under  the  command  of  the  Count  de  Rochambeau.  The 
British  fleet  continued  a  few  days  in  the  Chesapeake.  Their  ships 
were  so  much  injured,  that  a  council  of  war  pronounced  it  neces- 
sary to  return  to  New  York. 

In  the  meantime,  Clinton  wrote  letters  full  of  specious  pro- 
mises, to  buoy  up  the  hopes  of  Cornwallis,  by  strong  assurances 
that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  sending  forward  a  force  sufficient 
for  his  relief.  He  informed  him  that  a  fleet,  under  the  command 
of  Lord  Digby,  who  had  recently  arrived  at  New  York,  would 
sail  for  the  Chesapeake  by  the  fifth  of  October ;  that  Clinton  him- 
self was  nearly  ready  to  embark  with  a  large  body  of  troops. 
These  flattering  assurances  from  the  commander-in/-chief  induced 
Cornwallis  to  avoid  a  general  action.  His  situation  had  been  for 
some  time  truly  distressing.  Embarrassed  between  his  own  opin- 
ion and  the  orders  of  his  superior,  flattered  by  the  promise  of  timely 
relief,  in  such  force  as  to  enable  him  to  cope  with  the  united 
armies  of  France  and  America,  he  waited -the  result,  and  would 
;  not  suffer  himself  to  be  impelled  by  any  circumstances  to  risk  his 
army  beyond  the  probability  of  success.  The  mouth  of  the  river 
at  Yorktown  was  blocked  up  by  the  French  fleet ;  the  American 
army,  in  high  health  and  spirits,  strengthened  by  daily  recruits, 
led  on  by  Washington,  in  conjunction  with  a  French  army,  under 
Rochambeau,  an  officer  of  courage,  experience,  and  ability,  were 
making  rapid  advances.  On  the  28th  of  September,  they  left 
Williamsburg,  and  on  the  6th  of  October,  12,000  strong,  they 
opened  their  trenches  before  Yorktown. 

04 


654  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

Cornwallis  determined,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  that 
pressed  upon  him,  to  make  a  desperate  defence.  His  army  was 
worn  down  by  sickness  and  fatigue,  but  there  was  no  want  of 
resolution  or  valor ;  his  officers  were  intrepid  and  his  men  brave. 
They  acquitted  themselves  with  spirit,  and  kept  their  ground  from 
the  sixth  to  the  sixteenth  of  October  without  despairing.  But  the 
besiegers  pressed  their  attacks  with  such  vigor,  that  Cornwallis  at 
length  plainly  saw  he  had  only  to  choose  between  an  immediate 
surrender,  and  an  effort  to  escape  and  save  a  part  of  his  army  by 
flight.  He  determined  on  the  latter  expedient.  For  this  purpose, 
he  passed,  on  the  night  of  the  sixteenth,  the  greatest  part  of  his 
army  from  Yorktown  across  the  river  to  Gloucester,  leaving  only 
a  detachment  behind  to  capitulate  for  the  town's  people,  the  sick, 
and  the  wounded. 

But  fortune  did  not  favor  the  enterprise.  The  boats  had  an 
easy  passage,  but,  at  the  critical  moment  of  landing  the  men,  the 
weather  suddenly  changed  from  a  calm  to  a  violent  storm  of  rain 
and  wind,  which  carried  the  boats  down  the  river,  with  many  of 
the  troops,  who  had  not  time  to  disembark.  It  was  soon  evident 
that  the  intended  passage  was  impracticable ;  and  the  absence  of 
the  boats  rendered  it  equally  impossible  to  bring  back  the  portion 
of  the  army  that  had  passed.  The  troops  were  dispersed  by  the 
storm  by  which  the  boats  were  driven  down  the  river,  though 
some  of  them  returned  to  Yorktown  the  ensuing  day.  Desperate 
as  was  the  situation  of  the  British,  a  faint  resistance  was  still 
made,  by  an  order  to  Colonel  Abercrombie  to  sally  out  with  four 
hundred  men,  to  advance,  attack,  and  spike  the  cannon  of  two 
batteries  of  the  besiegers,  which  were  nearly  finished.  This  was 
executed  with  spirit  and  success,  but  attended  with  no  important 
consequences.  The  besiegers  continued  their  vigorous  operations, 
without  the  smallest  intermission,  until  prepared  for  the  last 
assault  on  the  town,  which  they  began  on.  the  morning  of  the  17th. 
In  this  hopeless  condition,  the  British  works  in  ruins,  most  of  the 
troops  sick,  wounded  or  fatigued,  and  without  rational  expecta- 
tion of  relief  from  any  quarter,  Cornwallis  found  it  necessary  to 
propose  terms  of  submission. 

The  officers  appointed  on  the  part  of  the  Americans  to  draw  up 
the  articles  of  capitulation,  were  the  Count  de  Noailles  and 
Colonel  John  Laurens,  a  son  of  the  American  ambassador  at  this 
time  confined  in  the  tower  of  London,  and  very  severely  treated. 
By  a  strange  concurrence  of  events,  Lord  Cornwallis,  constable  of 
the  tower  of  London,  was  now  on  the  point  of  becoming  a  prisoner, 
with  his  army,  under  the  dictation  of  the  son  of  Mr.  Laurens. 
The  capitulation  was  signed  on  the  19th  of  October,  1781,  and  the 


SURRENDER    OF    CORNW^LLIS.  655 

whole  army,  consisting  of  upwards  of  seven  thousand  men,  were 
surrendered  prisoners  of  war.  The  British  were  permitted  only 
the  same  honors  of  war  that  Cornwallis  had  granted  the  Ameri- 
cans on  the  surrender  of  Charleston.  The  officers  were  allowed 
their  side  arms,  but  the  troops  marched  with  their  colors  cased, 
and  made  their  submission  to  General  Lincoln,  precisely  in  the 
same  manner  as  his  army  had  done  to  the  British  commander  a 
few  months  before.  Within  five  days  after  the  surrender  of  all 
the  posts  that  had  been  held  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  a  British  fleet 
from  New  York,  under  Lord  Digby,  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  and 
seven  thousand  troops  on  board,  entered  the  Chesapeake,  in  full 
confidence  of  success;  but,  to  their  inexpressible  mortification, 
Cornwallis  had  fallen,  and  they  could  only  show  themselves  and 
retreat. 

By  the  capitulation  of  Cornwallis,  all  the  shipping  in  the  harbor 
was  left  to  the  disposal  of  the  Count  de  Grasse,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Bonetta  sloop  of  war.  This  was  granted  to  the 
British  to  carry  their  despatches  to  New  York.  It  included  the 
liberty  of  conveying  as  many  of  the  troops  as  it  was  convenient, 
to  be  exchanged  for  an  equal  -  number  of  Americans.  The 
humanity  of  Cornwallis  prompted  him  to  avail  himself  of  this 
liberty,  to  ship  off,  instead  of  soldiers,  the  most  violent  of  the 
loyalists,  who  were  terrified  beyond  description  at  the  thought  of 
falling  into  the  hands  of  their  countrymen.  After  the  return  of 
the  Bonetta,  she  also  was  to  be  delivered  to  the  French  Admiral. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  exultation  that  appeared  throughout 
America  on  the  capture  of  the  British  army  at  Yorktown.  The 
thanks  of  congress  were  presented  to  the  Count  de  Rochambeau, 
General  Washington,  and  the  Count  de  Grasse.  Public  rejoicings 
took  place  throughout  the  country,  and  thanksgivings  were 
offered  in  the  churches. 

While  the  French  and  American  armies  were  advancing  to  the 
siege  of  Yorktown,  Arnold,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  British,  made 
an  incursion  from  New  York  into  Connecticut.  On  the  6th  of 
September,  1781,  he  landed  at  New  London.  A  party  of  his 
troops,  led  on  by  Colonel  Eyre,  attacked  Fort  Griswold,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  harbor.  The  garrison  defended  themselves  with 
great  courage,  but  after  a  severe  action,  the  fort  was  carried  by 
assault.  A  British  officer,  on  entering  the  place,  enquired  who 
commanded.  Colonel  Ledyard  answered,  "  I  did ;  but  you  do 
now,"  at  the  same  time  surrendering  his  sword.  He  was  imme- 
diately run  through  the  body.  After  this  barbarous  murder,  many 
of  the  soldiers  were  also  butchered,  offering  no  resistance.  New 
London  and  Groton  were  then  set  on  fire,  with  such  of  the  ship- 


656  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

ping  as  had  not  escaped  up  the  river.  After  a  marauding  excur- 
sion of  eight  days,  the  British  returned  to  New  York,  having 
gained  nothing  but  a  reputation  for  useless  and  wanton  cruelty. 

In  consequence  of  the  capture  of  Lord  Cornwallis  and  some  other 
decided  successes  in  the  southern  states,  a  general  exchange  of 
prisoners  soon  after  took  place.  Many  of  the  captured  Americans 
had  been  sent  to  Great  Britain,  where  they  were  treated  with 
almost  every  severity,  short  of  death.  Some  of  them  were  trans- 
ported to  the  East  Indies ;  others  put  to  menial  services  on  board 
ships ;  but  after  some  time  those  who  were  conveyed  to  England 
might  be  deemed  happy,  when  their  sufferings  were  contrasted 
with  those  of  their  countrymen  who  perished  on  board  the  prison 
ships  in  America,  under  the  eye  of  the  British  commanders.  No 
time  will  wipe  off  the  stigma  that  is  left  on  the  names  of  Clinton 
and  Howe;  for  posterity  will  remember  that  during  six  years 
of  their  command  in  New  York,  eleven  thousand  Americans  died, 
mostly  from  ill  treatment,  on  board  the  Jersey  prison  ship  at  that 
place.  Nor  was  the  proportion  smaller  of  those  who  perished  in 
their  other  jails,  dungeons,  and  prison  hulks. 

Upon  the  restoration  of  tranquillity  in  Virginia,  General  Wayne 
was  ordered  with  the  Pennsylvania  line,  to  march  with  the  utmost 
despatch  to  South  Carolina,  to  the  aid  of  Greene,  who  had  yet 
many  difficulties  to  encounter.  The  distance  from  the  central 
states,  and  the  long  service  at  the  southward,  had  exposed  the 
American  commander  and  his  army  there  to  indescribable  suffer- 
ings. After  the  action  at  the  Eutaw  Springs,  we  left  Greene  on 
the  High  Hills  of  Santee,  to  which  place  he  repaired  to  secure  and 
recruit  the  remainder  of  his  army.  After  a  short  stay  he  advanced 
towards  Jacksonborough.  There  the  light  troops  from  Virginia, 
that  had  been  under  Laurens  and  Lee,  joined  him ;  but  the  whole 
army  was  so  destitute  of  ammunition  and  every  other  necessary 
for  hostilities,  that  they  had  scarcely  the  means  of  supporting 
themselves  in  a  defensive  condition.  Some  small  skirmishes 
ensued,  without  much  advantage  to  either  party.  It  was  fortu- 
nate for  the  Americans  that  their  enemies  were  now  almost  as 
much  reduced  in  number  as  themselves.  Yet  the  various  causes 
of  distress  among  this  small  remnant  of  continental  soldiers,  were 
almost  innumerable.  They  were  in  an  unhealthy  climate,  always 
unfriendly  to  northern  constitutions;  they  were  almost  without 
the  means  of  supporting  human  life.  Their  general  had  disaffec- 
tion, discontent  and  mutiny,  to  combat  in  his  own  army.  The 
Maryland  line,  particularly,  indulged  a  mutinous  spirit  to  an 
alarming  extreme,  which  it  required  all  the  address  of  the  comman- 
der-in-chief  to  suppress.  In  this  wretched  situation,  Greene  and 


RAVAGES    OF    THE   BRITISH   IN   GEORGIA.  657 

his  little  army  continued  through  the  winter  of  1780;  and  such 
was  the  severe  and  vigilant  duty  of  the  officers,  that,  for  seven 
months,  the  general  himself  was  hardly  able  to  take  off  his  clothes 
for  a  night.  .The  advance  of  Wayne,  with  his  detachment  from 
Virginia,  which  reached  South  Carolina  before  the  close  of  1781, 
had  been  impatiently  expected.  Without  this,  it  would  have  been 
impossible  for  Greene  to  have  held  out  much  longer.  Some  pro- 
visions, clothing  and  other  necessaries  reached  the  army  in  the 
ensuing  spring.  This  partially  relieved  the  American  comman- 
der from  the  complicated  distresses  he  had  suffered  the  preceding 
winter. 

Wayne  did  not  continue  long  in  South  Carolina,  but  marched 
forward,  by  order  of  Greene,  to  cross  the  Savannah.  He  was 
reinforced  by  a  party  from  Augusta.  Though  Georgia  was  con- 
sidered by  the  British  as  completely  subjugated,  yet  there  was  a 
considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants  who  still  took  part  with 
congress,  and  continued  to  send  a  delegation  of  members  to  that 
body,  through  all  the  hostile  movements  and  changes,  for  several 
years.  Georgia  was  relieved  at  a  time  when  the  inhabitants 
least  expected  it.  Animated  by -the  successes  in  Virginia,  the 
advance  of  Wayne  was  rapid,  and  his  arrival  on  the  borders  sur- 
prised Clarke,  the  British  general,  who  commanded  at  Savannah. 

On  the  first  rumor  of  the  approach  of  the  Americans,  orders 
were  given  by  Clarke  to  the  officers  commanding  his  outposts,  to 
burn  and  destroy  everything  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  retire 
with  the  troops  within  the  works,  in  the  suburbs  of  Savannah. 
These  orders  were  obeyed.  After  this  waste  of  property,  and  the 
destruction  of  their  crops,  the  Georgians  not  only  suffered  from 
hunger,  fatigue  and  the  attacks  of  British  partisans,  but  also  from 
the  irruptions  of  the  Creek  Indians,  and  other  savages  in  the  Brit- 
ish service.  The  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  despair,  but 'the 
speedy  arrival  of  Wayne's  detachment  revived  their  sinking 
spirits,  and  roused  them  to  new  exertions  in  defence  of  their 
country.  The  people  from  every  quarter  flocked  to  the  standard 
of  Wayne.  After  crossing  the  Savannah,  he  was  attacked  by 
Colonel  Brown,  who  had  marched  with  a  considerable  party  from 
the  city.  This  body  of  troops  fell  suddenly  on  Wayne's  advancing 
forces;  they  fought  with  great  spirit  and  valor,  but  were  soon 
defeated  and  driven  back  by  the  Americans.  A  few  days  after 
this,  a  very  large  body  of  the  Creek  Indians,  headed  by  a  British 
officer,  attempted  in  the  night  to  surprise  Wayne  in  his  quarters. 
But  this  vigilant  officer  was  in  greater  readiness  for  their  recep- 
tion than  they  expected.  The  assailants  gained  little  advantage 
by  their  sudden  onset.  The  battle  was  bloody,  but  did  not  con- 
56 


658  .   r^t       THE    UNITED    STATES. 

tinue  Jong.  The  Indians  were  put  to  flight  with  great  loss.  The 
low  state  of  British  affairs  in  the  Carolinas,  and  the  advance  of  a 
body  of  American  troops,  were  circumstances  so  discouraging  to 
the  invaders,  that  they  did  not  think  proper  to  make  any  vigorous 
resistance.  A  period  was  soon  put  lo  these  hostilities,  that  had 
for  several  years  ravaged  the  southern  states.  Savannah  was 
evacuated  by  the  British  on  the  21st  of  July,  arid  they  were 
driven  finally  from  the  Carolinas,  in  December,  1782. 

When  the  British  parliament  met  after  the  news  of  the  surren- 
der of  Cornwallis,  the  total  defeat  of  the  expedition  to  the  Chesa- 
peake, and  the  declining  aspect  of  affairs  in  the  southern  colonies, 
the  speech  from  the  throne  was  yet  manifestly  dictated  by  the  spirit 
of  hostility.  The  king,  though  he  lamented  in  the  preamble  of 
his  speech  the  loss  of  his  brave  officers  and  troops,  and  the  unfor- 
tunate termination  of  the  campaign  in  Virginia,  still  urged  the 
most  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  of  such  hostile  mea- 
sures as  might  extinguish  what  he  called  "the  spirit  of  rebellion." 
But  these  views  encountered  great  opposition.  It  was  said  in 
parliament,  that  "  the  enormous  expense,  the  great  accumulation 
of  public  debt,  occasioned  by  the  contest  with  America,  the  effu- 
sion of  blood  which  it  had  occasioned,  the  diminution  of  trade, 
and  the  increase  of  taxes,  were  evils  of  such  magnitude,  as  could 

*  o  I 

be  scarcely  overlooked  by  the  most  insensible  spectator.  Further 
efforts  to  reduce  the  revolted  colonies  to  obedience  by  force,  under 
the  present  circumstances,  would  only  increase  the  mutual  enmity, 
so  fatal  to  the  interests  of  Great  Britain  and  America,  forever 

'  + 

prevent  a  reconciliation,  and  would  weaken  the  efforts  of  Great 
Britain  against  the  house  of  Bourbon  and  other  European  ene- 
mies." Thus,  the  colonies  alienated,  Ireland  in  a  state  of  despera- 
tion, Scotland  little  less  discontented,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
West  Indies  lost  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  affairs  of  the  East  Indies 
in  the  most  deranged  and  perturbed  state,  it  was  impossible  for 
the  existing  ministry,  the  ostensible  agents  of  these  complicated 
evils,  longer  to  maintain  any  degree  of  popularity. 

A  detail  of  the  expenses  of  the  fruitless  war  with  America,  was 
laid  before  the  house  of  commons,  and  though  many  arguments 
were  used  in  favor  of  the  ministry,  no  subterfuge  could  screen 
them,  nor  any  reluctance  they  felt,  retard  their  resignation.  This 
was  called  for  from  every  quarter,  in  terms  severe  and  sarcastic. 
The  hollow  murmur  of  discontent  at  last  penetrated  the  ear  of 
royalty,  and  compelled  the  king  to  listen  to  the  voice  of  the  nation 
in  favor  of  peace.  A  motion  was  made  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons, by  General  Conway,  for  an  address  to  the  king,  requesting 
him  to  put  an  immediate  end  to  the  destructive  war  in  America. 


INDEPENDENCE   ACKNOWLEDGED,    AND    TREATY   OF    PEACE.          659 

This  motion  was  lost,  only  by  a  single  vote.  But  the  object  was 
not  relinquished;  the  address  was  again  brought  forward,  and 
finally  carried.  After  various  expedients,  Lord  Cavendish  moved 
that  the  house  should  resolve  that  the  enormous  expenses  of  the 
nation,  the  loss  of  the  colonies,  a  war  with  France,  Spain,  Hol- 
land and  America,  without  a  single  ally,  was  occasioned  by  a 
want  of  foresight  and  ability  in  his  majesty's  ministers,  and  that 
they  were  unworthy  of  further  confidence.  In  consequence  of 
which,  on  the  20th  of  March,  1782,  Lord  North  resigned  his 
place,  and  declared  to  the  house  of  commons,  that  the  present 
administration  from  that  day  ceased  to  exist. 

Thus,  after  the  blood  of  thousands  of  the  best  soldiers  in 
England  had  been  shed,  after  the  nation  had  been  involved  in 
expenses  almost  beyond  calculation,  her  trade  ruined,  and  the 
national  character  disgraced,  Great  Britain  abandoned  the  contest 
as  utterly  hopeless,  A  new  administration  was  formed,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  the  members  of  which 
were  opponents  of  the  American  war.  All  active  prosecution  of 
hostilities  ceased  from  this  time.  Negotiations  were  opened  with 
the  American  ministers,  and  at  length,  on  the  30th  of  November, 
1782,  provisional  articles  of  peace  between  Great  Britain  and 
America  were  signed  by  Messrs.  Franklin,  Adams,  Jay  and 
Laurens,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and  Messrs.  Fitzher- 
burt  and  Oswald,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  By  these  articles, 
the  independence  of  the  states  was  fully  acknowledged.  The 
definitive  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
was  signed  at  Paris,  on  the  3d  of  September,  1783,  by  Messrs. 
Franklin,  Adams  and  Jay,  on  the  part  of  America,  and  David 
Hartley,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  A  treaty  of  peace  between 
Great  Britain,  Spain  and  Holland,  was  also  concluded  on  the 
same  day.  Peace  had  been  signed  with  France  on  the  20th  of 
January,  1783 ;  and  thus  a  general  pacification  was  accomplished. 
The  war  of  the  American  Revolution  cost  Great  Britain  not  only 
the  total  loss  of  the  colonies,  but  fifty  thousand  men,  and  one 
hundred  millions  sterling. 

Meantime,  the  deranged  state  of  the  American  finances,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  depreciating  currency,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
loans  of  moneys  and  various  other  causes,  had  sufficiently  im- 
pressed the  people  with  a  deep  sense  of  their  danger.  These 
circumstances  had  led  the  army  to  submit  to  a  delay  in  the 
payment  of  their  wages  during  the  War,  notwithstanding  their 
personal  sufFerings.  But,  on  certain  intelligence  that  peace  was 
at  hand,  that  it  had  been  proposed  to  disband  the  army  by  fur- 
loughs, and  that  there  was  no  appearance  of  a  speedy  liquidation 


660  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  the  public  debts,  many  of  the  officers  and  soldiers  grew  loud 
in  their  complaints  and  bold  in  their  demands.  They  called  for 
an  immediate  payment  of  all  arrearages,  and  insisted  on  the 
fulfilment  of  the  commutation  proposed  by  congress  some  time 
before,  on  the  recommendation  of  Washington.  He  had  requested 
that  the  officers  of  the  army  might  be  secured  seven  years'  whole- 
pay,  instead  of  half  pay  for  life,  which  had  been  previously  stipu- 
lated. This  proposal,  after  reducing  the  term  to  five  years,  con- 
gress had  accepted.  The  soldiers  also  demanded  a  settlement 
for  rations,  clothing,  and  proper  consideration  for  the  delay  of  the 
payments  which  had  long  been  due.  They  chose  a  committee 
from  the  army  to  wait  on  congress,  to  represent  the  general 
uneasiness,  and  to  lay  the  complaints  of  the  army  before  them, 
and  to  enforce  the  requests  of  the  officers,  most  of  whom  were 
supposed  to  have  been  concerned  in  the  business.  Anonymous 
addresses  were  scattered  among  the  troops,  and  the  most  inflam- 
matory resolutions  drawn  up  and  disseminated  through  the  army ; 
these  were  written  with  ingenuity  and  spirit,  but  the  authors  were 
not  discovered.  Reports  were  everywhere  circulated  that  the 
military  department  would  do  itself  justice ;  that  the  army  would 
not  disband  until  congress  had  acceded  to  all  their  demands;  and 
that  they  would  keep  their  arms  in  their  hands  until  they  had 
compelled  the  states  to  a  settlement,  and  congress  to  a  compliance 
with  all  the  claims  of  the  public  creditors. 

In  answer  to  the  address  of  the  officers  of  the  army,  congress 
endeavored  to  quiet  the  complaints  by  expressions  of  kindness, 
encouragement  and  hope.  Several  months  passed  in  this  uneasy 
situation;  the  people  were  anxious,  the  officers  restless,  the  army 
instigated  by  ambitious  and  interested  men.  Washington,  both 
as  commander-in-chief,  and  as  a  man  who  had  the  welfare  of 
his  country  at  heart,  did  everything  in  his  power  to  quiet  the 
complaints,  and  to  dissipate  the  mutinous  spirit  of  the  army.  By 
his  assiduity,  prudence  and  judgment,  the  sedition  was  stilled  for 
a  short  time.  But  the  fire  was  not  extinguished;  the  secret  dis- 
satisfaction, that  had  rankled  for  several  months,  at  last  broke  out 
into  open  insurrection.  %  - 

On  the  20th  of  June,  1783,  a  part  of  the  Pennsylvania  line, 
with  some  other  troops,  marched  from  Lancaster  to  Philadelphia. 
There  they  were  joined  by  some  discontented  soldiers  in  the  bar- 
racks within  the  city,  who  had  recently  returned  poor,  emaciated 
and  miserable,  from  the  southern  service.  This  seditious  host 
surrounded  the  state-house  where  congress  was  sitting,  placed 
guards  at  the  doors,  and  threatened  immediate  outrage  unless 
their  demands  were  complied  with  in  the  short  space  of  twenty- 


FINANCIAL   DIFFICULTIES.  bOl 

four  minutes.  Congress,  thus  rudely  assaulted,  resented  the 
affront,  and  judged  it  improper  to  continue  longer  in  a  city 
where  they  could  not  be  sure  of  protection.  They  agreed  to 
leave  Philadelphia  immediately,  and  to  meet  on  the  26th  at 
Princeton, 

Washington,  very  far  from  countenancing  any  of  the  measures 
of  the  mutineers,  lost  not  a  moment  after  he  was  informed  of 
these  riotous  proceedings;  he  ordered  General  Robert  Howe  to 
march  with  a  body  of  fifteen  hundred  men  to  quell  the  mutineers. 
Aided  by  the  prudent  conduct  of  the  magistrates  of  Philadelphia, 
matters  were  not  carried  to  the  extremities  apprehended;  the 
refractory  soldiers  were  soon  reduced  to  obedience;  tranquillity 
was  restored  without  bloodshed..  Some  of  the  ringleaders  were 
taken  into  custody,  but  soon  after  received  a  pardon  from  con- 
gress. The  most  decided  steps  were  immediately  taken,  not  only 
to  quell  the  clamors  of  the  rioters,  but  to  do  justice  to  the  claims 
of  the  soldiers.  The  commutation  was  finally  agreed  on ;  five 
years'  full  pay  was  granted,  instead  of  half-pay,  during  the  lives 
of  the  officers  of  the  army.  To  this  was  added  a  promise  of  a 
large  quantity  of  land  in  the  western  territory,  to  be  distributed 
among  them  according  to  their  rank  in  the  army.  Yet  they  were 
not  satisfied ;  their  complaints  were  loud ;  the  grievances  and  the 
merits  of  the  army  Were  strongly  urged. 

The  distressed  state  of  the  American  finances  was  highly 
alarming;  congress  was  without  revenue,  or  fiscal  arrangements 
that  promised  to  be  sufficiently  productive;  without  power  or 
energy  to  enforce  any  orders  until  the  consent  of  each  individual 
state  was  obtained.  There  had  been  a  violent  opposition  to  a 
proposal  for  raising  a  revenue,  by  an  impost  of  five  per  cent,  on 
all  goods  imported  from  foreign  countries.  As  this  was  an 
experiment,  it  was  limited  to  twenty-five  years.  Had  the  expe- 
dient been  adopted,  it  might  have  prevented  many  subsequent 
difficulties  and  embarrassments.  Meantime,  Sir  Guy  Carleton 
had  taken  command  of  the  royal  forces  in  North  America.  On 
the  25th  of  November,  1783,  all  the  British  troops  evacuated  the 
city  of  New  York.  General  Carleton  embarked  the  same  day; 
and  Admiral  Digby  sailed  for  England,  with  the  remainder  of  the 
fleet,  that  had  for  many  years  infested  the  sea-coasts  of  America. 
Thus  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  states,  that  had  so  long  been  dis- 
tressed by  the  ravages  of  the  British  navy,  were  left  in  repose. 
No  sufficient  apology  was,  however,  yet  made  for  the  detention  of 
the  western  posts ;  they  were  long  retained.;*  and  this  breach  of 
faith  was  afterwards  attended  with  very  important  consequences. 
Under  the  frivolous  pretences  of  non-compliance,  on  the  part  of 
56*  F4 


662 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


the  United  States,  with  some  articles  stipulated  in  the  definitive 
treaty,  a  long  line  of  posts  in  the  western  territory  was  still  held 
by  the  British. 

Washington,  in  full  possession  of  the  confidence  of  the  people, 
the  applause  of  his  country,  the  love  of  the  army,  the  esteem  of 
all  the  friends  of  liberty  throughout  the  world,  disbanded  his 
troops  without  inconvenience  or  murmur  on  their  part.  By  order 
of  the  commander-in-chief,  the  peace  was  celebrated  at  New 
York  on  the  1st  day  of  December,  1783;  and  on  the  twenty-third 
of  the  same  month  Washington  resigned  his  commission  to  con- 
gress and  retired  to  private  life. 

Before  the  separation  of  the  army,  the  general  took  an  affection- 
ate leave  of  his  faithful  soldiers,  and  of  each  of  his  officers  singly, 
at  New  York.  His  farewell  to  his  brave  associates  through  the 
perilous  scenes  of  the  war,  was  attended  with  singular  circumstan- 
ces of  affection  and  attachment.  His  address  to  the  army  was 
energetic  and  impressive.  While  the  sensibility  of  the  commander- 
in-chief  appeared  in  his  countenance,  it  was  reciprocated  in  the 
faces  of  both  officers  and  soldiers ;  and  in  the  course  of  this  solemn 
farewell,  tears  stole  down  the  cheeks  of  men  6f  courage  and  har- 
dihood, long  inured  to  scenes  of  slaughter  and  distress,  which  too 
generally  deaden  the  best  feelings  of  the  human  heart. 


Washington. 


CHAPTER    LXVI. 

Defects  of  the  old  confederation. — Stagnation  of  trade. — Insurrection  of  Shays,  in 
Massachusetts. — Necessity  for  a  new  system  of  government. —  The  convention  of 
Philadelphia. — Formation  of  the  federal  constitution. —  Washington  first  presi- 
dent.—  Organization  of  the  federal  government. —  United  States  bank  established. 
— Rise  of  party  spirit. —  The  whiskey  insurrection  in  Pennsylvania. — Indian  war. 
— Defeat  of  Harmer  and  St.  Clair. — Wayne^s  campaign. — Defeat  of  the  sav- 
ages on  the  Miami. — Treaty  with  Spain  respecting  the  Mississippi. — Jay's 
treaty  with  Great  Britain. 

THE  contest  for  political  freedom  Avas  over,  the  United  States 
of  America  had  become  an  independent  nation,  and  John  Adams 
was  received  as  American  minister  to  the  British  court  in  1785. 
But  a  task  almost  equally  difficult  remained, — to  settle  the  domestic 
affairs  of  the  country  on  a  permanent  basis.  While  the  war  con- 
tinued, the  mighty  pressure  of  foreign  hostilities  had  operated  as 
a  bond  of  union  upon  the  various  members  of  the  confederacy ; 
but  that  pressure  being  now  removed,  the  necessity  was  imme- 
diately felt  for  a  more  durable  form  of  government.  The  states 
had  carried  on  the  war  with  unanimity,  it  is  true,  but  the  ties  that 
united  them  were  loose  and  precarious.  They  formed  but  a  tem- 
porary confederacy,  and  not  a  systematic  union.  The  powers  of 
congress  were  not  legislative  but  advisory;  almost  everything 
depended  on  the  will  of  the  separate  states.  It  was  easy  to  per- 
ceive that  this  system  of  general  administration  could  last  no 
longer  than  the  immediate  exigency  to  which  it  owed  its  origin. 

During  the  first  years  that  elapsed  after  the  peace,  the  revolu- 
tionary confederation  continued.  Congress  sent  forth  annual 
requisitions  to  the  states  for  the  sums  of  money  Avanted  for  the 
public  service,  while  each  state  collected  its  own  revenue.  The 
first  evil  of  this  system  was  felt  in  the  embarrassment  of  trade. 
Congress  having  no  power  1o  levy  duties  or  regulate  commerce, 
all  mercantile  transactions  were  loose  and  uncertain.  The  gov- 
ernment being  without  an  efficient  head,  no  treaties  of  commerce, 
on  a  permanent  basis,  could  be  made  with  foreign  powers;  and  for 
the  same  reasons,. no  public  loans  could  be  raised  nor  credit  estab- 
lished, nor  debt  funded.  Foreign  commerce  became  almost  annihi- 
lated, and  the  supplies  of  the  precious  metals  were  cut  off.  Thus, 
without  specie  or  paper  currency,  trade  was  almost  at  an  end, 


SHAY'S  INSURRECTION.  665 

and  property  of  every  description  depreciated  in  value  to  a  ruinous 
extent.  When  taxes  were  to  be  paid,  any  article  useful  to  man 
was  received  in  lieu  of  money. 

The  general  distress  soon  led  to  murmurs,  and  from  thence  to 
internal  tumults.  This  uneasy  and  refractory  spirit  had  for  some 
time  shown  itself  in  the  states  of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Connecticut,  and  some  other  portions  of  the  union,  but  Mas- 
sachusetts seemed  to  be  the  chief  seat  of  discontent.  Bristol, 
Middlesex,  and  the  western  counties,  Worcester,  Hampshire  and 
Berkshire,  were  violently  disturbed  by  seditious  movements.  The 
people  met  in  county  conventions  in  1786,  drew  up  addresses  to 
the  general  court,  with  a  long  list  of  grievances,  some  of  them  real, 
others  imaginary.  They  published  many  resolves,  most  of  which 
were  absurd  in  the  extreme.  They  censured  the  conduct  of  the 
officers  of  government,  called  for  a  revision  of  the  constitution  of 
Massachusetts,  voted  the  senate  and  judicial  courts  to-  be  griev- 
ances, and  proceeded,  in  a  most  daring  and  insolent  manner,  to 
prevent  the  sitting  of  the  courts  of  justice  in  Hampshire  and  Berk- 
shire. These  disturbances  were  for  a  time  truly  alarming,  and 
gave  cause  for  serious  apprehensions  that  civil  convulsions  might 
spread  through  the  whole  country.  The  high-handed  and  threat- 
ening proceedings  of  the  insurgents  assumed  every  day  a  more 
formidable  aspect.  There  were  among  them  many  veteran  sol- 
diers, who  had  been  very  serviceable  in  the  field  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  They  assembled  in  great  numbers,  and  seemed  to 
bid  defiance  to  all  law,  order  and  government. 

In  the  winter  of  1786,  several  thousand  of  these  persons,  armed 
and  embodied,  appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of  Springfield. 
They  chose  for  their  leader  Daniel  Shays,  a  person  who  had  been 
a  subaltern  officer  during  the  war ;  threatened  to  march  to  Boston, 
and  by  compulsory  measures  to  oblige  the  general  court  to  redress 
the  grievances  of  the  people,  which  they  alleged  were  brought 
upon  them  by  enormous  taxation  and  other  severities.  They, 
however,  thought  proper  to  send  forward  a  petition,  instead  of 
marching,  sword  in  hand,  to  the  capital. 

In  this  situation  of  affairs,  Governor  Bowdoin  was  empowered 
by  the  legislature  to  order  a  military  force  to  march  against  the 
insurgents,  under  the  command  of  General  Lincoln.  But  before 
the  troops  from  the  eastern  counties  had  collected  at  Worcester, 
great  numbers  of  the  insurgents  had  embodied  and  marched,  with 
Shays  at  their  head,  to  Springfield,  on  the  25th  of  January,  1787, 
with  a  design  to  attack  the  arsenal  at  that  place.  This  was 
defended  by  General  Shepard,  who  took"  every  precaution  tc 
prevent  the  shedding  of  blood.  He  expostulated  with  their  lead  • 


666  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

ers,  and  warned  them  against  the  fatal  consequences  of  persever- 
ance in  their  rebellious  proceedings.  The  insurgents,  however, 
inarched  against  the  arsenal,  but  Shepard,  by  a  single  discharge 
from  his  cannon,  dispersed  their  whole  body,  and  they  immedi- 
ately took  to  flight.  A  few  days  afterward  they  again  collected 
from  all  quarters,  and  took  a  position  on  the  heights  of  Pelham. 

Lincoln  arrived  immediately  after  at  Springfield,  and  took  com- 
mand of  all  the  state  forces.  He  detached  a  party  to  Middlefield, 
who  captured  a  body  of  sixty  of  the  rebels,  with  a  quantity  of 
stores.  He  then  marched,  in  pursuit  of  Shays,  towards  Pelham. 
The  insurgent  leader,  aware  of  his  desperate  situation,  attempted 
to  negotiate  for  a  pardon.  Lincoln  replied  only  by  summoning 
him  to  surrender.  Shays,  finding  he  could  not  deal  with  Lincoln, 
despatched  a  petition  to  the  general  court,  jointly  with  several  of 
his  officers,  proposing  to  lay  down  his  arms  on  condition  of  a  gene- 
ral amnesty;  but  from  the  insolent  style  of  the  petition,  it  was 
rejected.  Shays  was  now  at  the  head  of  two  thousand  men,  and 
the  insurrection  appeared  so  threatening  that  another  strong  body 
of  militia  was  sent  to  reinforce  the  army  of  the  state.  The  rebels 
maintained  a  menacing  attitude  till  February,  when  they  began 
to  lose  heart,  finding  that  the  insurrection  spread  no  further. 
One  of  their  leaders  abandoned  them,  and  shortly  after,  they 
retreated  from  Pelham  and  marched  towards  Petersham.  It  was 
now  the  depth  of  winter,  and  the  most  intense  cold  prevailed. 
Lincoln  pursued  them  rapidly  in  their  retreat,  against  a  furious 
northerly  snow  storm.  At  Petersham  he  came  suddenly  upon  the 
rebel  army,  attacked,  and  completely  dispersed  them. 

Small  bodies  of  the  insurgents  had  made  their  appearance  in 
other  places,  but  they  were  quickly  routed  by  the  militia.  On  the 
26th  of  February,  a  body  of  those  who  had  fled  into  the  state  of 
New  York  appeared  again  in  the  county  of  Berkshire,  and  plun- 
dered the  town  of  Stockbridge.  The  militia  of  the  neighborhood 
turned  out  and  attacked  them  at  Sheffield.  After  a  sharp  action, 
the  rebels  were  defeated.  Shays,  after  his  rout  at  Petersham,  was 
unable  to  make  any  stand  against  the  forces  of  the  government, 
and  was  soon  driven  out  of  the  state.  The  insurgents  everywhere 
laid  down  their  arms,  and  tranquillity  was  speedily  restored.  No 
person  suffered  capital  punishment  in  consequence  of  this  rebel- 
lion. Shays  himself  received  a  full  pardon  the  following  year, 
and  passed  the  remainder  of  a  long  life  in  obscurity,  entirely 
forgotten  by  the  world. 

The  necessity  for  a  consolidated  system  of  government  became 
more  and  more  pressing.  Congress  at  first  called  upon  the  states 
to  enlarge  their  powers ;  this  was  done  by  some,  but  others  fet- 


FORMATION   OF    THE   FEDERAL   CONSTITUTION. 


667 


tered  their  grants  with  so  many  restrictions,  that  no  general 
improvement  of  the  system  was  effected.  The  more  sagacious 
and  reflecting  among  the  American  statesmen  at  length  became 
convinced  that  the  old  system  of  the  confederacy  had  become 
totally  inadequate  for  the  purposes  of  government,  and  that  the 
only  hope  of  the  country  lay  in  a  perfect  union  of  the  states  under 
a  single  head.  The  first  proposal  of  a  federal  system  was  made 
by  Mr.  Madison,  in  the  legislature  of  Virginia.  This  proposal 
was  encouraged  by  men  of  influence  in  every  quarter  of  the  coun- 
try, and  was  received  with  such  general  favor  as  to  bring  forth 
a  resolution  in  congress,  recommending  a  convention  of  delegates 
to  be  held  at  Philadelphia,  on  the  second  Monday  in  May,  1787, 
for  the  purpose  of  re-modelling  the  government.  This  suggestion 
was  complied  with  by  all  the  states,  and  the  convention  met  at 
the  time  appointed.  Washington  was  president  of  the  convention. 
They  held  a  session  of  nearly  four  months,  with  closed  doors,  and 
agreed  on  a  plan  of  general  government.  This  they  reported  to 
congress,  recommending  that  it  should  be  submitted  to  a  separate 
convention  in  each  state  for  ratification.  In  this  quiet  and  simple 
manner  was  formed  and  ushered  into  the  world  that  most  noble 
of  all  political  works,  the  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Convention  at  Philadelphia  forming  the  Constitution. 

At  the  present  day,  we  are  hardly  able  to  understand  how  a 
scheme  so  absolutely  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  country, 
could  have  found  any  opposers.  Yet  the  constitution,  although 
recommended  by  Washington,  Franklin,  Adams,  and  the  whole 
host  of  revolutionary  patriots,  aroused  a  numerous  band  of 
enemies.  Here  we  notice  the  origin  of  those  factions  which  have, 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 

down  to  the  present  day,  disturbed  the  tranquillity,  and  at  times 
threatened  the  safety  of  the  country.  Parties  began  to  form,  de- 
fending and  opposing  the  federal  constitution,  and  great  strife  and 
animosity  were  excited.  The  friends  of  the  constitution,  how- 
ever, who  took  the  name  of  federalists,  were  much  the  more 
numerous  party,  and  far  exceeded  their  opponents  in  talent, 
influence  and  general  respectability.  John  Adams,  residing  in 
London  as  American  minister,  published,  in  1787,  a  most  able 
work,  entitled  "Defence  of  the  American  Constitution" — Madison, 
Hamilton  and  Jay  wrote  "The  Federalist,"  a  series  of  essays,  dis- 
playing with  great  acuteness  the  excellencies  of  the  new  system. 
These  writings  had  a  powerful  effect,  and  the  general  voice  pro- 
nounced loudly  in  favor  of  the  federal  government.  Ten  of  the 
thirteen  states  gave  their  adhesion  to  it  before  the  14th  of  July, 
1788,  and  it  was  on  that  day  ratified  by  congress.  The  other 
states  had  liberty  to  join  the  Union  or  continue  as  separate  govern- 
ments. They  did  not  hesitate  long.  New  York  acceded  July  26, 
1788.  North  Carolina  in  November,  1789,  and  Rhode  Island  in 
May,  1790. 

The  government  of  the  new  American  republic  was  to  go  into 
action  on  the  4th  of  March,  1789.  George  Washington  was 
elected  first  President  of  the  United  States,  and  John  Adams  Vice 
President.  The  first  congress  met  at  New  York  on  the  4th  of 
March,  and  proceeded  without  delay  to  raise  a  revenue  by  imposing 
duties  on  importations ;  to  constitute  a  federal  judiciary  by  estab- 
lishing a  supreme  court;  to  organize  the  executive  administration 
by  creating  the  departments  of  war,  foreign  affairs  and  the  treas- 
ury. The  navy  of  the  United  States  did  not  exist.  The  next  ob- 
jects were,  to  fund  the  national  debt,  assume  the  individual  debts 
of  the  states,  and  establish  a  national  bank.  The  payment  of 
the  demands  of  the  revolutionary  soldiers  was  provided  for,  and 
measures  taken  to  build  up  the  national  credit.  Hamilton,  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  regulated  the  administration  of  the 
finances  with  talent  and  foresight.  Aided  by  his  labors,  the 
fiscal  concerns  of  the  United  States  were  soon  placed  on  a  re- 
spectable footing.  Hamilton  proposed  a  national  bank,  and  this 
institution  was  incorporated  by  congress  in  February,  1791,  with 
a  capital  of  ten  millions  of  dollars,  and  a  charter  for  twenty 
years.  The  public  securities,  which  had  before  depreciated  to  one 
eighth  of  their  nominal  value,  now  rose  to  par ;  confidence  was 
restored;  property  rose  in  value,  and  trade  rapidly  revived. 

Party  spirit,  however,  the  bane  of  popular  governments,  mixed 
its  bitterness  with  the  sweets  of  returning  prosperity.  The 
federal  system  now  having  become  the  government  of  the  coun- 


"WHISKEY  INSURRECTION."  669 

% 

try,  all  citizens  were  federalists,  yet  the  appellation  continued  to 
be  applied  as  the  badge  of  a  party,  although  the  dissensions  arose 
upon  new  topics.  Hamilton,  the  author  of  the  new  financial  sys- 
tem, was  regarded  by  his  friends  as  the  main  instrument  of  the 
successful  change  which  had  redeemed  the  national  honor,  and  res- 
cued the  declining  fortunes  of  the  people.  By  his  enemies,  on  the 
contrary,  he  was  denounced  as  a  monarchist,  because  he  had  pro- 
posed in  the  convention  that  the  president  and  senate  should  hold 
their  offices  during  good  behavior.  Hamilton's  plans  of  finance 
were,  in  some  degree,  copied  from  British  institutions ;  and  this, 
though  without  the  smallest  reason,  was  urged  against  him  as  a 
reproach.  The  country,  meantime,  was  enjoying  unexampled 
prosperity ;  yet  so  absurd  is  faction,  that  the  supporters  of  the  fed- 
eral government  were  stigmatized  as  the  enemies  of  the  people^ 
combined  in  a  plot  for  the  ruin  of  the  republic. 

An  unfortunate  disturbance,  which  broke  out  in  Pennsylvania, 
tended  to  exasperate  parties  still  more.  Congress  had  imposed  an 
excise  on  the  distillation  of  spirits.  This  law  was  particularly 
displeasing  to  the  people  on  the  west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains, 
and  led  to  the  troubles  known  as  the  "  Whiskey  Insurrection." 
The  people  in  this  quarter  had  strongly  disapproved  of  the  federal 
constitution,  and  particularly  of  Hamilton's  system  of  finance. 
In  September,  1791,  a  delegation  of  the  malecontents  met  at  Pitts- 
burg,  and  denounced  as  enemies  to  the  country  all  who  should 
obey  the  excise  law.  The  revenue  officers  were  obstructed  in 
their  duty,  and,  though  the  law  was  revised  and  softened  by  con- 
gress in  May,  1792,  the  opposition  continued  as  strong  as  ever. 
The  government,  by  adroit  manoeuvres,  kept  the  disaffected  quiet 
for  some  time,  but  in  1794  they  proceeded  to  open  violence.  On 
the  15th  of  July,  the  marshal,  while  upon  duty,  was  shot  at  by  a 
band  of  armed  men.  The  next  day  the  house  of  the  inspector  was 
attacked  by  a  body  of  five  hundred  rioters,  who  set  fire  to  several 
buildings,  robbed  the  mail,  and  committed  other  outrages.  The  laws 
of  the  country  were  now  openly  set  at  defiance.  It  was  calculated 
that  the  insurgents  could  muster  a  force  of  seven  thousand  men. 

Washington,  in  this  emergency,  acted  with  circumspection  and 
coolness,  but  also  with  decision  and  energy.  He  made  a  requisition 
on  the  governors  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia, for  fifteen  thousand  militia,  and  on  the  7th  of  August,  issued 
a  proclamation  commanding  the  insurgents  to  disperse  before  the 
first  day  of  September.  The  government  of  Pennsylvania  took 
the  same  step.  The  militia  assembled  from  the  several  states 
under  the  command  of  Governor  Lee,  of  Virginia,  and  marched 
into  the  disturbed  district.  The  insurgents  fled  before  them 
57  G4 


670  ':         THE    UNITED    STATES. 

without  making  the  slightest  opposition.  No  blood  was  shed;  a 
few  of  the  most  obstinate  characters,  refusing  to  declare  their  sub- 
mission to  the  laws,  were  arrested  for  trial,  but  the  inhabitants  in 
general  quietly  returned  to  their  duty  as  citizens.  Thus,  in  a  few 
months,  the  government  of  the  United  States,  by  prompt  resolu- 
tion and  firm  proceedings,  suppressed  a  dangerous  insurrection 
without  the  loss  of  a  life,  or  any  act  discreditable  to  the  character 
of  the  free  institutions  of  America.  The.  arts  of  demagogues 
availed  nothing  against  the  power  of  the  laws  and  the  self-respect 
of  the  American  people. 

In  the  meantime,  the  country  was  threatened  with  an  Indian 
war.  The  savages  on  the  northern  borders  could  muster  the  for- 
midable force  of  five  thousand  warriors ;  half  of  these  were  in  open 
hostility  to  the  United  States.  They  had  fire-arms,  and  were  now 
much  more  formidable  than  at  the  early  settlement  of  the  coun- 
try. Pacific  overtures  were  made  to  the  northwestern  Indians,  but 
without  success ;  and  in  1790  a  force  of  fourteen  hundred  men, 
mostly  militia,  under  General  Harmer,  marched  against  the  Indian 
towns  on  the  Scioto  and  Wabash.  Some  of  the  settlements  were 
burnt,  and  the  country  laid  waste ;  but  several  detachments  of  the 
troops  were  attacked  and  cut  off  by  the  savages.  These  successes 
so  encouraged  them,  that  they  repeated  their  incursions  upon  the 
American  settlements,  and  the  country  suffered  more  than  ever. 
A  new  army  of  two  thousand  men  was  raised  in  1791,  and  placed 
linder  the  command  of  General  St.  Glair,  governor  of  the  northwest- 
ern territory.  The  troops  reached  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  in  Septem- 
ber, and  marched  towards  the  Indian  villages  on  the  Miami.  As 
they  approached  the  enemy's  territory,  a  body  of  sixty  militia 
deserted :  a  regiment  was  despatched  in  pursuit  of  them,  which 
reduced  the  army  to  fourteen  hundred  men.  Within  about  fifteen 
miles  of  the  Miami  villages,  they  were  attacked  by  the  Indians  at 
sunrise  on  the  4th  of  November.  At  the  first  surprise,  the  militia  in 
the  outposts  were  driven  into  the  main  camp  in  the  utmost  disorder. 
The  main  body  made  a  resolute  defence,  but  the  savages  in  great 
numbers  were  screened  by  the  woods  and  thickets,  and  committed 
great  slaughter  among  the  troops.  They  were  repeatedly  charged 
with  the  bayonet  and  driven  off,  but  they  constantly  returned  to 
the  fight  in  such  numerous  parties  that  the  Americans  were  forced 
to  retreat  to  Fort  Jefferson,  about  thirty  miles  off.  More  than  six 
hundred  of  the  troops  were  killed  and  wounded.  The  loss  of  the 
Indians  is  not  known.  The  Americans  likewise  lost  four  hun- 
dred horses,  six  pieces  of  cannon,  and  all  their  baggage,  stores 
and  ammunition.  This  was  the  most  serious  defeat  which  the 
Americans  ever  received  from  the  natives :  it  was  in  a  great  meas- 


WAYNE'S  VICTORY  OVER  THE  INDIANS. 


671 


ure  owing  to  the  ill  behavior  of  the  raw  troops,  who.  threw  away 
their  arms  most  disgracefully.  The  Indians,  on  the  contrary, 
fought  with  the  most  heroic  courage  and  obstinacy. 

Congress,  determined  to  suppress  the  Indian  hostilities,  author- 
ized a  further  levy  of  troops,  increasing  the  army  to  five  thousand 
men,  which  were  put  under  the  command  of  General  Wayne. 
He  advanced  into  the  Indian  territory,  in  the  autumn  of  1793,  and 
erected  a  fortification  on  the  spot  where  St.  Clair  had  been  de- 
feated, which  he  named  Fort  Recovery.  The  season  was  too  far 
advanced  for  military  operations,  and  he  wintered  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  early  part  of  the  summer  was  spent  in  attempts  to 
negotiate  with  the  enemy,  and  cautious  movements  on  the  part  of 
the  Americans.  At  length,  on  the  8th  of  August,  1794,  he  reached 
the  rapids  of  the  Miami  with  a  force  of  three  thousand  men.  Here, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Indians,  he  made  another  overture  for 
peace,  which  was  rejected.  He  then  moved  cautiously  down  the 
river  to  meet  the  enemy,  who  were  strongly  posted  in  a  fortifica- 
tion skirted  by  a  thick  wood  and  the  rocky  bank  of  the  stream. 
On  the  2()th  of  August,  Wayne  attacked  them  in  their  intrench- 
ments.  where  they  had  collected  above  two  thousand  warriors. 


General  Wayne's  victory  over  the  Indians. 

After  an  obstinate  battle  of  an  hour,  the  Indians  were  defeated  and 
driven  from  their  fort  with  great  loss.  They  took  refuge  in  a  wood, 
under  the  guns  of  a  fortification  which  was  still  held  by  the  British 
troops,  although  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States.  For  sev- 
eral days  Wayne  continued  in  the  neighborhood,  destroying  the 
Indian  corn-fields  and  laying  waste  their  country.  By  these  deci- 
sive measures  the  savages  were  thoroughly  intimidated,  and  an 
effectual  stop  was  put  to  their  incursions.  On  the  3d  of  August, 


672  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

1795,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Greenville,  which  established 
peace  between  the  Indian  tribes  and  the  United  States,  and  restored 
peace  and  tranquillity  to  the  frontier  settlements. 

In  the  foreign  relations  of  the  country,  some  difficulties  arose 
with  the  Spaniards,  who  at  that  time  held  possession  of  Louisi- 
ana. They  had  used  their  endeavors,  while  the  treaty  of  1782 
was  in  progress,  to  prevent  the  extension  of  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States  westward.  They  were  unable,  however,  to  accom- 
plish this,  and  the  Americans  became  possessed  of  the  territory  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Spaniards  holding  the 
outlet  of  the  river,  refused  the  free  navigation  of  it  to  the  settlers 
upon  its  banks.  The  inhabitants  of  the  west,  who  were  cramped 
in  their  commerce  by  this  restriction,  and  who  regarded  the  river 
as  a  great  highway,  free  for  the  use  of  all  who  dwelt  upon  its 
banks,  uttered  loud  murmurs,  and  made  demonstrations  of  pro- 
ceeding to  extremities  against  the  Spaniards  of  Louisiana.  There 
was  reason  for  some  time  to  fear  that  a  war  with  Spain  would 
grow  out  of  these  conflicting  claims,  but  the  government  of  the 
United  States  took  such  prudent  measures  as  averted  all  hostili- 
ties. Mr.  Thomas  Pinckriey  was  sent  as  envoy  extraordinary  to 
the  Court  of  Madrid,  and  in  the  year  1794,  he  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  the  navigation  of  the  Missis- 
sippi was  formally  granted  to  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Adams,  the  American  minister  at  London,  had  attempted, 
before  the  establishment  of  the  federal  government,  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain;  but  the  circumstances  of 
the  country  were  unpropitious,  and  the  negotiation  failed.  After 
the  federal  constitution  had  secured  to  the  United  Stales  an  effi- 
cient and  respectable  government,  the  attempt  was  reneAved  by 
Mr.  Jay,  who  was  sent  envoy  extraordinary  to  London  in  1794. 
He  concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain  which  was 
ratified  the  same  year.  This  treaty  settled  all  the  disputes  then 
existing  between  the  two  countries ;  it  provided  for  the  surrender  of 
the  American  posts  still  held  by  the  British,  opened  a  limited 
trade  with  the  British  West  Indies,  and  made  arrangements  for 
the  payment  of  debts  and  claims  due  from  one  country  to  the 
other.  Mr.  Jay  considered  the  treaty  as  the  best  that  could  be 
made  in  actual  circumstances,  and  altogether  highly  beneficial  to 
the  United  States.  Yet  a  violent  clamor  was  raised  against  it  by 
a  numerous  party  in  the  country,  because  it  did  not  contain  a 
stipulation  that  "free  ships  should  make  free  goods."  This  was 
a  popular  maxim  with  the  American  merchants,  but  the  British 
were  strenuous  in  opposing  it,  and  the  American  government,  pos- 
sessing no  navy,  and  as  yet  without  weight  or  influence  as  a 


COMMERCIAL    TREATY    WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN. 


673 


maritime  power,  were  forced  to  waive  the  point  for  that  time. 
In  spite  of  argument  and  prudential  considerations,  however, 
the  opposition  in  every  quarter  was  *so  formidable,  that  although 
the  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  president  and  senate,  the  appropri- 
ations for  carrying  it  into  effect  were  voted  in  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives by  a  very  small  majority.  The  treaty  took  effect  with 
the  most  beneficial  consequences.  The  posts  were  given  up  to 
the  United  States,  and  compensation  was  made  to  the  whole  body 
of  British  creditors  by  the  payment  of  six  hundred  thousand 
pounds  sterling  by  the  American  government,  in  full  for  all  debts 
due  from  citizens  of  the  United  States.  Thus  ended  all  the  con- 
troversies which  grew  out  of  the  war  of  the  revolution. 


George  III. 


57" 


CHAPTER    LXVII. 

Ctonmencement  of  the  French  Revolution. — War  between  France  and  England.— 
Genet's  mission  to  the  United  States. —  Unwarrantable  conduct  of  that  minister 
and  his  successor,  Adet. — John  Adams  elected  president. — Intrigues  of  the  French 
Directory. — Hostilities  with  France. — Exploits  of  the  frigate  Constellation. — 
Treaty  with  Bonaparte. — Death  of  Washington. ^Purchase  of  Louisiana. — 
Prosperity  of  the  United  States. — Naval  war  with  Tripoli. — Loss  of  the  frigate 
Philadelphia. — Bombardment  of  Tripoli. — General  Eaton's  expedition  from 
Egypt. — Capture  of  Derne. — Peace  with  Tripoli. — Mr.  Jefferson  chosen  Presi- 
dent.— Death  of  Hamilton. — Burr's  conspiracy. — Progress  of  party. — Impress- 
ment of  American  sailors  by  the  British. — Attack  on  the  Chesapeake. — Paper 
blockades. — Napoleon's  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees. — The  British  orders  in  council. 
— Depredations  on  American  commerce. — Embargo. — Mr.  Madison  elected  pres- 
ident.— Erskine's  treaty. — Affair  of  the  President  and  Little  Belt. — Reparation 
for  the  attack  on  the  Chesapeake. — Revocation  of  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees. 
—  War  declared  against  Great  Britain. — Desperate  nature  of  the  contest. — 
Opposition  of  parties. — Repeal  of  the  orders  in  council. — Overwhelming  power 
of  the  British  navy. — Baltimore  mob. — Affair  of  John  Henry. 

THE  year  in  which  the  federal  constitution  went  into  effect,  was 
marked  by  the  birth  of  an  event  in  Europe,  which  exercised  the 
most  momentous  influence,  not  only  in  that  country,  but  upon  the 
whole  of  the  civilized  world.  The  French  revolution  began  in 
1789,  and  its  effects  were  so  rapid  and  important  that  Europe  and 
America  were  speedily  involved  in  war.  Although  the  origin  and 
progress  of  this  great  political  convulsion  possess  the  deepest 
interest  to  the  general  reader,  and  a  knowledge  of  them  is  in  some 
degree  necessary  in  order  to  understand  the  full  import  of  the 
transactions  recorded  in  the  remaining  portion  of  this  history,  yet 
the  subject  is  too  copious  to  be  introduced  here.  We  can  only 
touch  lightly  upon  the  main  facts.  The  French  nation  had 
imbibed  republican  notions  by  their  alliance  with  America.  The 
brilliant  success  of  a  nation  which  had  fought  for  liberty  and 
established  a  free  government,  dazzled  a  lively  people,  ever  suscep- 
tible of  enthusiastic  and  quick  impressions.  The  government  of 
France  was  arbitrary ;  the  titled  orders  were  insolent  and  oppres- 
sive; the  court  was  profligate,  and  the  whole  nation  was  sinking 
under  an  intolerable  load  of  debt.  The  sudden  rise  of  the  American 
republic  was  the  only  stimulant  wanting  to  arouse  them.  A  new 
order  of  things  was  called  for.  The  States  General,  or  popular 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION.  675 

assembly  of  the  nation,  met  at  Versailles,  in  1789,  to  consult  upon 
measures  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times.  From  moderate 
beginnings  they  proceeded  to  radical  changes  in  the  government 
A  written  constitution  was  formed;  restrictions  were  placed  on 
royal  authority,  and  the  political  rights  of  all  citizens  secured. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  French  people  had  neither  the  wisdom, 
the  intelligence,  the  moderation,  nor  the  virtue  of  the  Americans 
of  1776.  The  work,  begun  judiciously,  soon  ran  into  precipitate 
extravagance,  criminal  excesses,  and  at  length  into  the  most 
furious  and  reckless  political  fanaticism.  The  throne  was  over- 
turned, the  king  beheaded,  one  form  of  government  succeeded 
another,  and  one  party  triumphed  over  another,  while  no  real 
government  or  authority  prevailed,  except  that  of  epidemic  terror 
or  the  momentary  sway  of  a  faction  or  a  demagogue. 

War  broke  out  between  France  and  England  in  1793.  The 
French  were  at  this  time  so  infatuated  with  their  new  politics, 
that  they  imagined  themselves  destined  to  revolutionize  the  whole 
world.  It  was  their  wish  to  draw  the  United  States  into  their 
quarrel  with  England.  The  American  people  wished  success  to 
the  French  in  their  struggle  for  liberty ;  and  the  first  appearance 
of  the  French  revolution  was  hailed  by  the  republicans  of  the 
west  as  the  dawning  of  European  freedom.  The  bloody  excesses 
of  the  French  revolutionists  soon  damped  these  reasonable  hopes, 
and  at  length  utterly  disgusted  all  sober  and  reflecting  people. 
Soon  after  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.,  Mr.  Genet  was  sent  as 
minister  to  the  United  States.  This  man  was  of  an  ardent  tem- 
per and  fired  by  the  common  enthusiasm  of  the  revolutionary 
French.  He  seems  to  have  regarded  his  office  as  a  mission  to 
stir  up  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  a  war  with  the  enemies 
of  France. 

Genet  landed  at  Charleston,  eight  hundred  miles  from  the  seat 
of  government.  This  was  done  for  the  purpose  of  sounding  the 
disposition  of  the  people,  and  concerting  his  plans  before  his 
interview  with  Washington,  whose  prudence  and  firmness  were 
likely  to  be  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  hair-brained  Frenchman. 
At  his  first  landing,  he  proceeded  to  acts  violating  the  rules  of 
international  law,  by  commissioning  armed  vessels  from  Charles- 
ton to  cruise  against  the  British.  Before  his  arrival  was  known 
by  the  government,  a  resolution  had  been  taken  to  adopt  a  strictly 
neutral  position  in  the  contest.  The  British  minister  at  Philadel- 
phia complained  of  Genet's  proceedings,  and  Washington  sent 
instructions,  accompanied  with  rules  for  the  observation  of  neu- 
trality, to  the  governors  of  all  the  states.  Genet  resented  this 
and  attempted  to  excite  a  popular  clamor  against  it.  He  issued 


676  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

publications  designed  to  excite  opposition  to  the  laws,  by  appeals 
to  the  passions  and  caprices  of  the  multitude.  He  affirmed,  like 
other  disturbers  of  the  public  tranquillity  in  more  recent  times, 
that  authority  did  not  reside  in  the  government,  but  in  the  people 
separate  from  the  government.  These  wild  and  mischie.vous 
notions  were  caught  up  by  many  unthinking  people,  and  Genet 
soon  had  a  party  of  adherents,  who  encouraged  him  to  such  inso- 
lent behavior,  that  Washington  refused  to  hold  any  dealings 
with  him,  and  obliged  his  government  to  order  him  home. 

Genet's  successors,  Fauchet  and  Adet,  were  more  moderate  in 
their  conduct,  but  their  designs  were  the  same,  and  troubles  soon 
followed,  though  in  a  different  quarter.  The  French  Directory, 
finding  they  could  not  stimulate  the  Americans  to  a  war  with 
England,  began  to  view  them  with  a  hostile  eye.  Complaining 
that  the  Americans  allowed  their  ships  to  be  searched  by  British 
cruisers  in  pursuit  of  French  property,  they  issued  orders  for  the 
capture  of  all  American  vessels.  This  was  tantamount  to  a 
declaration  of  hostilities ;  yet,  as  the  United  States  at  this  period 
had  no  navy,  the  insult  could  not  be  promptly  resented.  Mr. 
Charles  C.  Pinckney  was  sent  minister  to  France,  to  accommodate 
matters  by  negotiation.  The  Directory  refused  to  receive  him; 
he  was  ordered  to  quit  the  French  territory,  and  informed  that  the 
French  would  not  receive  another  American  minister  until  after  a 
"redress  of  grievances." 

In  the  meantime,  the  election  of  president  approached  in  the 
autumn  of  1796.  Adet,  the  French  minister,  addressed  a  note  to 
the  secretary  of  state,  couched  in  the  most  extraordinary  language, 
utterly  inconsistent  with  the  rules  and  courtesy  of  diplomacy,  and 
intended  solely  to  inflame  the  popular  passions.  This  strange 
document,  insolent  to  the  government,  and  palpably  designed  to 
influence  the  pending  election,  was  sent  by  the  writer  to  a  printer 
on  the  day  it  was  penned,  November  loth,  and  circulated  widely 
throughout  the  country.  Like  an  over-charged  gun,  however,  it 
recoiled  upon  its  manager.  So  impertinent  an  interference  in  the 
domestic  politics  of  the  country  disgusted  all  judicious  people, 
and  Adet's  intrigues  had  no  small  influence  in  causing  the  election 
of  John  Adams,  the  one  among  all  the  candidates  whom  he  had 
the  strongest  reason  to  dislike. 

Under  the  administration  of  President  Adams,  three  envoys 
extraordinary,  Pinckney,  Marshall  and  Gerry,  were  sent  to  Paris, 
to  attempt  a  second  negotiation,  in  1797.  The  Directory,  under 
frivolous  pretexts,  delayed  to  accredit  them  publicly,  but  in  an 
indirect  manner  demanded  a  large  sum  of  money  as  a  requisite 
to  begin  the  negotiation.  This  being  promptly  refused,  Pinckney 


DEATH    OF    WASHINGTON.  677 

and  Marshall  were  ordered  to  quit  the  country,  but  Gerry  was 
allowed  to  remain.  The  intelligence  of  these  proceedings  excited 
the  highest  indignation  in  the  United  States,  and  the  government 
ordered  the  capturing  of  all  armed  French  vessels.  On  the  9th 
of  February,  1799,  the  American  frigate  Constellation,  of  thirty- 
six  guns,  commanded  by  Captain  Truxton,  being  on  a  cruise 
among  the  West  India  Islands,  fell  in  with  the  French  frigate 
FInsurgente,  of  forty  guns,  and  captured  her  after  an  engagement 
of  an  hour  and  a  quarter.  This  was  the  first  time  an  American 
frigate  had  taken  a  ship  of  superior  force.  On  the  1st  day  of 
February,  1800,  the  Constellation  fought  another  battle  with  the 
French  frigate  La  Vengeance,  of  fifty-four  guns.  After  four  hours' 
fighting,  the  French  ship  was  silenced,  but  a  squall  suddenly 
springing  up,-  enabled  her  to  escape,  and  she  arrived  at  Curasao 
in  a  shattered  condition,  with  one  hundred  and  sixty  men  killed 
and  wounded. 

The  insults  of  the  French  government  nearly  united  all  parties 
in  defence  of  the  national  honor.  Popular  addresses  poured  in 
upon  the  president  from  every  quarter  of  the  union,  assuring  him 
of  every  necessary  support  in  the  stand  he  had  taken.  Congress 
voted  to  raise  an  army.  Washington  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand, and  the  United  States  assumed  a  dignified  attitude.  This 
firmness  had  its  effect  across  the  Atlantic.  Three  other  envoys, 
Messrs.  .Ellsworth,  Davie,  and  Murray  were  sent  to  Paris  in  1800. 
The  government  of  France  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  First 
Consul,  Bonaparte,  who  received  the  envoys  with  respect,  and 
entered  upon  this  business  with  the  promptness  and  despatch 
which  always  characterized  that  extraordinary  man.  On  the 
30th  of  September,  1800,  a  treaty  was  concluded,  which  settled  all 
differences  between  France  arid  America. 

On  the  14th  of  December,  1799,  Washington  died,  after  an  ill- 
ness of  a  single  day.  This  event  caused  a  general  mourning 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  new  seat  of  government  on 
the  banks  of  the  Potomac  was  called  by  his  name,  and  the  city  of 
Washington  became  the  capital  of  the  United  States  in  1800. 

In  1803,  the  United  States  received  a  large  acquisition  of  territory, 
by  purchasing  from  France  the  whole  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  then  called  Louisiana,  which  included  not  only  the 
present  state  of  that  name,  but  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  and  the  vast  wild  region  of  the  west.  This  country  had 
been  recently  ceded  to  the  French  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  Bona- 
parte, who  wanted  money  more  than  colonies,  transferred  it  to  the 
United  States  for  the  sum  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  now  promised  themselves  a 

H4 


678 


THE   UNITED    STATES, 


period  of  lasting  tranquillity.     The  government  had  been  settled 
upon   a  secure  basis,   the   Indians  quieted,   the   friendship  of 


Tomb  of  Washington  at  Mount  Verwon. 

England,  France  and  the  other  great  European  powers  secured 
by  amicable  treaties  commerce  and  industry  began  to  thrive  with 
wonderful  rapidity,  the  national  revenue  increased,  and  every 
external  appearance  denoted  an  increasing  and  permanent  pros- 
perity. But  events  were  already  in  progress  which  soon  dis- 
turbed the  tranquillity  of  the  nation,  and  before  long  involved  the 
United  States  in  foreign  war.  The  treaties  with  France  and 
England  opened  a  wide  field  of  commerce  to  the  American  mer- 
chants, into  which  they  immediately  entered  with  that  enterprise 
and  activity  which  have  now  become  their  strong  characteristics. 
The  sea  was  soon  covered  by  their  ships,  and  American  commerce 
was  ere  long  exposed  to  the  depredation  of  the  belligerent  Euro- 
pean powers;  it  had  no  protection  abroad,  as  the  United  States 
could  hardly  boast  of  possessing  a  ship  of  war. 

The  American  navy  during  the  war  of  the  revolution  consisted 
of  a  few  small  frigates  and  minor  craft.  Most  of  these  were  lost ; 
and  after  the  capture  of  Charleston,  the  navy  came  entirely  to  an 
end,  by  the  sale  of  the  remainder  as  worthless.  For  many  years 
the  government  did  not  possess  a  single  ship;  but  in  1794  an  act  of 
congress  authorized  the  building  of  six  frigates.  These  were  the 
Constitution,  the  President,  the  United  States,  the  Constellation,  the 
Congress,  and  the  Chesapeake.  Some  smaller  vessels  were  soon 


NAVAL   WAR   WITH    TRIPOLI.  679 

added,  and  the  navy  was  not  long  idle.  We  have  mentioned  the 
cruises  of  the  Constellation  against  the  French.  The  next  mari- 
time hostilities  arose  with  one  of  the  Barbary  powers.  The  Ameri- 
can commerce  had  speedily  found  its  way  into  the  Mediterranean, 
and  became  exposed  to  the  insults  of  the  piratical  African  states. 
The  Bashaw  of  Tripoli,  in  1799,  demanded  a  heavy  tribute  of  the 
United  States,  and  being  refused,  he  captured  five  American 
vessels.  In  August,  1801,  the  United  States  schooner  Enterprise, 
Capt.  Sterrett,  fell  in  with  a  Tripolitan  cruiser  off  Malta,  and  after 
an  obstinate  action  of  two  hours,  captured  her.  Captain  Ster- 
rett's  instructions  did  not  allow  him  to  make  prize  of  the  vessel ; 
accordingly,  after  cutting  away  her  masts,  and  throwing  her  guns 
overboard,  he  gave  her  up  to  the  crew,  leaving  them  sail  and  rig- 
ging sufficient  to  carry  them  into  port.  From  this  time  till  1803, 
the  United  States  kept  several  ships  of  war  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  some  small  actions  took  place  off  Tripoli.  In  August,  1803, 
Commodore  Preble  was  despatched  with  a  squadron,  consisting  of 
the  Constitution  and  Philadelphia  frigates,  the  Argus,  Siren  and 
Nautilus  brigs,  and  the  Vixen  and  Enterprise  schooners.  On  their 
arrival  off  Tripoli,  the  Philadelphia,  in  chasing  a  vessel  into  port, 
struck  on  a  rock,  and  before  she  could  be  got  off,  was  surrounded 
by  the  Tripolitan  gun-boats  and  compelled  to  surrender.  On  a 
change  of  wind  she  was  set  afloat  and  towed  into  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli.  The  American  squadron  sailed  for  Syracuse  to  refit. 

While  at  this  place,  a  scheme  was  planned  to  retake  or  destroy 
the  Philadelphia.  This  expedition  was  entrusted  to  Lieutenant 
Stephen  Decatur.  He  sailed  from  Syracuse  in  a  small  schooner, 
with  seventy-six  men,  accompanied  by  the  brig  Siren.  On  the 
16th  of  February,  1804,  they  arrived  off  Tripoli.  The  schooner 
entered  the  harbor  at  night,  and  ran  alongside  the  Philadelphia 
before  it  was  discovered  that  she  was  an  enemy.  The  Americans 
boarded  her,  sword  in  hand,  soon  cleared  her  decks,  and  gained 
entire  possession  of  the  ship.  The  castle,  the  batteries  and  the 
Tripolitan  flotilla  opened  a  tremendous  fire  upon  them,  and  the 
harbor  was  soon  covered  with  launches  approaching  to  the  rescue; 
but  Decatur  and  his  men  set  fire  to  the  Philadelphia  and  escaped 
to  sea  in  safety. 

The  American  squadron  having  arrived  from  Syracuse,  pro- 
ceeded to  the  attack  of  Tripoli.  On  the  3d,  the  7th,  and  29th  of 
August,  the  town  was  cannonaded,  and  assaults  were  made  on 
the  shipping  in  the  port.  The  Tripolitan  batteries  mounted  one 
hundred  and  fifty  guns,  and  the  town  was-defended  by  an  army 
of  forty-five  thousand  Arabs.  The  enemy  sustained  much  dam- 
age, and  several  of  their  gun-boats  were  captured.  On  the  4th  of 


680 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Burning  of  the  Philadelphia. 

September,  the  Intrepid,  a  fire-ship,  was  sent  into  the  harbor 
under  the  command  of  Lieutenants  Somers,  Wadsworth,  and 
Israel.  She  was  charged  with  one  hundred  barrels  of  powder 
and  three  hundred  shells,  to  be  exploded  under  the  enemy's  bat- 
teries, while  the  crew  escaped  in  a  boat.  Before  this  could  be 
done,  two  galleys,  of  one  hundred  men  each,  suddenly  shot  along- 
side the  Intrepid,  and  she  instantly  blew  up,  with  the  most  terrible 
effect,  destroying  both  her  crew  and  enemies.  It  is  not  known 
whether  accident  or  the  self-devotion  of  the  Americans  caused 
this  awful  catastrophe. 

The  negotiations  with  the  Bashaw  proving  fruitless,  the 
American  government  determined  to  push  the  war  with  additional 
rigor.  An  opportunity  for  a  naval  enterprise  soon  presented 
itself.  Hamet,  the  ex-bashaw,  had  been  expelled  by  his  brother, 
and  was  now  an  exile  in  Upper  Egypt.  General  William  Eaton 
was  despatched  to  gain  him  over  to  the  Americans.  Hamet  com- 
manded an  army  of  Mamelukes,  then  at  war  with  the  Turkish 
government.  Eaton  visited  the  ex-bashaw  and  brought  him  into 
his  plan.  Hamet  furnished  the  American  general  with  a  strong 
body  of  Arabs,  well  mounted,  and  seventy  Greek  soldiers.  With 
this  force,  Eaton  left  Alexandria  on  the  sixth  of  March,  1805,  for 
an  expedition  across  the  sandy  desert  of  Barca.  In  a  march  of  a 
thousand  miles,  the  troops  endured  a  degree  of  peril  and  suffering 
hardly  equalled  in  romance,  and  on  the  25th  of  April,  arrived 
before  the  town  of  Derne,  in  the  Tripolitan  territory.  Eaton's 


TREATY    WITH    TRIPOLI.  681 

expedition  had  become  known  to  the  bashaw,  and  his  army  was 
within  a  day's  march  of  the  place  when  the  invaders  approached 
it.  No  time  was  to  be  lost;  the  town  was  summoned  to  sui- 
render;  but  the  commandant  returned  for  reply,  "My  head,  OT 
yours!"  Eaton  stormed  the  walls  on  the  27th,  and  Derne  was 
taken  by  as  motley  an  armament  as  ever  was  combined  under 
the  American  flag, — Arab  cavalry,  Greek  infantry,  and  Ameri- 
can ships,  which  arrived  in  the  bay  in  season  to  assist  in  the 
capture. 

Hamet  set  up  his  government  in  Derne,  and  the  Arabo-Ameri- 
can  army  fortified  themselves  in  the  new  capital.  On  the  18th 
of  May,  the  Tripolitan  army  arrived  and  assaulted  the  place,  but 
after  a  contest  of  four  hours,  they  were  repulsed,  and  withdrew 
to  the  mountains,  although  they  outnumbered  their  opponents  ten 
to  one.  Many  skirmishes  followed,  and  on  the  tenth  of  June, 
another  general  battle  was  fought.  The  small  American  vessels 
in  the  harbor  kept  up  a  well  directed  fire,  and  checked  every  ad- 
vance of  the  Tripolitans.  The  next  day  the  Constitution  arrived, 
and  struck  such  terror  into  the  enemy  that  they  fled  instantly  to 
the  desert,  leaving  most  of  their  baggage  behind  them.  The  whole 
history  of  the  Tripolitan  war  is  colored  with  a  high  degree  of  ro- 
mance; but  we  have  not  space  for  the  details.  General  Eaton  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  uncommon  talent  and  courage.  Finally, 
in  June,  1805,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  Bashaw.  This 
treaty  was  negotiated  by  Mr.  Lear,  the  agent  of  the  American 
government.  Had  the  business  of  the  war  been  entrusted  to 
the  sole  management  of  Eaton,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
he  would  have  penetrated  to  Tripoli,  liberated  the  American 
captors  without  ransom,  deposed  the  Bashaw,  reinstated  Hamet, 
and  concluded  an  advantageous  commercial  arrangement  for 
the  United  States.  By  the  treaty,  Hamet  was  left  to  his  fate, 
and  sixty  thousand  dollars  were  paid  for  the  release  of  the 
American  prisoners. 

The  domestic  politics  of  the  United  States,  in  the  meantime, 
had  become  more  and  more  disturbed  by  party  spirit.  In  1801, 
Thomas  Jefferson  became  President,  and  Aaron  Burr  Vice-Presi- 
dent.  There  had  been  no  choice  by  the  electors,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  an  original  provision  of  the  constitution,  which  has  since 
been  amended,  thirty-six  ballotings  took  place  in  the  house  of 
representatives  before  the  president  was  chosen.  The  two  par- 
ties which  divided  the  country,  were  now  known  as  the  "  federalists 
and  democrats."  Jefferson  and  Burr,  the  successful  candidates, 
were  both  of  the  latter  party ;  but  Mr.  Burr,  during  the  election, 
was  suspected  of  intriguing  to  supplant  Jefferson,  and  in  conse- 
58 


682 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


quence,  declined  in  favor  with  his  political  associates.  He 
attempted  to  regain  his  lost  influence  by  entering  into  a  canvass 
for  the  office  of  governor  of  New  York.  In  this  scheme  he  was 
opposed  by  Hamilton,  who  had  been  long  his  political  antagonist. 
His  opposition  defeated  the  attempt,  and  Burr  determined  on  re- 
venge. He  challenged  his  rival  to  a  duel,  and  Hamilton  fell,  at 
Hoboken,  on  the  llth  of  July,  1804. 

This  tragical  occurrence  entirely  destroyed  what  remained  of 
Burr's  popularity;  but  the  restless  spirit  and  ambition  of  the  man 
were  not  in  the  least  quieted.  He  conceived  a  scheme  as  daring 
as  it  was  magnificent, — the  establishment  of  a  new  empire  in  the 
southwest,  of  which  he  was  to  be  the  head.  The  stupendous  rev- 
olutions which  were  then  convulsing  Europe,  agitated  all  minds. 


Bonaparte  crossing  the  Alps. 

The  brilliant  fortune  of  Bonaparte,  who,  from  an  obscure  soldier, 
had  suddenly  become  the  supreme  ruler  of  the  most  powerful 
kingdom  in  Christendom,  dazzled  every  imagination.  Great 
changes  seemed  to  menace  the  whole  world;  and  it  was  no 
wonder  that  Burr,  a  man  of  unquestionable  talent  and  courage, 
insatiable  ambition,  and  intriguing  temper,  should  believe  him- 
self able  to  become  the  Napoleon  of  the  west.  He  began  by 
tampering  with  Eaton  and  Truxton,  then  preeminent  for  their 
achievements  in  the  American  army  and  navy.  His  designs 
were  at  first  darkly  hinted,  but  he  succeeded  in  gaining  many 
partisans  to  his  scheme,  some  of  them  persons  of  wealth  and 
influence.  The  common  belief  was  that  he  designed  to  erect  an 
independent  state  beyond  the  Alleghanies,  either  out  of  the  Ameri- 
can territories,  or  by  revolutionizing  the  Spanish  provinces.  In 
December,  1806,  he  assembled  a  number  of  the  most  desperate  of 


CONSPIRACY  OF  AARON  BURR.  683 

his  followers,  on  the  Ohio,  and  proceeded  down  the  river.  The 
rumor  of  his  expedition  had  caused  a  great  excitement  in  the 
country,  but  by  adroit  management,  Burr  contrived  to  avoid  all 
obstruction  from  the  legal  authorities.  The  federal  government 
had  sufficient  knowledge  of  his  designs,  to  warrant  his  arrest,  and, 
on  his  passage  down  the  Mississippi,  he  was  stopped  at  Natchez, 
and  cited  before  the  supreme  court  at  that  place,  on  the  2d  of 
February,  1807.  His  accomplices  were  arrested  at  New  Orleans 
and  elsewhere.  Burr  made  his  escape  from  Natchez  in  disguise, 
but  was  overtaken  and  captured  on  the  Tombigbee,  and  carried 
prisoner  to  Richmond.  The  grand  jury  found  true  bills  for  trea- 
son against  Burr,  Blannerhassett,  and  some  others.  Their  trial 
took  place  before  the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States  at  Rich- 
mond, on  the  27th  of  August,  1807.  From  a  want  of  precise 
and  legal  evidence  they  were  acquitted,  though  no  doubt  existed 
as  to  the  fact  of  their  being  engaged  in  a  mad  and  lawless  under- 
taking. The  restless,  intriguing  and  ambitious  Aaron  Burr  sunk 
at  once  into  an  obscurity  from  which  he  never  afterwards  emerged. 


Thomas  Jefferson. 

Mr.  Jefferson  was  re-elected  president  in  1804.  Party  spirit,  at 
this  period,  had  abated  none  of  its  fierceness ;  and  the  Americans, 
as  if  their  domestic  affairs  were  not  sufficient  to  occupy  their 
attention,  almost  universally  took  sides,  as  far  as  freedom  of 
speech  was  concerned,  in  the  contest  then  raging  between  France 
and  England.  They  had  soon  matters  of  serious  interest  to 
entangle  them  with  one  of  the  parties.  The  right  of  searching 
American  ships  and  impressing  British  sailors  from  them,  had 
been  strongly  insisted  on  by  the  British ;  and  this  right,  although 
in  the  highest  degree  repugnant  to  the  feelings  of  the  American 
people,  had  not  been  contested  by  the  treaty  of  1794.  Such  a 
license  could  not  fail  to  be  scandalously  abused  by  the  British 
Bruisers,  who  were  then  the  undisputed  lords  of  the  ocean.  It 


684  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

was  not  long  before  a  gross  insult  was  perpetrated  upon  the 
American  flag.  On  the  22d  of  June,  1807,  the  American  frigate 
Chesapeake,  a  few  hours  after  she  had  sailed  from  Norfolk,  was 
attacked  by  the  British  frigate  Leopard,  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
from  her  a  number  of  her  crew,  alleged  to  be  British  sailors. 
After  receiving  several  broadsides,  and  having  a  number  of  men 
killed,  she  struck  her  colors.  Four  men  were  taken  from  her,  one 
of  whom  was  hanged  as  a  British  deserter.  The  Chesapeake 
was  of  inferior  strength  to  her  antagonist,  and  was  not  armed  for 
a  cruise ;  yet,  Captain  Barron,  her  commander,  was  considered  as 
not  having  acted  with  becoming  spirit  in  surrendering  his  ship 
without  making  a  more  resolute  defence. 

This  gross  and  wanton  outrage  inflamed  the  whole  population 
of  the  United  States  with  indignation,  and  for  the  moment  extin- 
guished all  party  spirit  in  the  national  feeling  which  it  aroused. 
The  president  issued  a  proclamation,  ordering  all  British  ships 
out  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States.  'The  British  government 
disavowed  the  act  of  Admiral  Berkley,  who  commanded  the 
squadron  to  which  the  Leopard  belonged,  and  removed  him  from 
his  command  on  the  American  station ;  but  the  claim  of  the 
right  of  search  and  impressment  was  not  abandoned.  The 
American  commerce  continued  to  be  annoyed  by  British  ships  of 
war,  which  captured  American  vessels  whenever  the  dishonesty 
or  caprice  of  their  commanders  prompted  them.  The  sources  of 
these  troubles  were  soon  enlarged.  The  system  of  "  paper  block- 
ades" was  adopted  by  the  British;  the  whole  coast  of  a  country 
was  laid  under  a  commercial  interdict  by  a  single  proclamation; 
and  American  ships,  entering  the  ports  of  France  and  other  coun- 
tries in  possession  of  the  French,  were  captured  and  condemned 
by  the  British. 

Napoleon  resented  this  arrogant  assumption  of  power,  and 
retorted  it  upon  his  enemy.  From  the  imperial  camp  at  Berlin, 
on  the  21st  of  November,  1806,  he  issued  his  famous  decree,  com- 
plaining of  the  violation  of  the  rights  of  nations  by  the  British 
government,  and  declaring  it  necessary  to  enforce  against  them 
their  own  maritime  code.  The  British  islands  were  therefore 
declared  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  intercourse  with  them  was 
forbidden  to  neutral  nations.  Against  the  Berlin  decrees  the 
British  government  issued,  on  the  7th  of  January  and  llth  of 
November,  1807,  their  Orders  in  Council,  declaring  in  a  state  of 
blockade  all  ports  in  Europe  from  which  the  British  flag  was 
excluded,  and  all  trade  in  the  products  or  manufactures  of  such 
countries,  contraband.  Napoleon  again  retorted  by  a  decree,  dated 
at  Milan,  on  the  17th  of  December,  1807,  declaring  that  every 


OUTRAGES    ON   THE   COMMERCE    OF    THE   UNITED   STATES.          685 

ship,  of  whatever  nation,  which  should  submit  to  a  search  from  an 
English  vessel,  should  be  liable  to  capture  and  condemnation  as 
English  property.  The  same  penalty  was  denounced  against  all 
ships  holding  any  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  or  her  colonies, 
or  any  country  occupied  by  British  troops.  The  French  emperor, 
however,  affirmed  that  these  regulations  should  be  annulled  as 
soon  as  the  British  government  should  renounce  their  own  barba- 
rous system  of  maritime  war,  which  had  provoked  his  retalia- 
tion. In  this  manner  the  American  commerce  became  the  prey 
of  the  two  most  powerful  nations  of  Europe. 

Year  after  year  these  unjustifiable  outrages  were  repeated  by 
both  nations  upon  the  commerce  of  the  United  States.  Every 
insult  of  the  British  was  followed  by  one  of  equal  enormity  from 
the  French,  on  the  plea  that  the  quiet  submission  of  the  Ameri- 
cans to  the  interference  of  the  British,  was  an  act  of  hostility  to 
their  enemies.  The  commerce  of  the  Americans  suffered,  and  the 
national  character  was  disgraced  by  the  inability  of  the  govern- 
ment to  prevent  these  outrages.  While  continually  exposed  to 
insult  and  plunder,  the  American  shipping  had  no  protection  from 
the  navy  of  the  United  States,'  which  consisted  only  of  a  few 
frigates  and  brigs.  During  Jefferson's  administration,  a  new 
scheme  of  maritime  defence  was  concerted.  Instead  of  large 
ships,  a  numerous  fleet  of  gunboats  had  been  built.  These  vessels, 
which  were  of  very  little  service  at  home,  and  good  for  nothing 
abroad,  soon  fell  into  utter  disrepute,  and  brought  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  into  discredit. 

The  reckless  and  adventurous  spirit  of  the  American  merchants 
prompted  them  to  the  most  hazardous  adventures,  and  in  spite  of 
the  hostile  fleets  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  the  Atlantic  was 
still  covered  with  American  ships.  Such  of  these  as  escaped  the 
piracies  of  the  belligerent  powers,  made  profits  so  enormous,  that 
the  avarice  of  the  traders  received  a  tenfold  stimulant.  More 
than  a  thousand  American  vessels  were  captured  before  the 
year  1812.  To  check  these  proceedings,  congress,  in  the  winter 
of  1807,  passed  an  act  laying  an  embargo,  by  which  all  trade 
with  Great  Britain,  France  and  other  nations,  was  interdicted. 
The  most  violent  clamors  were  raised  throughout  the  country, 
especially  in  the  maritime  towns,  by  this  act.  The  embargo  was 
denounced  as  unconstitutional,  and  the  two  parties  which  divided 
the  country  were  inflamed  into  the  most  bitter  animosities.  The 
commerce  of  the  United  States  became  in  an  instant  reduced  to  a 
mere  coasting  trade,  and  the  stagnation  of,*business  was  felt  by 
hundreds  of  thousands.  The  embargo,  however,  although  de- 
fended by  a  majority  of  the  people,  did  not  answer  the  expecta- 
58*  1 4 


686  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

lions  of  its  friends.  The  temptations  to  evade  it  were  so  strong. 
that  great  numbers  of  cargoes  were  despatched  illegally  from  the 
ports  of  the  United  States.  In  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Union,  the 
embargo  was  particularly  hateful  to  the  people,  and  here  it 
encountered  the  most  serious  opposition.  After  a  trial  of  about  a 
year,  it  was  therefore  partially  repealed,  and  an  act  of  non-inter- 
course with  Great  Britain  and  France  substituted  in  its  place. 

In  1809,  James  Madison  became  president  of  the  United  States. 
Shortly  after  his  accession,  Mr.  Erskine,  the  British  minister  at 
Washington,  proposed  an  arrangement  for  the  settlement  of  the 
disputes  between  the  two  countries.  He  agreed  that  the  Orders 
in  Council  should  be  revoked,  as  far  as  concerned  the  United 
States,  provided  the  non -intercourse  with  Great  Britain  should  be 
repealed.  He  also  offered  reparation  for  the  attack  on  the  Chesa- 
peake, and  agreed  that  an  envoy  extraordinary  should  be  sent  by 
Great  Britain  to  conclude  a  treaty  for  the  full  adjustment  of  all 
affairs  depending  between  the  two  powers.  These  proposals  were 
immediately  embraced  by  the  American  cabinet,  and  a  treaty  was 
signed  and  ratified  on  the  19th  of  April,  1809.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  president  issued  his  proclamation,  announcing  that  he 
had  received  official  information  that  the  Orders  in  Council  would 
be  repealed  on  the  10th  of  June,  and  that  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  might  be  renewed  on  that  day. 

So  severe  had  been  the  pressure  of  the  commercial  restrictions, 
that  this  announcement  caused  as  much  joy  throughout  the  coun- 
try as  a  proclamation  of  peace.  The  event  was  celebrated  every- 
where by  public  rejoicings  and  illuminations,  and  all  parties 
united  in  applauding  the  measure  and  its  promoters.  This 
universal  exultation,  however,  was  soon  followed  by  the  most 
mortifying  disappointment.  The  British  government,  as  soon 
as  they  heard  of  the  treaty,  disavowed  it,  and  recalled  their 
minister,  on  the  plea  that  he  had  transcended  his  instructions. 
Erskine  was  succeeded  at  Washington  by  Mr.  Jackson,  who 
renewed  the  negotiation,  but  in  so  insulting  a  style  towards  the 
American  government,  that  they  refused  to  hold  any  intercourse 
with  him,  and  he  was  shortly  afterward  recalled. 

The  British,  in  the  meantime,  continued  their  depredations  and 
insults  upon  the  American  shipping ;  but  their  outrages  did  not 
always  escape  punishment.  On  the  16th  of  May,  1811,  the  Brit- 
ish sloop-of-war  Little  Belt,  fell  in  with  the  United  States  frigate 
President,  off  the  Capes  of  Virginia.  It  was  a  dark  evening,  and 
the  ships  did  not  understand  each  other's  force.  Commodore 
Rogers,  who  commanded  the  President,  hailed  the  Little  Belt,  and 
was  answered  by  a  shot.  Broadsides  were  then  fired  by  both 


WAR   DECLARED   WITH   ENGLAND.  687 

ships,  till  the  Little  Belt  was  silenced,  with  thirty-two  men  killed 
and  wounded.  Captain  Bingham,  of  the  Little  Belt,  represented 
this  as  a  hostile  attack  upon  his  ship,  and  affirmed  that  the  Pres- 
ident fired  the  first  gun.  The  British  government  demanded 
satisfaction,  and  a  court  of  inquiry  was  ordered  by  the  Americans. 
Full  evidence  appeared  that  the  British  ship  began  the  attack, 
and  after  a  clear  statement  of  the  case  by  Mr.  Monroe,  the  secre- 
tary of  state,  the  British  minister  pressed  the  matter  no  further. 

Not  long  after  this,  reparation  was  made  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment for  the  attack  on  the  Chesapeake.  The  men  taken  from 
her  were  given  up,  and.  a  pecuniary  compensation  made  to  the 
families  of  the  killed  and  wounded.  No  disposition,  however, 
was  manifested  to  remove  the  main  cause  of  the  troubles  still 
existing  between  the  two  countries.  The  Orders  in  Council  were 
not  revoked,  and  it  became  evident  that  some  decisive  measures 
must  be  determined  on,  to  save  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
from  total  ruin.  On  the  1st  of  May,  1810,  congress  passed  an  act, 
declaring  that  if  either  Great  Britain  or  France,  should,  before  the 
3d  of  March  following,  cease  to  violate  the  neutrality  of  the 
United  States,  the  non-intercourse  should  be  repealed  with  regard 
to  that  power.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  French  government, 
informed  the  American  minister  at  Paris  that  the  Berlin  and 
Milan  decrees  would  be  revoked  on  the  2d  of  November,  1810. 
Intercourse  with  France  was  therefore  opened  by  a  proclamation 
from  the  president.  When  the  American  minister  at  London 
pressed  the  British  government  to  follow  this  example,  he  was 
answered  that  no  proof  existed  of  the  repeal  of  Napoleon's 
decrees.  In  fact,  the  repeal  had  never  been  formally  made  public 
at  Paris,  although  the  capture  of  American  vessels  by  the  French 
ceased  at  the  time  specified.  At  length,  after  much  negotiation, 
Napoleon  published  his  act  of  repeal  on  the  28th  of  April,  1811. 
The  British  cabinet  then,  in  consequence  of  promises  repeatedly 
given  to  follow  the  example  of  France,  revoked  conditionally 
their  Orders  in  Council,  on  the  23d  of  June,  1812; — but  it  was 
too  late ; — war  with  Great  Britain  had  already  been  declared  by 
the  United  States. 

The  patience  of  the  American  government  and  people  had 
become  exhausted.  All  their  negotiations  with  the  British  resulted 
in  little  more  than  chicanery  and  equivocation.  It  was  evidently 
the  wish  of  their  government  to  protract  the  settlement  of  affairs 
as  long  as  possible.  The  American  commerce  offered  a  rich  harvest 
of  plunder  for  the  British  cruisers,  and  the  American  crews  were 
a  constant  source  for  the  supply  of  recruits  for  their  navy  by  im- 
pressment. Thousands  of  sailors,  vith  the  legal  evidence  of  their 


688  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

citizenship  in  their  pockets,  were  taken  forcibly  from  American 
ships  and  compelled  to  serve  in  the  British  navy.  Remonstrances 
against  these  outrages  were  vain ;  the  Americans  had  no  naval 
force  sufficient  to  make  them  feared  or  respected  abroad,  and  the 
British  despised  them,  as  a  people  who  might  be  plundered  and 
insulted  with  impunity.  Nothing,  short  of  a  decidedly  hostile 
attitude  in  the  people  of  the  United  States,  appeared  likely  to  offer 
a  remedy  for  these  evils.  Accordingly,  President  Madison  con- 
vened congress  on  the  4th  of  November,  1811,  and  after  recapitu- 
lating the  wrongs  which  the  United  States  had  suffered  from  the 
belligerent  powers  of  Europe,  recommended  that  the  country 
should  be  put  into  a  state  of  defence.  Measures  were  accordingly 
taken  by  congress  for  strengthening  the  army  and  navy,  but  so 
feeble  were  the  hopes  of  national  defence  or  glory  from  the  latter 
source,  that  appropriations  were  made  only  to  repair  three  small 
frigates  and  build  three  others.  On  the  14th  of  March,  1812,  a 
loan  of  eleven  millions  of  dollars  was  authorized. 

The  prospect  of  a  war  with  England  shook  the  country  with 
violent  party  dissensions.  No  one  denied  that  grievous  wrongs 
and  insults  had  been  sustained  from  that  power,  yet  the  opposition 
to  the  war  was  very  strong.  The  commercial  towns  of  the 
Eastern  states,  which  had  the  most  to  suffer  from  hostilities,  were, 
of  course,  the  most  strenuous  in  opposing  it.  The  extravagant 
gains  of  commerce,  in  spite  of  the  enormous  hazards  attending  it, 
offered  still  an  irresistible  lure.  The  country,  moreover,  was  in  a 
wretched  state  of  defence,  with  fifteen  hundred  miles  of  sea-coast 
unprotected  by  anything  deserving  to  be  called  a  navy.  The 
maritime  strength  of  the  British,  on  the  other  hand,  surpassed 
everything  known  in  history,  ancient  or  modern;  it  comprised,  at 
this  period,  above  one  thousand  ships  of  war.  The  whole  coast 
of  the  United  States  would  lie  at  their  mercy,  and  not  an  American 
sail  would  be  seen  upon  the  ocean.  Such  were  the  disheartening 
representations  made,  and  not  without  reason,  by  the  advocates 
of  a  pacific  policy. 

The  feeling  of  resentment,  however,  against  Great  Britain  was 
so  deep  and  general,  and  the  persuasion  that  force  alone  would 
compel  her  to  do  justice,  was  so  strongly  grounded  in  the  minds 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  American  people,  that  their  ardent 
temperament  overlooked  the  desperate  odds  against  them  in  the 
struggle.  The  popular  dispositiov.  was  so  clearly  manifested,  that 
the  president,  on  the  1st  of  June  *812,  sent  a  message  to  congress, 
directly  proposing  the  question  /f  hostilities  for  their  serious  con- 
sideration. The  wrongs  sutf  red  by  the  United  States  at  the 
hands  of  the  British,  were  de  /ared  to  be  intolerable,  and  without 


George  Washington. 


James  Madison. 


John  Q.  Adams. 


PARTY   EXCITEMENT.  689 

any  prospect  of  redress  or  discontinuance.  It  was  admitted,  also, 
that  France  had  deeply  injured  the  country,  and  still  owed 
reparation.  The  point  was  then  submitted,  whether  the  Ameri- 
can nation  should  continue  passive  under  these  aggressions,  or 
take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  rights.  The  result  of  this  com- 
munication was,  that  the  committee  on  foreign  relations  reported 
a  bill  declaring  war  with  Great  Britain.  The  bill  passed  in  the 
house  of  representatives  by  a  majority  of  thirty,  and  in  the 
senate  by  a  majority  of  six.  On  the  18th  of  June,  1812,  it  was 
signed  by  the  president,  and  the  United  States  were  at  war. 

Had  the  intelligence  that  the  Orders  in  Council  were  rescinded, 
reached  this  country  earlier,  it  might  have  delayed,  but  probably 
would  not  have  prevented  ultimately,  the  declaration  of  war. 
The  main  causes  of  discord  between  the  two  nations  would  have 
continued;  the  impressment  of  American  seamen;  the  habitual 
disregard  of  the  neutral  rights  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
unreserved  contempt  which  the  British,  in  their  overbearing  naval 
strength,  had  always  shown  towards  those  unable  to  oppose  them 
on  the  ocean,  would  not  have  been  removed.  At  this  period  they 
no  more  dreamed  of  encountering  resistance  from  an  American 
navy,  than  from  the  navy  of  the  Portuguese  or  Neapolitans. 
The  victories  of  Aboukir  and  Trafalgar  had  set  the  seal  on  British 
naval  glory  and  supremacy;  and  the  assertion  that  "Britannia 
rules  the  waves,"  had  become  sober  fact,  and  not  poetry.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Americans  had  as  little  expectation  of  acquiring 
strength  on  the  ocean,  as  their  adversaries  had  of  losing  it.  The 
small  navy  of  the  United  States  appeared  small,  indeed,  when 
compared  with  the  thousand  ships  of  Britain.  The  calculations, 
however,  of  very  sagacious  men  are  often  strangely  contradicted 
by  the  course  of  real  events.  It  was  a  secret,  but  unerring 
instinct  which  impelled  the  American  people  to  a  war  with  the 
mightiest  naval  power  of  the  world. 

The  chance  of  the  war  was  most  desperate  for  the  United 
States  in  the  outset;  army,  navy,  revenue,  military  experience, 
unanimity  of  feeling  in  the  people,  consolidation  and  strength  in 
the  government, — all  were  wanting.  The  opposition  did  not  fail 
to  descant  upon  these  topics,  and  prognosticate  the  ruin  and 
disgrace  of  the  country.  The  heats  of  party  raged  more  strongly 
than  ever,  and  soon  broke  out  into  serious  disturbances.  Balti- 
more was  convulsed  with  the  proceedings  of  a  mob,  which,  on  the 
20th  of  June,  1812,  attacked  and  pillaged  the  office  of  a  news- 
paper which  had  been  filled  with  violent  invectives  against  the 
war.  The  paper  was  removed  and  printed  in  Georgetown,  but 
continued  to  be  circulated  in  Baltimore.  On  the  28th  of  July,  the 


690  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

mob  assaulted  the  house  of  one  of  the  editors,  which  was  defended 
by  a  number  of  armed  men.  Stones  were  thrown,  and  at  length 
muskets  fired ;  a  person  in  the  street  was  killed,  and  the  assailants 
were  about  to  batter  the  house  with  a  cannon,  when  they  were 
pacified  by  the  interference  of  the  citizens.  The  people  in  the 
house  surrendered  themselves  to  the  civil  authorities  and  were 
lodged  in  jail ;  but  the  next  night  the  jail  was  assaulted  and  broken 
open.  General  Lingan,  one  of  the  persons  confined,  was  killed, 
and  eleven  other  persons  were  shockingly  beaten  and  abused. 
All  parties  condemned  and  lamented  these  excesses;  and  such 
measures  were  taken  by  the  citizens  of  Baltimore  as  prevented 
any  repetition  of  them. 

About  this  time  an  affair  came  to  light,  which  the  American 
government  took  occasion  to  represent  as  a  discreditable  intrigue 
on  the  part  of  the  British  authorities.  While  the  unpopular 
embargo  law  was  in  operation,  the  governor  of  Canada  had  de- 
spatched a  secret  emissary,  named  John  Henry,  into  the  eastern 
states,  to  sound  the  disposition  of  the  people,  who  were  repre- 
sented as  entertaining  a  disposition  to  dissolve  the  union  and 
revolt  against  the  federal  government.  He  was  instructed  to 
obtain  interviews  with  the  leading  men,  and  to  do  all  in  his  power 
to  excite  their  disaffection.  Henry  does  not  appear  to  have  dis- 
closed his  mission  to  any  person  in  the  United  States,  but  he 
wrote  despatches  to  the  governor,  amusing  him  with  the  gossip 
which  he  had  picked  up  on  his  journey.  Not  being  rewarded  by 
the  British  government  for  his  services,  he  disclosed  the  whole 
affair  to  the  American  cabinet,  who  paid  him  fifty  thousand 
dollars  for  the  correspondence  which  he  offered  as  evidence  of  the 
plot.  These  papers  were  published  by  the  American  government, 
and  gave  rise  to  much  discussion,  not  only  in  the  United  States, 
but  in  Great  Britain.  Lord  Liverpool,  the  British  prime  minister, 
defended  the  proceeding  in  the  house  of  lords,  but  it  was  gener- 
ally considered  as  no  way  honorable  to  the  British  government. 


CHAPTER     LXVIII. 

Indian  war. — Battle  of  Tippecanoe. — Intrigues  of  Tecumseh. —  Capture  of  Mack- 
inaw by  the  British. — Invasion  of  Canada  by  General  Hull. — Surrender  of 
Detroit .— Siege  of  Fort  Wayne. —  General  Harrison  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  northwestern  army. — Defence  of  the  northern  frontier. — Dearborn's 
armistice. — Attack  of  Queenstown. — Dastardly  conduct  of  the  militia. — Failure 
of  Smyth's  campaign. — Affairs  on  the  lakes. — Success  of  the  Americans  at 
sea. —  Cruise  of  Commodore  Rogers. — Capture  of  the  Alert. — Narrow  escape  of 
the  Constitution. —  Capture  of  the  Guerriere — Frolic — Macedonian — Java  and 
Peacock. — Success  of  the  American  privateers. 


Capture  of  the  Guerriere. 

THE  hostilities  with  Great  Britain  were  preceded  by  a  military 
expedition  against  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest.  The  Shawa- 
nese,  in  the  Indiana  territory,  had  commenced  incursions  upon 
the  frontier  settlements,  under  the  instigation  of  a  chief  called  the 
Prophet.  In  the  autumn  of  1811,  the  outrages  and  murders  of 
these  savages  had  proceeded  to  such  an  alarming  extent,  that  the 
government  found  it  necessary  to  sejid  a  military  force  against 
them.  General  Harrison,  governor  of  Indiana,  took  the  command 
of  a  force  of  regulars  and  militia  at  Vincennes,  and  marched  into 
the  territory  of  the  savages.  On  the  6th  of  November,  he  arrived 
59  K4 


692  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Prophet's  town,  on  the  Tippecanoe,  ob- 
tained an  interview  with  the  chief,  and,  in  the  hope  of  negotiating 
a  peace  the  next  day,  agreed  to  a  truce.  Notwithstanding  this, 
Harrison,  like  a  prudent  commander,  encamped  for  the  night  in 
order  of  battle,  and  directed  his  men  to  rest  on  their  arms.  The 
precaution  was  not  superfluous.  The  treacherous  savages  were 
preparing  to  surprise  their  enemies ;  they  waited  in  perfect  silence 
till  just  before  break  of  day,  when  they  judged  all  suspicion 
would  be  lulled  and  the  troops  overpowered  with  sleep.  In  an 
instant  the  American  camp  was  aroused  by  a  tremendous  war- 
whoop  from  a  body  of  savages  within  a  short  distance  of  their 
line.  So  furious  was  their  attack,  that  many  of  them  forced  their 
way  through  the  line  of  regulars  and  mounted  riflemen  in  the 
rear  of  the  American  left,  and  penetrated  into  the  centre  of  the 
camp,  where  they  were  killed.  The  woods  in  front  of  the  line 
were  full  of  Indians,  and  a  charge  was  made  upon  them  by  the 
cavalry;  but  so  overwhelming  was  the  savage  force,  that  the 
cavalry  were  repulsed,  and  their  commander,  Major  Davies,  was 
mortally  wounded.  A  company  of  infantry  then  charged  with 
fixed  bayonets,  and  dislodged  the  savages  from  the  wood.  The 
fire  of  the  enemy  now  almost  completely  surrounded  the  Ameri- 
cans. Captains  Spencer  and  Warwick  were  killed,  and  the 
attack  of  the  savages  was  pushed  with  the  greatest  impetuosity. 
The  troops,  however,  stood  their  ground  with  perfect  coolness  and 
bravery  until  daylight  approached  and  enabled  them  to  recon- 
noitre the  position  of  their  assailants.  A  well-directed  charge 
was  then  made  by  the  infantry,  which  broke  their  line ;  and  the 
cavalry  dashing  in  upon  them  at  the  decisive  moment,  put  their 
•whole  force  to  the  rout.  They  instantly  fled  from  the  field,  with 
the  loss  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Americans  lost  thirty-nine  killed,  and  had  one  hundred  and 
twenty-six  wounded.  Harrison  then  burnt  the  Indian  town,  and 
laid  waste  the  country.  These  acts  of  severity  so  intimidated 
the  savages,  that  the  Prophet  was  soon  abandoned  by  all  his  fol- 
lowers; and  the  various  tribes  which  had  been  seduced  into 
hostilities  with  the  United  States  by  his  intrigues,  sued  for  peace. 
The  victory  of  Tippecanoe  checked  the  Indian  hostilities  in 
this  quarter,  but  various  savage  tribes,  on  other  parts  of  the 
frontier,  still  menaced  the  tranquillity  of  the  settlements.  The 
most  powerful  among  the  Indian  chiefs  was  Tecumseh,  a  Shawa- 
nese,  who  was  inspired  with  the  most  deadly  enmity  against  the 
Americans.  He  visited  in  person  all  the  tribes  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  on  Lakes  Superior,  Huron  and  Erie,  exciting  them  to 
war.  After  the  commencement  of  hostilities  between  the  United 


INVASION    OF    CANADA.  693 

States  and  Great  Britain,  he  joined  the  British  with  all  the  force 
he  could  muster.  The  hostile  demonstrations  of  the  savages  in 
the  northwest,  drew  the  attention  of  the  government  first  to  that 
quarter;  and  two  months  before  the  declaration  of  war,  the  presi- 
dent had  called  upon  the  state  of  Ohio  for  twelve  hundred  militia, 
which  were  immediately  furnished,  and  rendezvoused  at  Dayton. 
To  this  force  were  added  several  regiments  of  regulars,  and  the 
whole,  amounting  to  twenty-five  hundred,  were  placed  under  the 
command  of  General  Hull,  and  directed  against  the  enemy  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Detroit. 

After  a  march  of  two  hundred  miles  through  swamps  and 
woods,  Hull  arrived  at  Detroit  in  the  beginning  of  July.  The 
British  had  received  early  intelligence  of  the  declaration  of  war, 
and  were  prepared  to  receive  him.  On  the  12th  of  July,  he 
crossed  the  river  into  the  Canadian  territory,  and  issued  a  procla- 
mation, calling  upon  the  inhabitants  to  submit.  There  was  no 
great  British  force  in  this  quarter,  but  the  negligence  of  the 
American  government  had  been  so  great,  that  no  preparations  for 
the  campaign  had  been  made  upon  the  frontier.  The  important 
post  of  Mackinaw  was  neglected,  and  the  garrison  knew  nothing 
of  the  war  till  a  body  of  a  thousand  British  and  Indians  appeared 
before  the  place,  and  summoned  it  to  surrender.  There  were  but 
fifty-seven  men  to  defend  it,  who,  of  course,  were  compelled  to 
submit.  This  was  a  double  disaster  to  the  Americans,  as ,  they 
not  only  lost  a  most  important  military  post,  but  all  the  Indian 
tribes  in  the  neighborhood  rose  at  once  against  them,  and  the  whole 
"northern  hive"  came  swarming  on  the  flanks  of  Hull's  army. 

The  movements  of  Hull  were  characterized  by  slowness  and 
indecision.  While  he  commanded  a  force  much  superior  to  the 
enemy,  he  remained  inactive  for  above  three  weeks  at  Sandwich, 
near  Maiden.  All  this  time,  the  General  states,  was  consumed  in 
making  gun-carriages  and  other  preparations  for  the  siege  of 
Maiden.  In  the  meantime,  the  British  had  reinforced  their  posts, 
recruited  their  ranks  with  militia  and  Indians,  and  put  everything 
in  a  state  to  repel  their  invaders.  As  the  British  gained  confi- 
dence, the  Americans  lost  it.  Hull's  incapacity,  irresolution  and 
sluggish  movements,  had  disheartened  the  whole  army.  Disas- 
ters soon  began  to  fall  upon  them.  On  the  4th  of  August,  a 
detachment  of  two  hundred  men,  sent  to  escort  a  supply  of  pro- 
visions for  the  army,  was  defeated  at  Brownstown,  by  a  party  of 
Indians.  A  council  of  war  was  held,  *and  decided  that  an  imme- 
diate attack  ought  to  be  made  upon  Maiden.  In  consequence, 
Hull  issued  a  general  order  for  the  attack  on  the  7th  of  August. 
But  on  the  next  day,  to  the  astonishment  of  every  one,  the  army 


694  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

was  ordered  to  re-cross  the  river  and  encamp  at  Detroit.  It  was 
now  pretty  evident  that  the  general  was  deficient  in  courage  as 
well  as  capacity.  The  order  was  obeyed,  though  with  a  most 
sullen  reluctance.  As  if  these  proceedings  were  not  sufficiently 
absurd,  Hull,  on  the  following  day,  detached  a  body  of  six  hun- 
dred men,  under  Colonel  Miller,  across  the  river  again.  This 
party  engaged  a  body  of  British  and  Indians,  near  Maguaga  vil- 
lage, and  drove  them  off  the  ground  with  considerable  loss.  The 
Indians  were  commanded  by  Tecumseh.  Miller  proceeded  to 
Brownstown,  but  was  immediately  afterwards  ordered  back  to 
Detroit,  and  Canada  was  a  second  time  evacuated. 

The  British  now  began  10  assume  offensive  operations.  Gen- 
eral Brock,  who  commanded  at  Maiden,  had  a  force  of  thirteen 
hundred  men.  On  the  14th  of  August,  he  erected  batteries  oppo- 
site Detroit,  within  point-blank  shot  of  the  fort,  without  any 
molestation  from  the  Americans.  The  next  day,  he  summoned 
Hull  to  surrender,  and  being  refused,  opened  his  fire  upon  the 
town.  After  a  cannonade  of  two  days,  the  British  crossed  the 
river,  and  took  post  about  three  miles  from  Detroit.  It  is  probable 
that  Brock  did  not  design  on  immediate  attack,  but  hearing  that 
a  detachment  of  three  hundred  men  had  been  recently  sent  away 
from  Detroit,  he  determined  to  assault  the  place.  The  American 
army  was  stationed  in  the  fort  and  town,  in  the  most  favorable 
situation  for  receiving  the  enemy.  A  sharp  conflict  was  expected. 
when,  on  a  sudden,  to  the  astonishment  of  every  one,  the  whole 
force  was  ordered  to  march  into  the  fort,  where  their  arms  were 
stacked,  and  the  artillery  were  forbidden  to  fire.  Here,  crowded 
into  a  narrow  compass,  every  shot  of  the  enemy  took  effect,  and 
Hull  ordered  the  white  flag  to  be  hoisted  in  token  of  surrender. 

The  surrender  of  Detroit  is  the  most  disgraceful  transaction 
that  ever  tarnished  the  American  flag.  The  imbecility  or  coward- 
ice displayed  by  General  Hull  was  probably  never  surpassed 
in  the  whole  history  of  military  transactions.  Nothing  could 
exceed  the  mortification  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  when 
the  capture  of  Hull's  army  became  known.  He  was  openly  de- 
nounced as  a  traitor,  who  had  sold  his  country  for  British  gold. 
A  court  martial  convicted  him  of  cowardice  and  un-officer-like 
conduct,  and  sentenced  him  to  death.  But,  in  consideration  of  his 
revolutionary  services,  the  president  remitted  the  penalty.  His 
name  was  stricken  from  the  rolls  of  the  army,  and  he  was 
^allowed  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement  and  dis- 
grace. 

During  Hull's  campaign  the  evidence  of  his  incapacity  was  so 
manifest  to  his  officers,  that  many  of  them  wrote  private  letters 


DEFENCE   OF    THE   NORTHERN   FRONTIER.  695 

to  the  governor  of  Ohio,  predicting  the  impending  disasters,  and 
urging  the  sending  forward  of  reinforcements.  In  Ohio  and 
Kentucky  three  thousand  of  the  militia  were  raised,  and  marched 
for  Detroit,  but  on  their  arrival  at  Cincinnati  on  the  27th  of  Au- 
gust, they  received  the  news  of  Hull's  surrender.  This  caused 
some  delay.  Further  drafts  of  militia  were  made  in  Pennsylva- 
nia and  Virginia,  and  the  whole  force  was  put  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Harrison.  The  army  marched  from  Cincinnati, 
and  on  the  third  of  September  arrived  at  Piqua,  on  the  Great 
Miami,  where  Harrison  received  intelligence  that  Fort  Wayne  was 
besieged  by  the  Indians.  A  body  of  five  hundred  men  was  de- 
spatched for  its  relief,  and  in  a  few  days  the  whole  army  marched 
for  the  same  place.  The  Indians,  hearing  of  Harrison's  approach, 
raised  the  siege  and  decamped.  The  army  arrived  at  Fort 
Wayne  on  the  12th  of  September.  A  detachment  sent  for  the  pur- 
pose destroyed  all  the  Indian  towns  on  the  forks  of  the  Wabash. 
Shortly  after  this,  General  Winchester  arrived  and  took  command 
of  the  army,  which  caused  much  discontent  in  the  ranks,  but 
Harrison  used  all  his  efforts  to  assuage  it,  and  the  troops  acqui- 
esced. Winchester  marched  towards  Fort  Defiance,  where  the 
British  and  Indians  were  in  considerable  force;  Hearing  of  his 
approach,  they  retreated,  and  the  Americans  took  possession  of 
Fort  Defiance  on  the  20th  of  September. 

On  the  24th  of  September,  General  Harrison  received  from 
Washington  his  appointment  to  the  command  of  the  northwestern 
army,  with  orders  to  provide  for  the  security  of  the  western  fron- 
tier; to  re-capture  Detroit,  and  to  invade  Canada: — an  arduous 
duty,  when  we  consider  that  the  utmost  negligence  and  inca- 
pacity marked  almost  all  the  proceedings  of  the  war  department. 
The  season  was  now  far  advanced,  and  the  American  posts  were 
spread  along  a  very  wide  extent  of  frontier.  To  penetrate  into 
Canada  was  impracticable;  and,  after  calculating  his  means,  Har- 
rison was  forced  to  abandon  the  scheme  of  attacking  Detroit. 
Several  actions  were  fought  with  the  Indians,  but  no  decisive 
advantage  was  gained,  except  the  destruction  of  the  Indian 
towns,  and  the  waste  of  their  corn-fields. 

Some  preparations,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  made  for  the 
defence  of  other  portions  of  the  northern  frontier.  Bodies  of  mili- 
tia and  regulars  were  stationed  at  Plattsburg,  Sackett's  Harbor, 
Black  Rock  and  Buffalo.  The  chief  command  in  this  quarter 
was  assigned  to  General  Dearborn.  'On  the  4th  of  August,  Sir 
George  Prevost,  the  governor  general  of  Canada,  proposed  to 
General  Dearborn  a  suspension  of  arms,  grounded  on  the  repeal 
of  the  orders  in  council,  which  it  was  supposed  might  lead  to 
59* 


69C  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

pacific  measures.  Dearborn  agreed  to  an  armistice  on  his  own 
frontier,  to  continue  till  the  pleasure  of  the  president  should  be 
known.  The  president  refused  to  sanction  it,  but  during  the 
short  time  of  its  continuance,  it  enabled  the  British  to  detach 
a  large  portion  of  their  troops  to  Detroit,  and  the  result  was 
the  capture  of  Hull's  army.  Hostilities  were  immediately  re- 
sumed all  along  the  frontier.  On  the  21st  of  September,  a  small 
party  of  Americans,  under  Captain  Forsyth,  made  an  incursion 
into  Canada,  defeated  a  body  of  the  enemy,  captured  a  village, 
and  brought  off  a  considerable  quantity  of  military  stores.  To 
retaliate  for  this,  a  body  of  four  hundred  British  assembled  oppo- 
site Ogdensburg,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  cannonaded  the  town, 
but  they  were  driven  off  by  the  militia. 

Upwards  of  three  thousand  of  the  New  York  militia,  under  Gen- 
eral Van  Rensselaer,  had  been  collected  on  the  Niagara  frontier. 
Their  head  quarters  were  at  Lewistown,  eight  miles  below  the 
falls.  On  the  llth  of  October  they  made  an  attack  upon  Queens- 
town,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  A  detachment  of  regulars 
was  sent  from  Black  Rock  to  assist  in  the  attack.  The  British 
had  received  intelligence  of  the  design  some  time  previous,  and 
sent  reinforcements  to  Queenstown  from  Fort  George.  As  soon 
as  the  Americans  embarked  to  cross  the  river,  a  heavy  fire  was 
opened  upon  them,  and  the  current  being  very  strong,  the  boats 
were  thrown  into  disorder.  The  first  that  gained  the  shore  was 
a  body  of  one  hundred  men,  under  Colonel  Van  Rensselaer,  who 
stormed  the  fort  and  silenced  the  enemy's  batteries.  Reinforce- 
ments were  soon  received  by  both  parties,  and  the  conflict  was 
renewed  with  great  severity.  The  British  were  repulsed,  and 
General  Brock,  in  attempting  to  rally  his  troops,  fell,  mortally 
wounded ;  but  being  again  joined  by  a  reinforcement  of  several 
hundred  Indians,  the  British  returned  to  the  attack,  in  which  they 
were  once  more  repulsed.  General  Van  Rensselaer  now  re-crossed 
the  river,  to  expedite  the  passage  of  the  troops,  but,  to  his  great 
mortification,  the  militia,  at  the  critical  moment,  refused  to  pro- 
ceed, alleging  that  the  general  had  no  authority  to  lead  them  be- 
yond the  territory  of  the  United  States.  This  cowardly  behavior 
lost  the  victory  to  the  Americans.  They,  however,  bravely  stood 
their  ground  at  Queenstown,  till,  overpowered  by  numbers,  they 
were  obliged  to  re-cross  the  Niagara,  with  the  loss  of  above  three 
hundred  prisoners  and  six  hundred  killed  and  wounded.  The 
British  also  suffered  severely,  but  their  exact  loss  is  not  known. 
General  Brock,  a  brave  and  able  officer,  was  much  lamented. 

General  Van  Rensselaer  resigned  his  command,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  General  Smyth,  of  the  regular  army.     He  assembled  a 


AFFAIRS    ON    THE    LAKES. 


697 


body  of  about  four  thousand  men  at  Buffalo,  and  despatched 
some  small  parties  into  Canada,  who  destroyed  a  few  fortifica- 
tions. But  his  plans  for  a  general  invasion  came  to  nothing. 


Buffalo. 

Thus  closed  the  Niagara  campaign  of  1812,  to  the  utter  disap- 
pointment and  mortification  of  the  militia,  who  had  been  drawn 
from  their  homes,  in  the  severity  of  winter,  by  the  hope  of  accom- 
plishing some  brilliant  achievement.  The  exasperation  of  the 
soldiers,  at  what  they  conceived  to  be  the  cowardice  of  General 
Smyth,  was  wrought  up  to  so  high  a  pitch,  that  acts  of  violence 
occurred,  and  his  life  was  endangered.  The  opinion  of  the  pub- 
lic was  not  more  favorable  to  him.  In  the  meantime,  some  ma- 
noBiivres  took  place  upon  the  Champlain  frontier,  but  nothing  of 
importance  was  done.  The  disasters  of  Detroit  and  Queenstown 
had  depressed  the  spirits  of  the  people ;  and  the  army  of  the  north 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  Plattsburg.  On  the  great  lakes  there 
had  been  a  small  naval  force  on  both  sides.  In  November,  Com- 
modore Chauncey  sailed  from  Sackett's  Harbor  with  seven  small 
schooners,  mounting  forty  guns.  The  British  had  about  double 
this  armament  on  the  lake.  Chauncey  fell  in  with  the  Royal 
George,  of  twenty-six  guns,  and  chased  her  into  Kingston,  where 
he  was  repulsed  by  the  batteries.  The  Americans  kept  the  com- 
mand of  the  lake,  but  the  season  was  too  late  for  further  opera- 
tions. On  Lake  Erie,  the  Americans  had  but  a  single  armed 
vessel  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  which  was  surrendered  at  De- 
troit. On  the  9th  of  October,  Lieutenant  Elliot,  of  the  navy,  crossed 
over  from  Btack  Rock  and  cut  out  two  British  vessels  from  under 
the  guns  of  Fort  Erie.  One  of  them,  an  armed  vessel,  was  burnt, 


698  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  the  other,  with  a  valuable  cargo  of  furs,  was  secured  undei 
the  batteries  of  Black  Rock. 

The  disasters  of  the  campaign  were,  however,  compensated  by 
the  unexpected  successes  which  now  began  to  shed  a  lustre 
upon  the  American  navy.  Within  one  hour  after  the  official 
intelligence  of  the  declaration  of  war  reached  New  York,  on  the 
2 1st  of  June,  Commodore  Rodgers  sailed  from  that  place  with  his 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  frigates  President,  United  States  and 
Congress,  the  Hornet  sloop,  and  Argus  brig  of  war,  in  pursuit  of 
the  British  homeward  bound  Jamaica  fleet.  On  the  24th,  they 
gave  chase  to  the  British  frigate  Belvidera.  The  President  out- 
sailed the  rest  of  the  squadron  and  soon  came  up  with  the  enemy ; 
but  on  opening  her  fire,  a  gun  burst  on  board  the  President,  which 
killed  and  wounded  sixteen  persons,  and  shattered  the  main  and 
forecastle  decks  in  such  a  manner  that  their  guns  could  not  be 
used.  The  commodore  himself  was  among  the  wounded.  This 
accident  enabled  the  Belvidera  to  escape.  The  cruise  was  con- 
tinued, but  the  Jamaica  fleet  could  not  be  found.  Rodgers,  after 
scouring  the  seas  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  British  Channel,  the 
Azores  and  Madeira,  returned  to  Boston  on  the  31st  of  August, 
having  made  prize  of  several  merchant  vessels. 

The  Essex,  of  thirty-two  guns,  Captain  Porter,  sailed  from  New 
York  on  the  3d  of  July,  captured  a  transport  with  two  hundred 
soldiers,  and  on  the  13th  of  August,  fell  in  with  the  Alert,  a 
British  sloop  of  war.  Notwithstanding  the  inferiority  of  force, 
such  was  the  confidence  of  the  British  naval  commander  in  their 
own  prowess  at  this  period,  that  the  Alert  ran  immediately  along- 
side the  Essex,  and  engaged  her  with  three  cheers.  In  eight 
minutes  the  Alert  struck  her  colors,  with  seven  feet  water  in  her 
hold.  She  was  taken  possession  of,  and  brought  safe  into  port. 
On  the  30th,  towards  dark,  the  Essex  discovered  an  enemy's 
frigate,  arid  lay  by  during  the  night,  with  lights  hoisted,  but  in  the 
morning  the  enemy  was  not  to  be  seen.  The  Essex  arrived  in 
the  Delaware  on  the  7th  of  September. 

The  naval  action,  however,  first  in  importance,  though  not  in 
date,  was  that  of  the  frigate  Constitution,  now  so  memorable  in 
the  annals  of  the  American  navy.  She  sailed  from  Annapolis, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  on  the  12th  of  July, 
on  a  cruise  to  the  north,  and  on  the  17th  fell  in  with  an  enemy's 
squadron,  consisting  of  a  ship  of  the  line,  four  frigates,  a  brig 
and  a  schooner,  which  immediately  gave  her  chase.  At  sunrise 
the  next  morning  it  was  found  that  the  enemy  were  gaining  upon 
her,  and  preparations  were  made  for  a  battle.  The  wind  died 
away,  and  all  the  ships  put  out  their  boats  and  commenced  tow- 


CAPTURE   OF   THE   FRIGATE   GUERRIERE.  699 

ing  The  Constitution  then  practised  another  expedient;  the 
water  being  shallow,  anchors  were  carried  out  ahead,  and  the 
ship  warped  up  to  them.  This  was  speedily  imitated  by  the 
British,  who  were  now  within  gun-shot.  In  this  manner  the 
chase  continued  till  the  morning  of  the  20th,  when,  a  fresh  breeze 
springing  up,  the  Constitution  left  her  pursuers  behind,  and 
arrived  safely  at  Boston,  having  owed  her  preservation  to  the 
superior  skill  and  good  conduct  of  her  captain  and  crew. 

The  Constitution,  thus  fortunately  saved  to  the  American  navy, 
was  now  destined  to  lead  the  way  to  a  series  of  exploits  which 
shed  a  renown  upon  the  national  character,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  naval  greatness  of  the  republic.  On  the  2d  of  August, 
she  left  Boston  on  a  second  cruise,  and  on  the  19th  of  the  same 
month,  a  day  forever  memorable  in  American  history,  she  fell  in 
with  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  Captain  Dacres.  The  Consti- 
tution immediately  bore  down  upon  her.  The  Guerriere  lay  to, 
and  waited  the  approach  of  her  antagonist,  confident  of  the  usual 
success  which  had  ever  favored  the  British  arms  upon  the  ocean. 
On  nearing  each  other,  both  ships  manoeuvred  to  gain  an  advan- 
tageous position,  but  the  Constitution,  by  superior  seamanship,  had 
the  ultimate  advantage.  Broadside  after  broadside  was  fired  by 
the  Guerriere,  but  Captain  Hull,  with  that  coolness  and  sagacity 
which  are  the  characteristics  of  the  American  sailor,  paid  no 
attention  to  the  shot  of  the  enemy  till  he  had  laid  his  ship  in  the 
right  position,  when  he  immediately  opened  so  well-directed  a  fire, 
that  in  thirty  minutes  the  Guerriere  was  completely  dismasted, 
with  not  a  spar  standing  above  her  deck,  and  surrendered  by 
firing  a  gun  to  leeward,  having  no  flag  to  haul  down.  She  had 
fifteen  killed  and  sixty-three  wounded;  the  Constitution  had 
seven  killed  and  seven  wounded. 

Never  had  a  British  ship  experienced  such  effect  from  an 
enemy's  gunnery.  The  Constitution  was  so  little  damaged,  that 
she  was  fit  for  action  immediately  after ;  but  the  Guerriere  was 
so  cut  to  pieces,  that  she  could  not  be  carried  into  port ;  she  was 
accordingly  blown  up  the  next  day.  The  arrival  of  the  Consti- 
tution at  Boston,  on  the  28th  of  August,  produced  a  burst  ot 
exultation  among  the  people,  which  would  seem  utterly  extrava- 
gant when  considered  as  caused  merely  by  the  capture  of  an 
enemy's  frigate.  But  at  this  period  the  invincibility  of  the 
British  upon  the  ocean,  was  a  belief  of  so  long  standing,  so  firmly 
fixed  in  the  minds  of  most  men,  and  had  been  so  fully  confirmed 
by  the  uniform  and  brilliant  successes  of  their  navy,  that  the 
achievement  of  Captain  Hull  acted  at  once  like  the  dispelling  of 
a  charm.  The  Guerriere  was  a  ship  of  high  reputation,  and  her 

L4 


700  THE   UNITED    STATES 

commander  a  man  of  preeminent  courage.  He  had  repeatedly 
announced  his  strong  desire  to  meet  an  American  frigate,  and 
wrote  an  inscription  of  defiance  on  the  sails  of  his  ship.  The 
ease  with  which  she  had  been  captured  by  the  Constitution,  the 
skill  and  intrepidity  of  the  American  sailors,  the  superiority  of 
their  gunnery,  and  the  unshaken  confidence  with  which  they  had 
gone  into  action  with  an  enemy  so  formidable  in  reputation,  all 
contributed  to  swell  the  importance  of  the  victory  far  beyond  its 
apparent  magnitude.  Captain  Hull  was  received  with  the  high- 
est honors  at  Boston.  The  wharves  were  crowded  with  immense 
throngs  of  people  as  he  landed.  All  parties  united  in  welcoming 
him  with  the  most  enthusiastic  cheers ;  for  although  there  were 
many  who  disapproved  of  the  war,  none  were  found  insensible  to 
the  enthusiasm  excited  by  a  deed  of  so  much  gallantry.  Honors 
awaited  the  victors  in  all  parts  of  the  country ;  many  legislatures 
voted  them  thanks,  and  congress  granted  the  crew  of  the  Consti- 
tution fifty  thousand  dollars  for  the  loss  of  their  prize. 

On  the  8th  of  October,  Commodore  Rodgers,  with  the  President, 
United  States,  Congress  and  Argus,  left  Boston  on  a  cruise.  They 
were  separated  by  a  gale  of  wind,  and  on  the  15th  the  President 
and  Congress  captured  a  British  packet,  with  nearly  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars  in  specie.  They  returned  to  Boston  on  the  30th 
of  December.  The  Argus  captured  some  valuable  merchant 
ships.  A  brilliant  victory  awaited  the  frigate  United  States, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Decatur.  On  the  25th  of  October, 
near  the  Azores,  she  encountered  the  British  frigate  Macedonian, 
Captain  Garden,  a  new  vessel  of  superior  equipment.  The  Mace- 
donian, having  the  weather-gage,  kept  at  long-shot,  and  this 
prevented  the  United  States  from  using  the  greater  part  of  her 
guns,  which  were  carronades.  But  as  soon  as  the  United  States 
was  able  to  close  with  her  enemy,  the  action  began  in  earnest, 
and  the  Macedonian  soon  had  her  mizen-mast  shot  away  and  her 
other  spars  and  rigging  damaged.  She  struck,  after  an  action  of 
an  hour  and  a  half  from  the  first  shot,  with  the  loss  of  thirty-six 
killed  and  sixty-eight  wounded.  The  United  States  had  four 
killed  and  seven  wounded.  The  United  States  arrived  at  New 
York  with  her  prize  on  the  4th  of  December. 

Captain  Decatur  was  greeted  with  honors  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  bestowed  upon  Captain  Hull.  But  naval  suc- 
cesses now  came  thickening  upon  the  Americans.  The  sloop  of 
war  Wasp,  Captain  Jones,  sailed  from  the  Delaware,  on  the  13th 
of  October.  On  the  18th,  at  dawn,  she  descried  six  merchantmen, 
convoyed  by  the  British  sloop  of  war  Frolic ;  four  of  the  mer- 
chantmen were  armed.  The  Wasp  bore  down  upon  them  and 


CAPTURE   OF    THE   FROLIC   AND   PEACOCK.  701 

engaged  the  Frolic  within  a  few  yards  distance.  After  an  action 
of  forty-three  minutes,  the  Frolic  was  captured  by  boarding. 
Both  her  masts  were  shot  away,  and  she  lay  an  unmanageable 
wreck  on  the  water,  having  lost  thirty  men  killed  and  fifty 
wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Wasp  was  only  four  killed  and  four 
wounded.  This  battle  was  fought  against  odds  more  unfavorable 
to  the  Americans  than  any  one  that  had  preceded  it.  The  Con- 
stitution and  United  States  were  somewhat  superior  in  strength 
to  their  antagonists,  but  the  Wasp  was  inferior  by  four  guns. 
Both  the  Frolic  and  Wasp  were  so  disabled  that  they  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Poictiers  seventy-four,  which  had  been  in  sight 
during  the  action. 

The  Constitution  again  put  to  sea,  from  Boston,  in  October, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Bainbridge.  She  was  accompa- 
nied by  the  Hornet  sloop  of  war,  and  both  were  bound  on  a 
cruise  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  St.  Salvador,  the  Hornet  was  left 
to  blockade  a  British  packet,  and  the  Constitution  proceeded  on 
her  voyage  alone.  On  the  29th  of  December,  on  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  she  fell  in  with  the  British  frigate  Java,  and  engaged  her, 
first  at  long  shot,  and  then  in  close  action.  At  the  end  of  two 
hours,  the  Java  surrendered,  having  suffered  the  severe  loss  of 
sixty  killed  and  above  one  hundred  wounded.  Captain  Lambert, 
her  commander,  was  mortally  wounded.  The  Java  was  uncom- 
monly well  manned,  having  one  hundred  supernumerary  seamen 
on  board,  together  with  a  British  general  and  other  land  and 
naval  officers,  bound  to  the  East  Indies.  Of  the  Constitution's 
crew,  nine  were  killed  and  twenty-five  wounded.  The  Java  was 
set  on  fire,  and  her  prisoners  were  landed  at  St.  Salvador  on  pa- 
role. The  Constitution,  having  received  considerable  damage, 
returned  to  Boston. 

The  Hornet,  under  Captain  Lawrence,  in  the  meantime,  had 
remained  off  St.  Salvador,  blockading  the  Bonne  Citoyenne 
packet,  a  vessel  of  superior  force.  But  though  a  challenge  was 
sent  to  the  British  commander,  he  did  not  think  fit,  having  treas- 
ure in  his  charge,  to  risk  the  chance  of  a  battle.  After  blockading 
her  for  eighteen  days,  the  Hornet  was  chased  off  by  a  seventy- 
four,  which  had  been  sent  for  to  relieve  the  Bonne  Citoyenne. 
On  the  24th  of  February,  1813,  the  Hornet  fell  in  with  and 
engaged  the  British  brig  of  war  Peacock,  off  the  river  Demerara. 
After  an  action  of  fifteen  minutes,  the  Peacock  was  so  completely 
cut  to  pieces  that  she  was  found  to  be  sinking,  and  hoisted  a 
signal  of  distress.  Endeavors  were  made  by  the  crew  of  the 
Hornet  to  save  her  by  throwing  overboard  her  guns  and  plugging 
the  shot  holes,  which  had  riddled  her  in  every  part.  But  she 


702  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

sunk  so  quickly  that  nine  of  her  crew  were  drowned,  with  three 
of  the  Hornet's  men.  The  Peacock  had  lost  her  captain  and  four 
men  killed,  with  thirty-three  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Hornet 
was  one  killed  and  two  wounded.  No  action  has  displayed  the 
superiority  of  the  American  gunnery  more  than  this.  During  the 
whole  of  the  conflict,  another  British  brig  of  war  lay  at  anchor 
within  sight;  and  the  Hornet  was  cleared  for  another  action. 
The  brig,  however,  got  under  way  and  escaped.  The  Hornet 
returned  to  New  York. 


Capture  of  the  Peacock. 

In  addition  to  the  above  naval  successes,  the  commerce  of  the 
British  had  suffered  severely  from  the  American  privateers  during 
the  year  1812.  In  less  than  five  months  from  the  declaration  of 
war,  the  prizes  brought  into  the  ports  of  the  United  States  were 
computed  at  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and  the  number  of  prisoners 
at  three  thousand.  Very  few  of  the  American  merchantmen  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  the  only  public  vessels 
lost,  were  the  schooner  Nautilus,  captured  after  a  long  chase  by  a 
squadron  of  frigates,  and  the  brig  Vixen,  captured  by  the  South- 
ampton frigate. 


CHAPTER    LXIX. 

Unsuccessful  negotiations  for  peace. — Increase  of  the  navy. — Massacre  at  the  river 
Raisin. — Siege  of  Fort  Meigs. — Capture  of  York  and  Fort  George. — Disasters 
of  Stoney  Creek  and  Beaver  Dam. — Attack  on  Sackett's  Harbor. — Defence  of  Fort 
Stephenson  by  Major  Croghan. — Harrison's  campaign  in  the  north-west. —  Cap- 
ture of  Maiden  and  Sandwich. — Battle  of  the  Thames. — Death  of  Tecumseh*— 
Perry's  victory  on  lake  Erie. —  Campaign  of  the  northern  army. —  Wilkinson's 
expedition  against  Montreal. — Miscarriage  of  Wilkinson  and  Hampton. — Failure 
of  the  campaign. — Evacuation  of  Fort  George. — Burning  of  Newark  and  Buf- 
falo.— Blockade  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware. — Bombardment  of  Lewistown. 
— Devastations  committed  in  the  Chesapeake. — Attack  on  Craney  Island. —  Cap- 
ture of  Hampton  and  Portsmouth. — Loss  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Argus. —  Cap- 
ture of  the  Boxer  and  Dominica. — Blockade  of  the  United  States  and  Macedonian. 
— Embargo. — War  with  the  Indians  of  the  south. — Irruptions  of  the  Creeks. — 
Massacre  of  Fort  Mimms. — Defeat  of  the  Indians  at  Tallashatchee ,  Talladega 
and  Tallapoosa. — Final  defeat  of  the  savages  at  Tallapoosa. — Opening  of  the 
northern  campaign. — Defeat  of  Wilkinson  at  Odletown. — Attack  of  Oswego. 
~— Capture  of  a  British  force  at  Sandy  Creek. — Invasion  of  the  Niagara  frontier 
by  the  Americans. — Capture  of  Fort  Erie. — Battles  ofChippewa  and  Bridgewater. 
— Siege  of  Fort  Erie,  by  the  British. — Sortie  of  the  garrison. — Petreat  of  the 
British. — Izard  assumes  the  command. — Evacuation  of  Canada,  and  end  of  the 
campaign.— Affairs  of  the  north-west. — AT  Arthur's  expedition  to  the  Thames. 

CONGRESS,  as  soon  as  they  convened,  in  November,  1812,  author- 
ized the  American  minister  at  London  to  attempt  a  negotiation 
for  peace,  by  giving  assurances  that  a  law  should  be  passed  for- 
bidding the  employment  of  British  subjects  in  American  ships,  in 
case  the  British  would  reciprocate  the  regulation ;  thus  removing 
the  ground  of  complaint  between  the  two  countries  on  the  subject 
of  impressment  The  British  government  refused  to  listen  to  this 
proposal,  and  avowed  a  determination  not  to  abandon  the  right 
of  impressment,  on  which,  it  was  asserted,  the  naval  power  of  the 
empire  depended.  A  second  proposal  for  an  armistice  was  made 
by  Admiral  Warren,  under  the  sanction  of  his  government,  which 
the  American  cabinet  were  willing  to  agree  to,  in  case  the  British 
would  concede  the  point  of  impressment.  This  was  refused. 
Notwithstanding  this,  a  law  was  passed  by  congress  forbidding 
the  employment  of  British  seamen  in  American  vessels,  after  the 
close  of  the  existing  war. 

The  brilliant  success  of  the  Americans  on  the  ocean  had  made 
the  naval  service  exceedingly  popular ;  and  provision  was  made 
60 


704  THE   UNITED   STATES, 

by  congress  for  the  construction  of  four  ships  of  the  line,  six 
frigates  and  six  sloops  of  war  for  the  Atlantic  navy,  and  as  many 
vessels  on  the  lakes  as  the  public  service  might  require.  A  further 
loan  of  sixteen  millions,  and  an  issue  of  five  millions  of  treasury 
notes  were  authorised.  But,  as  no  extraordinary  means  of  reve- 
nue were  provided,  the  loan  was  negotiated  on  very  unfavorable 
terms.  Mr.  Madison  was  this  year  reflected  president,  and  El- 
bridge  Gerry  was  elected  vice-president. 

In  the  plan  for  the  northern  campaign  of  1813,  General  Harrison 
strongly  urged  upon  the  government  to  establish  an  efficient  naval 
force  upon  Lake  Erie,  without  which  he  affirmed  it  to  be  impos- 
sible to  prosecute  the  war  against  Canada  with  any  prospect  of 
success.  All  preparations,  however,  for  building  and  equipping  a 
fleet  had  been  so  utterly  neglected,  that  no  hope  existed  of  obtain- 
ing the  command  of  the  lake  in  season  to  begin  the  campaign  at 
an  early  day.  Harrison  had  nearly  ten  thousand  militia  and 
regulars  at  his  disposal,  but  the  march  to  Detroit  led  nearly  two 
hundred  miles  through  a  swampy  wilderness.  He  arrived  at 
Upper  Sandusky  early  in  January,  1813,  where  he  assembled 
about  one  thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  despatched  Winchester 
to  the  rapids  of  the  Miami.  Having  received  information  shortly 
after,  that  the  Indians  threatened  to  burn  Frenchtown,  on  the 
river  Raisin,  he  detached,  on  the  17th,  Colonel  Lewis,  with  a 
force  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  men,  to  defend  the  place.  On  their 
march,  this  detachment  defeated  a  body  of  the  enemy  at  French- 
town,  and  were  afterwards  joined  by  Winchester's  troops. 

Winchester,  who  took  the  command  at  Frenchtown,  received 
information  that  a  strong  body  of  British  and  Indians  was  about 
to  march  from  Maiden ;  yet  he  was  so  negligent  of  his  duty  that 
no  preparations  were  made  to  receive  them  ;  and  when  the  enemy 
approached  Frenchtown,  on  the  night  of  the  21st  of  January, 
there  was  not  even  a  picket  guard  posted  on  the  road.  Immedi- 
ately after  daylight,  the  place  was  attacked,  and  a  considerable 
body  of  the  Americans  completely  routed.  A  part  of  the  forces, 
however,  which  had  been  stationed  behind  pickets,  defended 
themselves  with  resolution.  But  General  Winchester  and  Colonel 
Lewis  being  made  prisoners,  the  British  represented  to  them  that 
nothing  but  an  immediate  surrender  could  save  the  troops  who 
still  held  out,  from  being  massacred  by  the  Indians.  The  gene- 
ral, influenced  by  these  representations,  sent  a  flag  of  truce, 
ordering  the  remainder  of  the  troops  to  surrender.  The  enemy 
being  vastly  superior  in  numbers,  and  the  ammunition  of  the 
Americans  nearly  expended,  they  surrendered,  on  condition  of 
being  protected  by  a  guard,  and  having  their  sick  and  wounded 


MASSACRE    AT    THE    RIVER    RATSIN.  705 

sent  the  next  day  to  Amherstburg.  Colonel  Procter,  the  British 
commander,  agreed  to  these  terms ;  but  the  catastrophe  which  fol- 
lowed is  horrible  to  relate.  The  miserable  captives  were  massa- 
cred by  the  savages  with  the  most  shocking  barbarity.  Officers 
and  soldiers  were  tomahawked  in  cold  blood,  or  burnt  alive  in  the 
houses  where  they  attempted  to  shelter  themselves.  The  man- 
gled carcasses  of  these  victims  of  savage  atrocity  were  strewed 
over  the  country.  To  the  eternal  disgrace  of  the  British  officers, 
no  attempt  was  made  to  prevent  these  inhuman  deeds,  or  to  arrest 
them  while  the  bloody  work  was  going  on.  The  massacre  of  the 
river  Raisin  was  never  defended,  nor  is  it  capable  of  defence. 

This  dreadful  disaster  impeded  for  some  time  the  operations 
of  the  Americans.  Harrison  fortified  his  position  at  the  rapids, 
and  named  it  Fort  Meigs.  On  the  28th  of  April,  a  strong  force  of 
British  and  Indians  laid  siege  to  the  place.  A  heavy  cannonade 
was  directed  against  it  for  several  days,  which  the  garrison  could 
not  return  with  equal  spirit,  being  short  of  ammunition.  A  body 
of  one  thousand  two  hundred  Kentuckians  advanced  for  its  relief, 
and  a  detachment  of  them  captured  the  batteries  of  the  besiegers 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The  commander  of  this  detach- 
ment, however,  had  so  little  military  skill,  that  he  made  no  use 
of  his  victory,  but  allowed  the  enemy  to  rally  and  defeat  him. 
The  garrison  then  made  a  sortie,  drove  the  enemy  from  their 
batteries,  spiked  the  cannon,  and  took  forty  prisoners.  Some 
days  of  inaction  followed,  and  the  British  commander,  finding 
his  Indian  auxiliaries  leaving  him,  raised  the  siege,  and  decamped 
on  the  9th  of  May.  The  besieging  force  amounted  to  about  two 
thousand ;  the  Americans  to  one  thousand  two  hundred,  mostly 
militia. 

On  the  Ontario  frontier  a  partisan  warfare  was  begun  by  the 
capture  of  Elizabeth  town,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  by  the  Americans; 
which  the  British  soon  retaliated  by  taking  Ogdensburg.  A 
strong  American  force,  under  General  Dearborn,  was  concentrated 
at  Sackett's  Harbor  in  April ;  and  as  soon  as  the  lake  was  clear  of 
ice,  Dearborn,  with  a  body  of  one  thousand  seven  hundred  men, 
embarked  in  the  squadron  of  Commodore  Chauncey  for  an  expe- 
dition against  York,  the  capital  of  Upper  Canada.  On  the  27th 
of  April,  they  arrived  at  York,  and  landed  immediately  in  front 
of  the  fortifications.  The  British  had  collected  a  body  of  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  regulars,  militia  and  Indians  to  oppose  their 
landing.  A  smart  action  ensued  between  them  and  Major  For- 
syth's  rifle  corps,  who  were  the  first  "that  set  foot  on  shore;  but  the 
British  were  held  in  check  till  the  whole  American  army  had 
been  drawn  up  in  order  upon  the  beach,  under  the  direction  of 


706 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


General  Pike,  who  then  led  his  troops  onward  in  the  face  of  a 
heavy  fire  from  the  fortifications.  He.  drove  the  enemy  before 
him,  stormed  and  carried  their  advanced  batteries,  and  was  push- 
ing forward  to  the  main  works,  when  a  tremendous  explosion 
took  place  from  the  enemy's  magazine,  which  hurled  upon  the 
troops  immense  masses  of  stone  and  timber.  Great  havoc  was 
made  in  the  American  ranks  by  this  discharge,  and  General  Pike 


Death  of  General  Pike. 

was  mortally  wounded.  Colonel  Pearce  now  took  the  command, 
and  the  enemy's  regulars  having  retreated,  the  town  was  surren- 
dered by  capitulation  with  the  unilitia.  All  the  land  and  naval 
forces  were  made  prisoners  of  war,  and  the  public  stores  given  up. 
A  large  ship  of  war  on  the  stocks  was  burnt.  Private  property 
was  spared.  The  prisoners  amounted  to  about  three  hundred. 
The  killed  and  wounded  of  the  enemy  exceeded  four  hundred. 
The  American  loss  was  three  hundred  and  twenty  killed  and 
wounded,  the  greater  part  by  the  explosion  of  the  magazine.  It 
is  not  known  whether  this  was  caused  by  accident  or  design. 
The  loss  of  General  Pike,  a  gallant  and  intelligent  officer,  was 
deeply  regretted.  He  survived  but  a  few  hours.  The  Ameri- 
cans set  fire  to  the  Parliament  house,  an  act  which  was  most 
severely  retorted  upon  them  in  the  sequel.  They  had,  however, 
some  provocation  for  a  deed  otherwise  unjustifiable.  Over  the 
chair  of  the  speaker  of  the  Canadian  legislature,  was  found  sus- 
pended a  human  scalp.  This  savage  trophy  and  stimulant  to 


ATTACK  ON  SACKETT's  HARBOR.  707 

barbarities  will  go  far  to  excuse  what  was  done  by  the  friends  of 
those  who  suffered  at  the  river  Raisin. 

From  York,  the  expedition  proceeded,  on  the  5th  of  May 
against  Fort  George,  at  the  outlet  of  the  river  Niagara.  Having 
received  reinforcements,  which  increased  their  force  to  four  thou- 
sand men,  they  landed  on  the  27th  of  May,  and  captured  the  fort, 
before  the  enemy  had  time  to  set  fire  to  the  magazine.  They 
were  pursued  several  miles  into  the  country  by  the  American 
light  troops,  and  sustained  a  loss,  in  defending  the  fort,  of  three 
hundred  killed  and  wounded.  Of  the  Americans,  eight  were 
killed,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  wounded.  The  British  retired 
to  Beaver  Dam,  where  they  were  joined  by  reinforcements  from 
Forts  Erie  and  Chippewa.  General  Chandler  was  despatched 
from  Fort  George,  on  the  1st  of  June,  to  cut  off  their  retreat. 
On  the  5th,  he  encamped  on  Stony  Creek,  near  the  enemy ;  and 
at  two  o'clock  the  next  morning,  he  was  suddenly  attacked. 
Generals  Chandler  and  Winder  were  made  prisoners.  The 
Americans  lost  four  pieces  of  cannon,  and  withdrew  from  the 
spot  on  the  following  day.  A  British  squadron,  under  Sir  James 
Yeo,  appeared  on  the  lake  opposite  their  encampment  on  the  8th, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  retreat  to  Fort  George,  with  the  loss 
of  a  part  of  their  baggage.  A  further  disaster  took  place  at 
Beaver  Dam,  by  the  capture  of  a  party  of  five  hundred  men,  who 
had  been  sent  thither  to  disperse  a  body  of  Indians.  Colonel 
Bosrstler,  who  commanded  the  detachment,  shamefully  surren- 
dered his  troops  to  an  inferior  force  of  the  enemy.  Dearborn 
shortly  after  withdrew  from  the  command  of  the  northern  army, 
and  General  Boyd  took  the  command  at  Fort  George.  The 
British  collected  in  great  force  in  the  neighborhood,  but  made  no 
regular  attack.  On  the  llth  of  July,  the  post  at  Black  Rock 
was  surprised  and  taken  by  the  British,  and  the  buildings  set  on 
fire.  The  Americans  made  another  expedition  to  York,  on  the 
28th,  and  destroyed  a  quantity  of  public  stores  which  had  been 
again  collected  at  that  place. 

While  the  American  forces  were  absent  from  Sackett's  Harbor, 
an  attack  was  made  by  the  enemy  upon  that  place.  On  the  27th 
of  May,  a  hostile  squadron  appeared  in  sight,  and  the  militia 
were  called  to  arms.  The  whole  force  mustered  was  about  one 
thousand  men.  On  the  morning  of  the  29th,  Sir  George  Prevost, 
with  one  thousand  picked  men,  landed  at.  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bor, in  front  of  a  battery  defended  by  a  body  of  militia,  who,  after 
one  fire,  were  seized  with  a  panic,  and  fled.  The  enemy  then 
advanced  toward  the  town.  Other  bodies  of  militia  and  regulars 
made  a  vigorous  defence,  but  were  compelled  to  give  ground. 
60*  M4 


708 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  British  pressed  on,  but  the  retreating  troops  threw  themselves 
into  the  houses,  and  poured  in  so  destructive  a  fire  upon  the  ad- 
vancing columns,  that  the  British  soon  began  to  falter.  General 
Brown,  who  commanded  the  militia,  perceiving  this,  practised  a 
stratagem,  by  leading  a  file  of  men  toward  the  enemy's  rear. 


Sackett's  Harbor. 

through  a  wood,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  seen.  This  took 
immediate  effect.  The  British,  fearful  of  being  surrounded,  re- 
treated instantly  to  their  boats,  and  reembarked  with  such  precip- 
itation, as  to  leave  their  wounded  and  some  prisoners  behind. 
A  part  of  the  American  barracks  and  stores  were  set  on  fire,  in 
consequence  of  a  false  report  that  the  British  had  obtained  the 
victory. 

Commodore  Chauncey's  squadron,  consisting  of  the  frigate  Gen- 
eral Pike  and  some  smaller  vessels,  encountered  the  British  fleet, 
under  Sir  James  Yeo,  on  the  7th  of  August.  Chauncey,  by  skil- 
ful mano3uvreing,  obtained  the  weather-gage  of  the  enemy,  who, 
therefore,  bore  away.  The  Americans  pursued,  but  during  the 
night,  two  of  their  vessels  foundered  in  a  heavy  blow.  Chauncey 
put  into  Niagara,  and  on  a  second  cruise  again  met  the  enemy, 
who  captured  two  of  his  small  Vessels,  but  no  general  action  took 
place. 

In  the  meantime,  the  British  were  still  active  on  the  northwest- 
ern frontier.  Fort  Meigs  was  again  threatened  by  a  large  body  of 
British  and  Indians,  in  July :  but,  toward  the  end  of  the  month, 
they  raised  the  siege  and  proceeded  to  Fort  Stephenson,  on  the" 


ATTACK    ON   FORT    STEPHENSON. 


709 


Sandusky,  in  hopes  of^  surprising  that  place,  which  was  slenderly 
fortified,  and  garrisoned  by  only  one  hundred  and  sixty  men. 
General  Harrison,  suspecting  the  design  of  the  enemy,  despatched 
an  express  to  Major  Croghan,  who  commanded  at  the  fort,  order- 
ing him  to  set  fire  to  it  and  retreat  to  head-quarters ;  but  before  the 
express  could  arrive,  the  Indians  had  surrounded  the  place.  On 
the  1st  of  August,  a  flotilla  of  gun-boats  appeared  in  sight,  having 
on  board  five  hundred  British  troops,  under  General  Procter. 
The  Indians  amounted  to  eight  hundred.  The  British  landed, 
and  summoned  the  fort  to  surrender.  Major  Croghan  answered 
by  a  most  determined  refusal.  A  smart  cannonade  was  then 
opened  from  the  gun-boats,  which  continued  during  the  day  and 
following  night.  All  the  artillery  of  the  garrison  was  one  six- 
pounder,  but  this  was  served  with  so  much  adroitness  and  effect, 
that,  perhaps,  no  single  piece  of  ordnance  was  ever  more  success- 
ful in  war.  It  was  fired  and  shifted  from  place  to  place,  by  which 
the  enemy  were  led  to  believe  that  there  were  several  pieces 
within  the  fort.  The  shot  of  the  enemy  being  directed  chiefly 
against  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  fort,  Major  Croghan 
rightly  conjectured  that  they  designed  to  storm  the  works  at  that 
point.  The  gun  was  accordingly  placed  in  a  masked  position,  so 
as  to  rake  the  whole  of  the  ditch  on  that  side.  The  British,  hav- 
ing kept  up  a  heavy  fire  all  the  next  day,  moved  on  to  the  assault 
under  cover  of  the  smoke  and  darkness.  Feints  were  made  in 
other  quarters,  to  draw  off  the  attention  of  the  garrison  from  the 


Major  Croghan's  defence  at  Lower  Sandusky, 

real  point  of  attack ;  but  the  Americans  did  not  fall  into  the  snare. 
A  column  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  men,  led  on  by  Procter 
immediately  advanced  to  the  attack,  and  leaped  into  the  ditch. 


710  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

The  cannon  was  instantly  unmasked,  and  a  single  discharge  pro- 
duced such  a  slaughter  among  the  assailants,  that  they  retreated 
immediately  in  great  disorder.  A  column  of  the  enemy,  which 
made  an  attack  in  another  quarter,  were  also  received  by  so  well- 
directed  a  fire  of  musketry,  that  they  broke  their  ranks  and  fled 
into  the  woods.  The  whole  body  decamped  precipitately  at  three 
in  the  morning,  leaving  many  valuable  articles  behind  them. 
Their  loss  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  amounted  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty.  Major  Croghan,  who  made  this  gallant  de- 
fence, was  one  of  the  youngest  officers  in  the  army.  He  received 
the  thanks  of  congress,  and  the  commission  of  lieutenant-colonel 
for  his  bravery. 

The  regular  army,  under  Harrison,  did  not  exceed  two  thousand 
men.  Having  received  authority  from  the  war  department  to  call 
out  the  militia,  he  made  a  requisition  upon  Governor  Shelby,  of 
Kentucky,  for  a  reinforcement.  Shelby  raised  thirty-five  hundred 
men,  put  himself  at  their  head,  and  marched  to  Upper  Sandusky 
early  in  September.  Harrison,  now  having  a  respectable  force  at 
his  command,  determined  upon  the  invasion  of  the  enemy's  terri- 
tory. Most  of  the  troops  were  embarked  at  Lower  Sandusky, 
from  whence  they  crossed  Lake  Erie,  and  on  the  27th  of  Septem- 
ber landed  at  Maiden.  The  town  immediately  fell  into  their 
hands.  Procter,  who  commanded  at  that  post,  retreated  toward  the 
Thames.  His  force  consisted  of  seventeen  hundred  regulars  and 
Indians,  besides  the  militia.  Harrison  pushed  forward,  and  took 
Sandwich  on  the  29th.  Here  he  was  joined  by  a  regiment  of 
mounted  Kentuckians,  under  Colonel  Johnson.  The  army  con- 
tinued in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  and  on  the  4th  of  October,  a 
skirmish  began  with  a  body  of  Indians  at  the  fork  of  the  Thames. 
The  Indians  were  defeated  and  a  large  quantity  of  arms  and 
public  stores  captured. 

On  the  5th  of  October,  Procter  drew  up  his  whole  army  in  order 
of  battle,  across  a  narrow  isthmus,  between  the  Thames  and  a 
swamp.  The  situation  was  well  chosen,  and  covered  with  a 
wood  of  beeches.  The  British  regulars  were  posted  with  their 
left  on  the  river,  supported  by  the  artillery.  The  Indians,  under 
Tecumseh,  took  their  station  in  the  thickest  part  of  the  wood, 
with  the  swamp  on  their  right.  Harrison  placed  his  mounted 
men  opposite  the  Indians,  and  drew  up  his  infantry  in  three  lines 
facing  the  British.  The  action  commenced,  but  the  strong  posi- 
tion of  the  Indians  rendered  it  impossible  for  the  cavalry  to  turn 
their  flank,  as  they  designed.  Harrison,  therefore,  changed  his 
plan  of  attack,  and  ordered  the  cavalry  to  charge  the  British  line 
in  front,  with  the  hope  of  breaking  their  ranks.  They  accord- 


BATTLE    OF    MORAVIAN    TOWN. 


11 


ingly  drew  up  in  four  columns  of  double  files,  and  charged  the 
front  of  the  enemy.  A  heavy  fire  from  the  British  infantry 
checked  their  advance  in  the  first  onset,  but  they  speedily  re- 
covered themselves,  and  dashed  upon  the  enemy's  line  with  such 
impetuosity  that  they  were  instantly  broken.  The  cavalry  then 
wheeled  into  their  rear,  and  poured  in  upon  them  so  destructive  a 
fire  that  the  battle  was  decided  in  a  few  minutes.  Eight  hun- 
dred British  regulars  laid  down  their  arms  and  surrendered. 

The  Indians  on  the  left,  made  a  more  obstinate  resistance. 
Johnson's  cavalry  were  repulsed  by  a  most  destructive  fire.  He 
then  dismounted  his  men,  and  formed  them  on  foot.  The  con- 
test was  renewed  with  great  resolution,  and  Governor  Shelby, 
with  his  infantry,  joining  in  the  attack,  the  Indians  at  length 
gave  way  and  dispersed.  The  victory  was  complete.  Procter 
made  his  escape  with  a  squadron  of  dragoons;  all  the  remainder 
of  his  forces  were  either  captured  or  dispersed.  The  battle  was 
so  quickly  decided,  that  but  few  were  killed  on  either  side.  The 
Americans  had  twenty-nine  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  British 
thirty-four.  The  loss  of  the  Indians  was  more  severe,  though  the 
precise  number  is  not  known.  Tecumseli,  their  bold  and  daring 


Death  of  Tecumsth. 

leader,  fell,  bravely  fighting  in  the  thickest  of  the  battle.  This 
decisive  stroke  at  once  cut  off  the  communication  between  the 
hostile  savage  tribes  and  the  British  posts;  and  broke  up  their 
confederacy  against  the  United  States.  '  They  did  not  recover 


712 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


from  this  defeat  during  the  remainder  of  the  war.  Harrison,  hav- 
ing thus  annihilated  the  British  army  by  this  brilliant  victory, 
returned  to  Detroit  on  the  7th  of  October. 

While  these  events  were  in  progress,  the  Americans  were  prose- 
cuting the  war  upon  Lake  Erie  with  equal  success.  Early  in  the 
spring  of  1813,  measures  were  taken  to  construct  a  navy.  Two 
brigs  and  several  schooners  were  soon  upon  the  stocks  at  the  port 
of  Erie,  and  they  were  launched  on  the  2d  of  August.  Commo- 
dore Perry  took  command  of  this  squadron,  and  sailed  for  Maiden, 
in  search  of  the  British  fleet;  but  finding  the  enemy's  force  supe- 
rior to  his  own,  he  returned  to  Put-in  Bay.  On  the  morning  of 
the  10th  of  September,  the  enemy's  squadron  was  discovered 
standing  out  of  the  harbor  of  Maiden.  Perry  immediately  put 
his  squadron  under  way,  and  got  clear  of  the  islands  at  the  head 
of  the  lake  before  they  approached.  The  American  fleet  consisted 
of  the  Lawrence  and  Niagara,  of  twenty  guns  each,  the  Caledonia 
of  three,  the  Ariel  of  four,  the  Somers  of  two,  and  three  gun-boats 
of  one  each.  The  British  force  comprised  the  Detroit  of  twenty- 
one,  the  Queen  Charlotte  of  eighteen,  the  Lady  Prevost  of 


Perry 's  Victory  on  Lake  Erie. 

thirteen,  the  Hunter  of  ten,  the  Little  Belt  of  three,  and  one 
gun-boat.  A  sudden  change  of  wind  gave  the  Americans  the 
weather-gage.  Perry  formed  his  line  of  battle,  and  th6  engage- 
ment began  at  noon.  The  commodore's  brig,  the  Lawrence,  being 
in  the  hottest  of  the  action,  suffered  severely,  and  the  wind  dying 


PERRY'S  VICTORY.  713 

away,  she  was  exposed  to  almost  the  whole  fire  of  the  enemy, 
without  any  support  from  the  others.  At  the  end  of  two  hours, 
all  her  guns  were  dismounted,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  her  crew 
killed  or  wounded.  The  commodore,  still  undismayed,  put  off  in 
his  boat,  through  a  heavy  fire  of  musketry  from  the  enemy,  to 
bring  up  the  Niagara,  which,  by  the  help  of  a  sudden  breeze,  he 
was  enabled  to  do.  Meantime,  the  Lawrence  had  struck  her 
colors,  but  the  enemy  were  unable  to  take  possession  of  her,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  American  squadron  being  brought  into 
action,  she  hoisted  her  flag  again ;  the  battle  was  renewed,  and 
the  whole  British  fleet  surrendered.  Twenty-seven  rnen  were 
killed  and  ninety-six  wounded  on  the  part  of  the  Americans,  and 
forty-one  killed  and  ninety-four  wounded  on  that  of  the  British. 
No  action  hitherto  fought,  had  showed  greater  bravery  on  both 
sides  than  this.  Captain  Barclay,  the  British  commander,  was  an 
officer  of  great  courage  and  experience,  and  had  lost  an  arm  in 
the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 

This  was  the  first  instance  in  which  the  Americans  had  obtained 
a  victory  over  au  enemy's  fleet;  and  so  brilliant  a  triumph  is  still 
more  remarkable  for  having  been  obtained  by  a  young  and  inex- 
perienced officer,  entirely  without  practical  knowledge  of  naval 
tactics,  over  one  of  Nelson's  veteran  commanders.  It  tended  to 
exalt  still  more  highly  that  confidence  and  pride  in  their  navy, 
with  which  the  Americans  had  been  inspired  by  their  Atlantic 
victories. 

On  the  Ontario  frontier,  General  Wilkinson  had  been  appointed 
to  the  chief  command.  A  scheme  had  been  concerted  to  invade 
Canada,  in  the  direction  of  Montreal,  by  concentrating  the  army 
at  Sackett's  Harbor,  and  conveying  them  in  boats  down  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Towards  the  end  of  October,  seven  thousand  troops 
were  collected  at  that  place,  and  four  thousand  more  from  Plaits- 
burg,  under  General  Hampton,  were  expected  to  join  them  on  their 
route  down  the  river.  On  the  5th  of  November,  the  flotilla,  with 
the  troops  on  board,  proceeded  down  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
voyage  was  found  more  difficult  than  had  been  anticipated. 
Bodies  of  the  enemy  were  stationed  at  all  the  narrow  passes,  and 
a  force  of  fifteen  hundred  of  the  enemy,  with  an  armed  squadron, 
hung  perpetually  on  their  rear.  At  a  long  and  dangerous  rapid 
on  the  river,  a  severe  action  took  place  on  the  llth,  both  by  land 
and  water.  Neither  party  gained  any  decisive  advantage,  but 
the  Americans  repulsed  the  enemy,  passed  the  rapids  safely  the 
following  day,  and  arrived  near  St.  .Regis,  where  General  Hamp- 
ton, according  to  the  plan  of  the  campaign,  was  to  have  joined 
them  with  the  Plattsburg  army.  But  here  the  whole  enterprise 
61  N4 


714  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

was  Drought  to  a  stand  by  the  information  that  Hampton  could 
not  proceed.  A  council  of  war  decided  that  the  invasion  must 
be  given  over,  and  the  army  went  into  winter  quarters  at  French 
Mills,  near  St.  Regis. 

Great  was  the  mortification  felt  throughout  the  country  at 
such  a  termination  of  the  campaign.  The  united  force  of  Wil- 
kinson and  Hampton  was  supposed  to  amount  to  ten  thousand 
men ;  a  force  sufficient,  under  able  direction,  to  have  accomplished 
the  most  important  results.  Wilkinson,  however,  showed  no 
capacity,  and  the  whole  undertaking  was  badly  planned  and  out 
of  season.  The  hazards  of  the  voyage,  down  a  river  full  of 
straits  and  intricate  passages,  and  lined  with  hostile  batteries,  had 
not  been  calculated ;  and  the  oversight  of  leaving  behind  them  an 
enemy's  fleet  and  an  army  of  four  thousand  strong  at  Kingston, 
exhibited  little  military  science  in  those  who  planned  the  expedi- 
tion. The  junction  of  Hampton's  forces  could  not  be  relied  upon, 
as  they  were  short  of  supplies  and  had  impassable  roads  to 
traverse, — a  circumstance  which  appears  to  have  been  unknown  or 
not  duly  estimated  by  the  commander-in-chief. 

Hampton,  in  the  meantime,  had  crossed  the  Canada  line,  on  the 
21st  of  October ;  but  his  movements  were  slow.  The  enemy  had 
felled  trees  across  the  roads,  and  broken  down  the  bridges.  On 
the  banks  of  the  Chatauque,  he  found  a  strong  body  of  British 
and  Indians  entrenched  behind  a  breastwork,  which  he  attacked, 
but  was  unable  to  force.  The  general  was  ignorant  of  the  coun- 
try and  had  no  efficient  command  over  his  troops,  who  evinced 
a  great  degree  of  insubordination.  No  information  had  been 
received  of  the  movements  of  the  expedition  on  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  army  fell  back  within  the  American  lines,  on  the  27th  of 
October.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  the  two  displayed  the 
most  wretched  generalship,  Wilkinson  or  Hampton.  The  latter 
officer  shortly  afterward  resigned  his  command  to  General  Izard. 

Fort  George  was  still  held  by  a  body  of  New  York  militia, 
under  General  M'Clure.  The  militia  returned  home  at  the  expi- 
ration of  their  time  of  service,  and  on  the  10th  of  December,  there 
were  only  one  hundred  men  left  for  its  clefence.  The  fort  was 
therefore  abandoned  and  destroyed.  M'Clure  thought  it  necessary, 
on  this  occasion,  to  burn  the  neighboring  village  of  Newark, — a 
useless  act  of  inhumanity,  for  which  he  was  severely  censured 
not  only  by  the  people  of  the  United  States,  but  also  by  the  gov- 
ernment. The  frontier  in  this  quarter  being  thus  weakened,  the 
enemy,  on  the  19th,  crossed  the  river  and  surprised  Fort  Niagara, 
massacring  the  whole  garrison  of  three  hundred  men,  most  of 
whom  were  invalids.  After  burning  Lewiston,  Manchester  and 


Stephen  Decatur. 


Oliver  Hazard  Perry. 


De  Witt  Clinton. 


Daniel  Boom. 


BLOCKADE    OF   THE   AMERICAN   COAST.  715 

some  other  settlements,  they  returned  to  Canada.  On  the  30th 
of  December,  another  party  attacked  Buffalo.  The  militia  turned 
out,  but  fled  without  firing  a  shot,  on  the  charge  of  the  enemy. 
The  village  was  taken  and  reduced  to  ashes.  On  Lake  Ontario, 


Burning  of 'Buffalo. 

both  parties  had  augmented  their  naval  force,  but  the  season 
passed  in  manoeuvring  without  battles.  The  only  captures  made 
from  the  British  were  five  transports  with  three  hundred  troops 
on  board. 

The  successes  of  the  American  navy  on  the  Atlantic  had 
already  won  for  it  a  brilliant  reputation  during  the  first  year  of 
the  war,  yet  they  could  be  of  little  effect  in  defence  of  the  exten- 
sive maritime  frontier  of  the  United  States,  against  the  over- 
whelming strength  of  the  British  navy.  By  formal  orders  of  the 
British  government,  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  from  Rhode 
Island  to  Virginia,  was  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade.  On  the 
4th  of  February,  Admiral  Cockburn  arrived  in  the  Chesapeake, 
with  two  ships  of  the  line,  three  frigates,  a  brig  and  a  schooner. 
A  small  squadron  at  the  same  time  blockaded -the  Delaware. 
Coasters  were  burnt,  and  a  petty  warfare  was  carried  on  against 
the  villages  bordering  on  the  sea.  On  the  16th  of  March,  the 
squadron  demanded  a  supply  of  provisions  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Lewistown,  a  village  near  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware,  which 
being  refused,  the  ships  cannonaded  the  place,  and  attempted  to 
land  and  set  it  on  fire,  but  the  inhabitants  beat  them  off  with  a 
single  eighteen  pound  cannon.  In  the  Chesapeake,  the  British 
destroyed  Frenchtown,  Havre  de*  Grace,  Fredericktown  and 
Georgetown;  and  being  reinforced  by  the  arrival  of  another 
squadron,  under  Admiral  Warren,  with  a  number  of  troops  on 


716  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

O  Jft 

board,  an  attack  was  projected  upon  Norfolk.  On  the  20th  of 
June,  thirteen  large  ships  appeared  in  the  mouth  of  James's  river, 
and  on  the  22d,  an  assault  was  made  on  Craney  Island,  at  the 
entrance  of  Norfolk  harbor.  The  barges  from  the  ships  attacked 
a  breastwork  towards  the  sea,  defended  by  an  eighteen  pounder 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  men;  while  a  large  body  of  troops 
landed  on  the  continent,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  narrow  chan- 
nel which  separates  it  from  the  island.  The  attack  of  the  barges 
was  received  with  so  skilful  a  fire  from  the  eighteen  pounder 
that  many  of  them  were  sunk,  and  the  remainder  took  to  flight. 
The  land  troops,  in  attempting  to  cross  the  strait,  were  encountered 
by  a  body  of  four  hundred  Americans,  with  four  pieces  of  cannon, 
who  repulsed  them  with  great  slaughter.  The  British  lost  about 
two  hundred  men,  killed,  wounded  and  missing. 

On  the  25th  of  June,  they  made  an  attack  on  the  little  town  of 
Hampton,  eighteen  miles  from  Norfolk.  The  place  contained 
nothing  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  enemy;  but  the  expedition 
appears  to  have  been  projected  -by  the  British  admiral  in  a  fit  of 
irritation  at  his  repulse  from  Norfolk.  The  town  was  bombarded 
by  the  barges  and  tenders,  but  they  were  repelled  by  the  American 
batteries.  A  party  of  two  thousand  men  were  then  landed,  who 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  town,  after  the  loss  of  about  fifty  men. 
The  place  was  pillaged,  and  the  defenceless  inhabitants  treated 
with  a  degree  of  revolting  barbarity,  that  stamps  infamy  on  the 
names  of  Cockburn  and  Beckwith,  who  commanded  this  gang  of 
brutal  ravishers.  Neither  age  nor  sex  were  spared,  and  the  deeds 
of  that  day  were  felt  by  the  enemy  to  be  of  so  disgraceful  a  char- 
acter, that  Beckwith,  the  British  general,  gave  a  formal  assurance 
to  the  Americans  that  his  troops  should  not  be  landed  again. 
The  remainder  of  the  exploits  of  the  blockading  squadron,  this 
season,  consisted  in  the  pillage  of  the  small  town  of  Portsmouth, 
in  North  Carolina,  which  was  captured  in  July,  by  a  force  of 
three  thousand  men,  under  Admiral  Cockburn. 

In  the  summer  of  1813,  the  Americans  experienced  the  first 
disaster  that  fell  upon  their  navy,  hitherto  so  triumphant.  The 
frigate  Chesapeake, — that  doomed  ship,  whose  history  had  ever 
been  connected  with  misfortune, — lay  at  Boston,  ready  for  a  cruise. 
The  Shannon,  a  British  frigate,  was  in  the  bay,  and  challenged 
the  Chesapeake  to  a  combat.  On  the  1st  of  June,  the  Chesapeake 
put  to  sea  and  engaged  the  Shannon  off  Boston  light.  After  a 
short  action,  the  ships  fell  foul  of  each  other,  in  a  manner  very 
advantageous  to  the  Shannon,  who  swept  the  decks  of  the  Ches^ 
apeake  almost  clear  of  men,  by  a  raking  fire.  Nearly  all  the 
American  officers  were  wounded,  and  the  commander,  Captain 


CAPTURE  OF  THE  BOXER  AND  DOMINICA.          717 

Lawrence,  mortally.  The  Chesapeake  was  then  captured  by 
boarding,  but  not  till  after  a  most  bloody  conflict.  Seventy-eight 
of  her  men  were  killed,  and  ninety-seven  wounded.  Of  the  crew 
of  the  Shannon,  twenty-four  were  killed  and  fifty-six  wounded. 
The  Chesapeake  was  carried  into  Halifax.  No  capture  of  a 
single  ship  ever  caused  so  much  exultation  to  the  British  as  this. 
Captain  Broke,  the  commander  of  the  Shannon,  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood  for  his  exploit, — a  thing  without  parallel  in 
British  history.  The  performance  was  indeed  a  brave  one.  The 
ships  were  of  equal  nominal  force,  yet  the  crew  of  the  Chesa- 
peake were  mostly  raw  recruits,  without  proper  discipline  or  sub- 
ordination. The  necessity  of  fighting  immediately  on  putting  to 
sea,  placed  them  at  a  great  disadvantage. 

Another  calamity  soon  after  befel  the  American  navy,  in  the  loss 
of  the  brig  of  war  Argus.  On  the  14th  of  August,  while  cruising 
in  the  English  channel,  she  fell  in  with  the  British  brig  Pelican, 
which  had  been  fitted  out  for  the  express  purpose  of  engaging  her. 
After  an  action  of  an  hour  and  a  half,  the  Argus  was  captured. 
Lieutenant  Allen,  her  commande.r,  was  killed.  The  confidence 
of  the  British  in  their  navy  began  to  revive,  but  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  war  they  were  not  able  to  capture  any  American 
ship  without  a  vast  superiority  of  force,  and  their  naval  triumphs 
began  and  ended  with  these  two  victories.  Success,  as  usual,  soon 
appeared  on  the  other  side.  On  the  4th  of  September,  the  United 
States  brig  Enterprise,  Captain  Burrows,  fell  in  with  the  British 
brig  Boxer,  Captain  Blythe,  of  the  same  force ;  after  an  action  of 
forty  minutes,  during  which  the  British  colors  had  been  nailed  to 
the  mast,' the  Boxer  surrendered  by  ceasing  her  fire.  The  loss  of 
the  Enterprise  was  one  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  The  Boxer 
had  fourteen  wounded ;  the  number  of  her  killed  is  not  known 
Both  captains  fell  in  the  action  and  were  laid  in  the  same  grave 
at  Portland,  in  Maine,  near  which  place  the  battle  was  fought. 

An  action  between  two  schooners  deserves  particular  notice,  for 
the  desperation  and  gallantry  with  which  the  Americans  achieved 
a  victory  over  a  vastly  superior  force.  On  the  15th  of  August, 
the  privateer  Decatur,  of  seven  guns,  fell  in  with  the  British  gov- 
ernment schooner  Dominica,  of  fifteen  guns,  and  engaged  her  for 
two  hours.  The  Decatur  then  ran  into  and  boarded  her  enemy. 
After  a  desperate  conflict,  hand  to  hand,  the  Dominica  was  taken. 
The  Decatur  v/as  the  better  manned  of  the  two,  but  the  great 
inequality  of  force  in  other  respects,  renders  this  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  naval  achievements  upon  record. 

During  all  this  season  the  ships  of  war  United  States,  Macedo- 
nian and  Hornet,  were  blockaded  by  a  strong  squadron  of  British 
61* 


718  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

in  the  port  of  New  London,  to  which  they  had  escaped  while 
attempting  to  put  to  sea  from  New  York.  The  blockade  was 
kept  up  during  the  war,  and  the  two  frigates  were  forced  to 
remain  idle.  The  Hornet  eluded  the  vigilance  of  the  enemy  some 
time  after,  and  was  enabled  to  add  another  to  the  numerous  tri- 
umphs of  the  American  navy. 

Congress  held  a  summer  session  this  year,  commencing  on  the 
24th  of  May.  To  make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  the  revenues, 
laws  imposing  a  direct  tax  and  an  excise  were  passed.  These 
measures,  from  their  great  unpopularity,  were  much  less  produc- 
tive of  income  than  had  been  expected.  A  loan  of  seven  millions 
and  a  half,  for  the  succeeding  year,  was  authorized.  At  the  regu- 
lar session  the  ensuing  winter,  an  embargo  was  laid  upon  all 
shipping,  except  armed  vessels  and  foreigners  in  ballast;  the 
restriction  was  even  extended  to  the  coasting  trade.  This  very 
severe  measure  was  adopted  to  defeat  the  practice  of  supplying 
the  enemy  with  provisions,  which  had  been  done  in  the  boldest 
manner  by  many  persons  with  whom  avarice  was  stronger  than 
patriotism.  This  restriction,  however,  did  not  continue  long. 
The  continent  of  Europe  was  thrown  open  to  British  commerce 
by  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  affording  them  other  sources  of 
supply,  arid  in  April,  1814,  the  embargo  was  repealed,  as  no  longer 
necessary. 

In  the  meantime,  war  was  carried  on  with  the  savages  of  the 
south.  As  early  as  September,  1812,  hostilities  against  the 
United  States  had  been  begun  by  the  Creeks.  In  the  summer  of 
the  following  year,  General  Jackson,  with  two  thousand  five  hun- 
dred Tennessee  militia,  made  an  incursion  into  the  territory  of  the 
Choctaws  and  Chickasaws,  which  discouraged  them  for  a  time, 
and  the  militia  returned  home.  But,  on  the  30th  of  August,  the 
Indians  suddenly  fell  upon  fort  Mimms,  on  the  Alabama,  and 
massacred  nearly  three,  hundred  men,  women  and  children;  after 
which  they  laid  waste  all  the  settlements  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  Tennessee  militia  were  again  raised,  and  Jackson  marched 
against  the  enemy.  At  Tallashatchee,  General  Coffee,  with  a  de- 
tachment of  nine  hundred  men,  fought  a  desperate  battle  with  the 
Indians,  of  whom  about  two  hundred  Avere  killed,  being  nearly 
every  warrior  of  their  whole  body.  On  the  9th  of  December 
Jackson,  with  his  whole  force  of  two  thousand  men,  attacked  ana 
routed  the  savages  at  Talladega.  More  than  throe  hundred  of 
them  were  killed,  but  the  greater  part  made  their  escape.  The 
Indians  also  sustained  defeats  in  other  quarters,  but  subsequently 
rallied,  and  collected  a  large  force  on  the  Tallapoosa.  Here  they 
were  attacked  by  Jackson  on  the  23d  of  January,  1814,  and  de- 


JACKSON'S  CAMPAIGNS  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

feated  with  a  heavy  loss.  Two  days  after  this,  while  crossing 
the  river,  he  was  attacked  in  his  turn  by  the  enemy,  but  without 
success.  He  reached  Fort  Strother  on  the  27th  of  January,  where 
he  was  detained  some  time  by  the  want  of  supplies. 

On  the  14th  of  March,  Jackson  set  out  on  another  expedition. 
The  Indians  had  fortified  a  very  strong  position  on  the  Talla- 
poosa,  which  had  never  yet  been  attacked.  It  was  almost  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  river,  and  accessible  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of 
land,  which  was  defended  by  a  thick  breastwork  of  timber  with  a 
double  row  of  portholes.  Jackson's  force  amounted  to  nearly 
three  thousand  men ;  the  number  of  the  Indians  is  not  known. 
On  the  27th  of  March,  an  attack  was  made  by  storming  the 
breast- work,  while  another  party  were  drawn  up  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  Indians.  Major 
Montgomery,  of  the  regulars,  was  killed,  while  scaling  the  ram- 
parts; and  the  savages  fought  with  the  utmost  desperation.  The 
attack  of  the  Americans,  however,  was  so  impetuous,  that  the 
Indians  were  driven  from  the  walls,  and  attempted  to  retreat 
across  the  river.  Here  they  were  intercepted,  and  Jackson 
despatched  a  flag  of  truce,  with  an  interpreter,  summoning  them 
to  surrender.  The  flag  was  fired  upon,  and  the  battle  re-com- 
menced. The  Americans  set  fire  to  the  thickets  in  which  the 
savages  had  sheltered  themselves,  and  the  slaughter  continued  till 
dark,  when  the  survivors  made  their  escape.  Five  hundred  and 
fifty-seven  of  their  warriors  were  found  dead  on  the  field  of  battle, 
and  great  numbers  were  drowned  in  the  river.  The  courage  and 
resolution  with  which  the  Indians  had  maintained  this  conflict 
against  a  vastly  superior  force,  never  were  surpassed.  The 
Americans  lost  fifty-five  killed,  and  had  one  hundred  and  forty- 
six  wounded.  This  victory  completely  overthrew  the  strength 
and  the  hopes  of  the  Creeks.  Peace  was  immediately  made,  and 
the  country  became  tranquil. 

On  the  opening  of  the  campaign  of  1814  in  the  north,  General 
Wilkinson  left  his  quarters  at  French  Mills  and  retired  to  Platts- 
burg.  On  the  20th  of  March  he  attacked  a  post  of  the  enemy  at 
Odletown,  near  the  Canada  line,  but  his  operations  were  so  un- 
skilful that  he  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  one  hundred  killed 
^"i  wounded.  Wilkinson's  incapacity  became  now  so  evident, 
that  he  was  removed  from  the  command  of  the  army,  and  his 
place  supplied  by  General  Izard.  On  the  25th  of  May,  the  enemy 
attacked  Oswego,  on  Lake  Ontario.  The  fort  was  in  a  ruinous 
condition,  with  but  five  guns  and  a  garrison  of  three  hundred 
men.  The  British,  one  thousand  five  hundred  strong,  under 
Lieutenant  General  Drummond,  attempted  to  land  in  their  boats, 


720 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


under  cover  of  the  fire  of  the  squadron,  but  were  repulsed  by  the 
Americans.  The  next  day  the  assailants  took  a  more  favorable 
position,  and  succeeded  in  landing.  The  garrison  abandoned  the 
fortification,  and  conveyed  all  the  naval  stores  in  the  village  to  a 
place  of  safety.  The  British  destroyed  the  ordnance  of  the  fort 
and  some  other  trifling  articles,  which  cost  them  about  one  hun- 
dred men  killed  and  wounded. 

On  the  29th  of  May,  a  fleet  of  boats,  laden  with  naval  stores,  on 
their  passage  from  Oswego  to  Sackett's  Harbor,  was  chased  into 
Sandy  Creek  by  the  British  gunboats,  which  ran  up  the  creek  and 
landed  a  body  of  two  hundred  men.  The  American  party,  con- 
sisting of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  riflemen  and  Indians, 
placed  themselves  in  ambush  on  the  banks,  and  on  the  approach 
of  the  British  suddenly  rose  and  poured  in  upon  them  so  destruc- 
tive a  fire  that  the  whole  body  surrendered.  Two  post  captains 
and  six  lieutenants  were  among  the  number.  Three  gunboats 
and  several  smaller  craft  were  also  captured ;  the  Americans  lost 
not  a  single  man. 

On  the  Niagara  frontier  nothing  was  done  till  near  midsummer. 
On  the  2d  of  July,  a  body  of  between  three  and  four  thousand 


Battle  of  Chippema. 

men,  under  Generals  Brown,  Scott,  and  Ripley,  crossed  from 
Black  Rock  to  Fort  Erie  and  captured  that  place,  which  was 
defended  by  only  a  small  garrison.  The  British,  about  three 
thousand  in  number,  under  General  Riall,  were  posted  in  a  strong 


BATTLES  OF  CHIPPEWA  AND  BRIDGEWATER.  721 

position  at  Chippewa.  General  Brown,  the  American  com- 
mander-in-chief,  advanced  to  meet  the  enemy,  and  on  the  5th  of 
July,  the  armies  came  to  a  general  engagement  on  the  plains  of 
Chippewa.  The  conflict  began  with  skirmishes,  which  continued 
from  morning  to  the  middle  of  the  afternoon,  when  the  British 
commander  moved  his  whole  force  out  of  his  lines,  and  a  sharp 
action  ensued.  A  brigade  of  volunteers  on  the  American  left 
gave  way  before  the  force  of  the  British  regulars,  and  exposed  the 
flank  of  Scott's  brigade.  Ripley's  troops  were  then  brought  up, 
and  a  battalion  under  Major  Jessup  made  so  resolute  a  stand, 
that  the  British  right  was  driven  back.  Scott's  brigade  pushed 
on,  and  the  enemy,  finding  themselves  repulsed  at  every  point, 
retreated  slowly  till  near  Chippewa,  when  they  took  to  flight,  in 
great  hurry  and  disorder.  The  batteries  of  Chippewa  checked 
the  further  advance  of  the  Americans,  and  the  flying  enemy  ral- 
lied under  their  guns.  Night  put  an  end  to  the  battle.  The 
loss  of  the  Americans  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  was  three 
hundred  and  twenty-eight;  that  of  the  British  was  four  hundred 
and  fifty-three,  besides  forty-six  prisoners.  The  American  troops 
were  mostly  raw  recruits ;  the  British,  on  the  contrary,  were  ex- 
perienced veterans,  which  the  pacification  of  Europe  had  enabled 
their  government  to  send  to  America  from  their  conquering 
armies  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

General  Riall  abandoned  Chippewa,  and  retreated  to  Fort 
George.  Brown  advanced  upon  him,  and  several  manoeuvres  *on 
the  part  of  both  armies  ensued.  The  battle  of  Bridgewater  was 
fought  on  the  25th  of  July.  The  British  were  posted  on  a  height 
defended  by  a  strong  battery  of  nine  pieces  of  artillery.  Late  in 
the  afternoon,  General  Scott,  who  had  been  detached  to  observe 
the  movements  of  the  army,  discovered  them  in  this  position,  and 
began  an  attack,  which  continued  for  above  an  hour,  when  a 
party,  under  Major  Jessup,  gained  the  British  rear,  captured  their 
general  with  many  other  officers,  and  threw  their  line  into  confu- 
sion. The  enemy's  batteries,  however,  kept  up  their  fire;  their 
numbers  were  still  vastly  superior  to  the  Americans,  and  night 
had  come  on.  The  ranks  of  General  Scott  were  rapidly  wasting 
away  under  the  enemy's  fire,  when  Ripley's  brigade  arrived  to 
his  relief.  That  officer  immediately  determined  to  storm  the 
enemy's  artillery  on  the  height.  For  this  purpose  he  detached 
Colonel  Miller,  with  the  twenty-first  regiment,  to  assault  the  bat- 
tery, while  he  made  a  simultaneous  attack  upon  the  British  in- 
fantry on  the  left.  Miller's  troops 'rushed  to  the  assault  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  and  the  cannon  were  taken  in  a  few  minutes. 
Ripley  at  the  same  moment  drove  the  enemy  from  the  top  of  the 

o4 


722 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


hill.  The  British,  having  received  reinforcements,  rallied,  and 
came  again  to  the  charge,  and  were  again  driven  down  the  hill  by 
the  American  bayonets.  Again  they  rallied,  charged,  and  were 
put  to  flight  again.  With  the  most  obstinate  resolution  they  once 
more  brought  up  their  whole  force,  and  made  a  desperate  onset. 
A  fierce  and  sanguinary  conflict  was  maintained  for  some  time. 
The  battle  continued  till  past  midnight,  but  nothing  could  over- 
come the  steadfast  bravery  and  coolness  of  the  Americans,  who, 
after  great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  once  more  drove  their  enemies 
off  the  field,  and  the  firing  ceased  at  all  points. 


Battle  of  Bridgenater. 

The  battle  of  Bridgewater  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
recorded  in  modern  history.  Fought  in  the  night,  by  the  dim 
light  of  the  moon,  amid  the  solemn  roar  of  the  Cataract  of 
Niagara,  it  is  hardly  to  be  surpassed  for  the  obstinate  and  deter- 
mined courage  displayed  by  the  combatants.  .  The  American 
troops  were  chiefly  from  New  England,  on  their  first  campaign. 
The  British  had  gone  through  the  wars  of  the  peninsula  under 
Wellington.  Eight  hundred  and  sixty  Americans  were  killed, 
wounded  and  missing.  The  British  lost  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-eight,  including  prisoners.  They  claimed  the  victory, 
but  on  what  grounds  it  is  difficult  to  understand,  as  the  Ameri- 
cans remained  in  possession  of  the  field  of  battle,  and  captured 
their  general  and  artillery.  Generals  Brown  and  Scott  were  both 
wounded  during  the  action,  and  were  carried  off"  the  field.  The 


BATTLE   OF   BRIDGEWATER.  723 

command  devolved  upon  General  Ripley.  Most  of  the  horses 
having  been  killed,  it  was  found  impossible  to  remove  the  cannon 
taken  from  the  enemy,  to  the  American  camp ;  they  were  there- 
fore destroyed. 

The  victory  at  Bridgewater,  although  it  caused  great  exultation 
throughout  the  country,  and,  in  connexion  with  that  of  Chippewa, 
redeemed  the  American  arms  from  the  disgrace  of  Wilkinson's 
campaigns,  yet  did  not  disable  the  enemy  from  further  offensive 
operations.  By  proclaiming  martial  law,  the  ranks  of  the  British 
army  were  recruited,  and  General  Drummond,  who  now  took  the 
command,  found  himself  at  the  head  of  so  superior  a  force,  that  the 
Americans  withdrew  to  Fort  Erie,  and  put  that  post  in  a  state  of 
defence.  Here,  on  the  5th  of  August,  General  Gaines  took  the 
command.  The  British  advanced,  threw  up  works  and  besieged 
the  place,  and  at  two  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  15th,  made  a 
sudden  and  furious  attempt  to  carry  Fort  Erie  by  storm.  They 
advanced  in  three  columns ;  the  right  and  left  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter,  but  the  centre  column,  after  a  bloody  conflict  and 
two  repulses,  at  length  scaled  the  ramparts,  and  gained  possession 
of  the  bastion.  At  this  moment  a  quantity  of  powder  in  the  bas- 
tion accidentally  exploded,  destroying  great  numbers  on  both 
sides;  this  caused  such  a  panic  among  the  British,  that  the 
Americans  succeeded  in  driving  them  out  of  the  works.  The 
battle  continued  till  after  daylight,  but  the  assailants  were  com- 
pletely repulsed.  This  unsuccessful  attack  cost  the  British  a  loss 
of  nine  hundred  and  fifteen  men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners. 
The  American  loss  was  but  eighty-four. 

A  cannonading  ensued  for  some  days.  The  enemy  were  con- 
stantly receiving  fresh  troops  and  strengthening  their  works.  The 
Americans  received  no  additions  to  their  force,  already  far  infe- 
rior to  that  of  the  besiegers.  Gaines,  having  been  wounded  by 
the  bursting  of  a  shell,  resigned  the  command,  and  General 
Brown  resumed  it  on  the  2d  of  September.  The  fire  of  the  ene- 
my's batteries  had  now  become  so  severe,  that  the  American 
commander  determined  upon  the  desperate  enterprise  of  making 
a  sortie  from 'the  fort,  and  attacking  an  enemy  superior  in  num- 
bers. On  the  17th  of  September,  the  troops  marched  out  in  two 
divisions,  under  Generals  Porter,  Davis,  Ripley  and  Miller.  They 
advanced  to  the  assault  with  such  promptness  and  resolution,  that 
the  batteries  were  taken  after  a  short  conflict.  The  cannon  were 
then  spiked  and  the  works  demolished.  The  Americans  returned 
to  the  fort  with  three  hundred  and  eighty  prisoners,  having  effected 
their  entire  object,  and  destroyed  the  fruit  of  forty-seven  days' 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  enemy.  This  brilliant  achievement  cost 


724  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

the  Americans  five  hundred  and  twenty-seven  men  in  killed, 
wounded  and  missing.  The  loss  of  the  British,  as  stated  in  their 
own  official  account,  was  six  hundred  and  nine.  They  claimed 
a  victory,  as  usual,  but  in  a  few  days  they  thought  it  best  to 
retreat. 

Early  in  October,  the  army  at  Fort  Erie  was  strengthened  by 
nearly  five  thousand  men  from  the  camp  at  Plattsburgh,  and  the 
chief  command  was  assumed  by  General  Izard.  The  enemy,  by 
this  time,  had  fallen  back  beyond  the  Chippewa.  Izard  moved 
towards  that  place,  and  destroyed  a  quantity  of  stores  at  Lyon's 
creek.  The  enemy,  however,,  were  so  strongly  entrenched  at. 
Chippewa,  that  their  lines  could  not  be  forced,  and  they  could  not 
be  enticed  to  a  battle  in  the  open  field.  From  the  lateness  of  the 
season,  nothing  more  could  be  done.  Fort  Erie  was,  therefore, 
destroyed,  Canada  evacuated,  and  the  American  army  was  can- 
toned for  the  winter  at  Black  Rock,  Buffalo  and  Batavia.  These 
were  the  last  operations  during  the  war  on  the  Niagara  frontier. 

In  the  northwest,  an  attempt  had  been  made,  without  success, 
to  surprise  the  British  at  Mackinaw.  But  towards  the  end  of  the 
season,  an  incursion  was  made  into  Canada,  by  a  body  of  eight 
hundred  volunteers  from  Kentucky  and  Ohio,  under  General 
McArthur.  They  marched  from  Detroit  to  the  Thames,  dispersed 
a  corps  of  militia,  captured  and  destroyed  a  quantity  of  public 
stores,  and  returned  with  a  number  of  prisoners,  and  the  loss  of 
only  one  man. 


CHAPTER    LXX. 

Capture  of  Eastport  and  Castine. — Bombardment  of  Stonington. — British  expedi- 
tion up  the  Chesapeake. — Battle  of  Bladensburg. — Capture  of  Washington  and 
Alexandria. — Attack  on  Baltimore. — Repulse  of  the  British. — Cruise  of  the 
Essex. — Capture  of  the  Epervier. — Cruise  of  the  Wasp. — Capture  of  the  Rein- 
deer and  Avon. — Cruise  of  the  Constitution. —  Capture  of  the  Cyane  and  Le- 
vant.— Loss  of  the  President. —  Capture  of  the  Penguin. — Invasion  of  Sir 
George  Prevost. — Attack  of  Plattsburg. — McDonougWs  victory  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain. — Defeat  of  Prevost. —  Close  of  the  northern  campaign. — British  expe- 
dition to  New  Orleans. — Arrival  of  a  British  force  at  Pensacola. —  Conduct  of 
the  pirates  of  Barataria. — Attack  on  Fort  Bowyer. —  Capture  of  Pensacola 
by  General  Jackson. — Defence  of  New  Orleans. — Landing  of  Packenham's 
army. — Battle  of  the  8th  of  January,  and  defeat  of  the  British. — Negotiations 
for  peace. — Mediation  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  rejected  by  the  British. — Com- 
missioners sent  to  Gottenburg. — Negotiations  of  Ghent. — Exorbitant  demands 
of  the  British. — Domestic  affairs  of  the  United  States. — Disagreements  respect- 
ing the  New  England  militia. — Hartford  Convention. — Peace  of  Ghent. —  Gen- 
eral reflections  on  the  war. 

THE  Atlantic  blockade,  in  the  spring  of  1814,  was  extended  by 
the  British  government  along  the  whole  coast  of  the  United 
States;  and  a  disposition  was  now  manifested  to  urge  the  war 
against  the  eastern  part  of  the  union  more  actively  than  had  been 
done  at  the  beginning  of  the  contest  During  the  years  1812 
and  1813,  no  hostilities  had  been  waged  by  the  British  troops 
against  the  eastern  frontier,  and  the  coasting  trade  in  that  quarter 
suffered  little  interruption.  The  policy  of  the  enemy  was  now 
changed.  On  the  llth  of  July,  a  strong  British  force,  under 
Admiral  Hardy,  captured  Eastport,  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  and 
established  themselves  in  the  place  till  the  end  of  the  war.  From 
hence,  the  squadron  proceeded  to  the  coast  of  Connecticut,  and 
on  the  9th  of  August,  attacked  Stonington.  The  force  consisted 
of  one  seventy-four,  a  frigate,  a  gun-brig,  and  a  bomb-ketch. 
The  town  was  defended  by  a  battery  of  three  guns.  The  admiral, 
having  given  three  hours'  notice  of  his  attack,  that  the  peaceable 
inhabitants  might  be  removed,  opened  his  fire  upon  the  town 
towards  evening.  The  cannonade  continued  till  midnight  with- 
out doing  any  damage.  Early  in  the  morning,  the  attack  was 
renewed  by  throwing  rockets  and  shells  from  the  barges  at  the 
east  side  of  the  town.  The  Americans  removed  an  eighteen 
pounder  to  this  point,  and  by  a  few  discharges  obliged  the  brig 
62 


726  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

and  the  barges  to  haul  off.  The  British  repeated  the  bombard- 
ment on  the  10th  and  12th,  with  no  other  effect  than  to  injure 
thirty  or  forty  buildings.  On  the  13th,  finding  it  impossible  to 
capture  the  place,  the  squadron  put  to  sea.  Not  a  man  was  hurt 
among  the  Americans.  An  immense  quantity  of  shells  and  shot 
were  thrown  on  shore,  and  picked  up  by  the  inhabitants. 

On  the  1st  of  September,  another  armament  from  Halifax  cap- 
tured the  town-  of  Castine,  in  Penobscot  Bay.  The  frigate  John 
Adams,  which  had  just  put  into  the  Penobscot  for  a  harbor,  lay 
at  Hampden,  thirty-five  miles  up  the  river.  The  militia  turned 
out,  as  the  British  proceeded  up  the  river,  but  made  no  resolute 
stand.  Captain  Morris,  of  the  John  Adarns,  finding  it  impossible 
to  save  his  ship,  blew  her  up.  On  the  9th  of  September,  a  de- 
tachment took  possession  of  Machias.  No  effort  was  made  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  state  to  expel  the  enemy  from  these  ports 
during  the  war. 

Meantime,  on  the  Chesapeake,  transactions  of  the  highest  im- 
portance were  in  operation.  The  defenceless  condition  of  the 
bay,  and  the  unprotected  situation  of  Washington,  induced  the 
British  to  plan  an  expedition  against  that  city.  Such  an  event 
might  have  been  foreseen,  and  it  reflects  great  discredit  on  the 
American  cabinet  not  to  have  provided  a  more  efficient  defence 
for  the  capital  of  the  United  Spates.  Requisitions  were  made  on 
the  neighboring  states  for  bodies  of  militia,  bat  the  forces  sup- 
plied were  small  in  number,  and  not  of  a  character  to  be  relied 
upon  in  the  field.  Early  in  August,  the  enemy's  fleet  received 
strong  reinforcements,  and  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  a  very 
important  blow  was  about  to  be  struck.  The  forces  of  the  enemy 
were  divided  into  three  bodies.  A  strong  squadron  ascended  the 
Potomac,  another  threatened  Baltimore,,  while  the  main  body 
moved  up  the  Patuxent,  to  the  town  of  Benedict,  where  they  landed 
five  thousand  strong,  on  the  19th  of  August,  and  marched  toward 
Washington.  To  oppose  this  force,  the  Americans  had  about 
fifteen  hundred  regular  troops,  and  a  few  thousand  volunteers  and 
militia,  under  General  Winder.  A  battle  was  fought  on  the  24th 
of  August,  at  Bladensburg.  The  militia,  as  usual,  were  unable 
to  stand  the  assault  of  the  British  regulars,  and  many  regiments 
broke  and  fled  in  confusion.  Commodore  Barney,  with  a  corps 
of  marines  and  artillery,  made  a  brave  defence,  but  was  over- 
powered and  taken  prisoner.  The  Americans  retreated  to  Wash- 
ington, and  from  thence  to  Georgetown.  The  advanced  guard  of 
the  British,  under  General  Ross,  entered  Washington  towards 
evening.  The  British  set  fire  to  the  capitol,  the  president's 
house,  the  public  library,  and  many  private  dwellings.  The 


KETREAT    OF    THE   BRITISH   FROM    BALTIMORE.  727 

Americans  had  previously  destroyed  the  buildings  at  the  navy 
yard,  with  a  frigate  on  the  stocks.  The  city  was  abandoned  by 
the  British,  on  the  evening  of  the  25th,  with  the  honors  of  a 
victory,  which  they  sullied  by  acts  of  vandalism  worthy  only  of 
barbarians.  The  destruction  of  libraries  and  architectural  struc- 
tures not  connected  with  the  purposes  of  war,  stamps  disgrace  on 
a  people  who  boast  of  their  humanity  and  civilization.  No  sub- 
stantial benefit  was  derived  by  the  enemy  from  the  capture  of 
Washington,  but  the  mortification  of  this  disaster  sunk  deep  into 
the  minds  of  the  American  people. 

The  British  squadron  in  the  Potomac  proceeded  up  the  river 
without  obstruction.  The  commander  of  Fort  Warburton,  who 
might  have  impeded  their  passage,  shamefully  abandoned  his 
post.  Alexandria  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  on  the  29th, 
and  was  pillaged  of  all  the  merchandise  and  shipping  in  the  place. 
The  British  descended  the  river  without  any  serious  molestation 
from  the  inhabitants.  These  successes  encouraged  them  to 
make  an  attempt  upon  Baltimore,  flattering  themselves  with 
the  expectation  of  acquiring  an  immense  booty  on  easy  terms. 
On  the  llth  of  September,  the  squadron  appeared  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Patapsco,  within  fourteen  miles  of  Baltimore.  General 
Ross  landed  his  army  of  five  thousand  men,  the  next  morning,  at 
North  Point,  and  marched  towards  the  city.  A  body  of  three 
thousand  militia,  under  General  Strieker,  advanced  to  meet  him. 
A  skirmish  took  place  between  the  advanced  parties,  in  which 
General  Ross  was  killed.  Colonel  Brook  then  took  the  command 
of  the  British,  and  a  general  action  followed.  Some  bodies  of 
the  militia  gave  way  and  fled  in  disorder,  and  General  Strieker, 
finding  himself  in  danger  of  being  outflanked,  fell  back  on  the 
main  body  of  General  Smith,  the  commander-in-chief. 

The  loss  of  their  general  discouraged  the  British.  After  ma- 
noeuvring all  the  following  day  in  front  of  the  American  lines, 
without  making  an  attempt  to  force  them,  they  retreated  during 
the  night.  During  these  proceedings,  an  attack  was  made  by  the 
squadron  on  Fort  M' Henry,  which  commands  the  approach  to 
Baltimore  by  the  river.  All  day  of  the  13th  an  incessant  bom- 
bardment was  directed  against  the  fort,  and  during  the  night  some 
of  the  rocket-vessels  and  barges  succeeded  in  getting  into  the 
river  above  the  fort.  The  garrison,  however,  maintained  their 
post  with  such  firmness,  and  kept  up  so  heavy  a  fire,  that  the 
enemy  were  repulsed.  The  squadron  fell  down  to  North  Point, 
where  the  troops  were  taken  on  board,  and  the  next  day  the 
whole  force  of  the  enemy  descended  the  Chesapeake. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  surprise  a  body  of  two  hundred  militia 


728  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

at  Bellair,  on  the  eastern  shore,  near  the  head  of  the  Chesapeake. 
A  detachment  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  seamen  and  marines, 
under  Sir  Peter  Parker,  landed  near  the  place,  but  were  so  warmly 
received  by  the  militia,  that  they  were  compelled  to  retreat  with 
the  loss  of  their  commander  and  above  forty  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Americans  had  three  wounded. 

The  transactions  in  the  Chesapeake  were  the  last  successes  of 
the  British  during  the  war.  The  remainder  of  the  military  and 
naval  occurrences  resulted  in  victory  to  the  Americans.  The 
very  disasters  they  had  suffered  in  this  quarter  were  the  means 
of  gaining  subsequent  triumphs  for  their  arms.  The  destruction 
of  their  capitol  aroused  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  a 
firmer  spirit  of  resistance  against  the  enemy,  and  animated  them 
with  that  resolution  which,  at  Plattsburg  and  New  Orleans,  wiped 
out  the  disgrace  at  Washington.  But  before  we  take  up  the  sub- 
ject of  these  two  campaigns,  some  further  exploits  of  the  navy 
demand  our  notice. 

The  frigate  Essex,  Captain  Porter,  had  been  ordered,  in  1812,  to 
accompany  the  Constitution  and  Hornet  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  Essex  only,  of  the  three,  proceeded  on  her  destination.  She 
doubled  Cape  Horn  in  February,  1813,  and  in  a  cruise  of  six 
months,  completely  destroyed  {he  British  whale  fishery  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  capturing  property  to  the  value  of  two  millions 
five  hundred  thousand  dollars.  One  of  his  prizes  Captain  Porter 
converted  into  a  ship  of  war,  mounting  twenty  guns,  and  named 
her  the  Essex  Junior.  He  visited  the  Washington  Islands, 
where  he  refitted  his  ships  and  left  a  number  of  prizes.  From 
thence  he  sailed  for  Valparaiso,  where,  shortly  after  his  arrival,  he 
was  blockaded  by  two  British  ships  of  war,  which  had  been  sent 
into  the  Pacific  in  pursuit  of  him.  On  the  28th  of  March,  1814, 
the  Essex  made  an  attempt  to  get  to  sea,  but  unfortunately,  in 
rounding  the  point  of  the  harbor,  she  was  struck  with  a  squall, 
which  carried  away  her  maintopmast.  Captain  Porter,  therefore, 
ran  into  a  small  bay,  within  pistol  shot  of  the  shore,  where, 
according  to  the  rules  of  warfare,  being  in  a  neutral  harbor,  he 
could  not  be  attacked.  The  British  commodore,  however,  violated 
the  rights  of  neutrality  by  immediately  engaging  the  Essex.  His 
force  was  vastly  superior  to  the  Americans.  His  two  ships,  the 
Phoebe  and  the  Cnerub,  mounted  seventy-eight;  the  Essex  mounted 
but  forty-six.  The  unmanageable  condition  of  the  Essex  enabled 
the  British  ships  to  take  the  most  advantageous  positions  for 
raking  her,  so  that  the  entire  broadsides  of  the  enemy  took  effect, 
while  the  Essex  could  bring  but  three  guns  to  bear  upon  them. 
Still  she  maintained  the  conflict  for  three  hours,  when,  having 


Arthur  St.  Clair. 


William  Bainbridge. 


Jacob  Brown. 


Edward  Preble. 


CRUISE   OF    THE   WASP.  729 

fifty-eight  of  her  crew  killed  and  sixty-six  wounded,  she  surren- 
dered. 

The  loss  of  the  Essex  reflected  no  discredit  on  the  American 
navy,  and  fortune  soon  returned  to  her  favorite  banner.  On  the 
29th  of  April,  1814,  the  American  sloop  of  war  Peacock,  Captain 
Warrington,  fell  in  with  the  British  brig  Epervier,  of  equal  force, 
and  captured  her  after  an  action  of  forty  minutes.  The  Peacock 
had  but  one  man  killed  and  two  wounded.  The  Epervier  had 
eight  killed  and  fifteen  wounded.  This  was  a  valuable  prize, 
having  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  dollars  in  specie  on 
board,  all  which,  with  the  two  ships,  were  brought  safe  to  port. 
The  cruise  of  the  sloop  of  war  Wasp  was  marked  by  the  most 
brilliant  achievements,  though  a  sad  fate  befel  her  unfortunate 
crew.  She  sailed  on  her  first  cruise  early  this  year,  under  Cap- 
tain Blakely,  and,  after  making  seven  prizes,  she  fell  in  with  the 
British  brig  of  war  Reindeer,  near  the  British  Channel.  An  action 
of  two  hours  ensued,  during  which  the  Reindeer  made  several 
attempts  to  board,  which  were  promptly  defeated.  The  crew  of 
the  Wasp  then  boarded  the  Reindeer,  and  captured  her  after  a 
short  conflict.  The  Wasp  had  five  killed  and  twenty-one  wounded ; 
the  Reindeer  twenty-five  killed  and  forty-two  wounded.  After 
setting  fire  to  her  prize,  the  Wasp  put  into  L'Orient,  to  refit. 
Sailing  from  this  place,  she  fell  in  with  a  fleet  of  merchantmen, 
under  convoy  of  a  seventy-four.  One  of  them  was  taken  and 
sunk  after  removing  her  cargo.  On  the  evening  of  the  same  day, 
the  2d  of  September,  two  sail  were  discovered,  on  one  of  which 
the  Wasp  bore  down.  This  was  the  British  brig  of  war  Avon, 
which  the  Wasp  captured  after  an  action  of  forty-five  minutes. 
While  the  boats  were  lowering  to  take  possession  of  the  prize,  a 
second  ship  was  seen  close  a-board,  and  several  others  not  far  off. 
The  Wasp  wasf  therefore  compelled  to  abandon  the  Avon,  and  she 
sunk  immediately  after  her  crew  had  been  taken  off  by  the  British 
ships  which  came  to  her  relief.  She  had  thirty-nine  killed  and 
wounded,  the  Wasp  only  three.  Some  days  after,  the  Wasp 
captured  the  brig  Atalanta,  of  eight  guns,  which  arrived  safe  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  Wasp  was  heard  of  no  more.  A 
British  frigate  was  reported  as  having  sustained  a  severe  action 
with  an  American  ship,  about  this  time,  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
from  which  the  frigate  escaped  in  a  very  crippled  condition. 

The  Constitution,  under  Captain  Stewart,  again  left  Boston  on 
a  cruise,  on  the  17th  of  December,  1814,  and  on  the  20th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1815,  she  encountered  two  British  ships,  the  Cyane  frigate, 
and  the  Levant  sloop  of  war,  both  of  which  she  captured.  The 
British  lost  seventy-seven  killed  and  wounded ;  the  Constitution 


730  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

but  fifteen.  This  victory,  gained  over  a  superior  force,  must  be 
allowed  equal  to  any  previous  exploit  of  this  fortunate  ship. 
The  Cyane  was  brought  into  port,  but  the  Levant,  having  put  into 
Port  Praya,  in  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  was  retaken  by  the  British, 
in  defiance  of  the  laws  of  nations. 

The  frigate  President,  Captain  Decatur,  sailed  from  New  York, 
on  the  14th  of  January,  1815.  The  harbor  was  then  blockaded 
by  a  British  squadron  consisting  of  a  seventy-four  and  three 
frigates.  The  President  struck  on  the  bar  in  going  out,  by  which 
accident  she  sustained  some  damage.  The  next  morning,  the 
enemy's  squadron  gave  her  chase.  The  President  outsailed  them 
all  except  the  Endymion  frigate,  which  came  up  with  her,  and  an 
action  took  place.  It  lasted  two  hours  and  a  half,  when  the 
Endymion  was  beaten  off.  The  President  then  made  sail,  but  was 
too  much  crippled  in  the  action  to  escape  the  other  ships.  As  soon 
as  they  came  up,  the  President  surrendered.  The  British  exulted 
much  at  this  victory,  and  many  of  their  writers  pretended  to 
believe  that  the  Endymion  accomplished  it  alone,  though  she  was 
three  hours'  sail  in  the  rear  of  the  other  ships  when  the  President 
struck  to  them. 

The  last  naval  victory  of  the  war,  like  the  first,  fell  to  the 
Americans.  On  the  23d  of  March,  1815,  the  Hornet,  while  on  a 
voyage  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  fell  in  with  the  British  brig  of  war 
Penguin,  off  the  island  of  Tristan  Da  Cunha.  After  an  action 
of  twenty  minutes  the  Penguin  struck,  with  forty-two  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Hornet  had  one  killed  and  eleven  wounded. 
The  Penguin  was  so  much  damaged  that  she  was  destroyed  the 
next  day. 

The  British  had  this  year  projected  a  serious  plan  for  the  inva- 
sion of  the  United  States  from  Canada,  by  the  way  of  Lake 
Champlain,  unmindful  of  the  calamitous  issue  of  Burgoyne's 
expedition  by  the  same  route.  Their  army  in  Lower  Canada  was 
greatly  augmented  by  arrivals  of  troops  from  Wellington's  victo- 
rious legions  in  the  south  of  France,  and  a  scheme  was  organized 
for  making  an  irruption  in  this  quarter  with  so  strong  a  force  as 
to  bear  down  at  once  all  opposition.  The  northern  frontier  was 
now  very  weakly  defended ;  the  bulk  of  the  army  under  General 
Izard  had  been  ordered  to  Niagara,  and  the  force  left  at  Plattsburg 
did  not  exceed  fifteen  hundred  regulars,  many  of  whom  were 
invalids  and  recruits.  Sir  George  Prevost,  the  British  com- 
mander-in-chief,  having  concentrated  his  troops  in  the  latter  part 
of  August,  found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  twelve  thou- 
sand men.  With  this  force  he  invaded  the  American  territory, 
and  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Champlain'on  the  3d  of  Sep- 


BATTLE   OF   LAKE   CHAMPLAIN.  731 

tember.  He  issued  a  proclamation  designed  to  seduce  the  people 
from  their  allegiance,  by  stating  that  the  British  arms  were 
directed^  only  against  the  American  government  and  their  sup- 
porters, and  not  against  the  peaceful  and  unoffending  inhabitants. 
In  this  design  he  was  disappointed.  The  devastations  of  the 
British  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  had  united  the  people  in 
defence  of  their  territory,  and  the  militia  of  New  York  and  Ver- 
mont took  up  arms,  without  distinction  of  party,  to  repel  the 
invaders. 

General  Macomb  was  at  the  head  of  the  American  land  forces, 
and  Commodore  McDonough  commanded  the  fleet  on  Lake 
Champlain,  which  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Plattsburg.  It 
was  evident  that  the  first  attacks  of  the  enemy  would  be  made 
against  this  place.  A  force  of  about  three  thousand  militia  had 
been  raised  and  stationed  principally  on  the  roads  approaching 
Plattsburg.  On  the  6th  of  September,  two  columns  of  the  enemy 

!  attacked  a  body  of  militia,  seven  miles  from  Plattsburg ;  these 
raw  troops  broke  and  fled,  and. the  enemy  approached  within  a 
mile  of  the  town.  The  Americans  crossed  the  river  Saranac, 
which  flows  in  front  of  the  place,  broke  down  the  bridges,  and  left 
Plattsburg  to  its  fate,  intrenching  themselves  on4  the  opposite 
bank.  The  British  took  possession  of  the  town,  and  attempted 
to  pass  the  river  several  times,  but  without  success.  They  then 
erected  batteries  opposite  the  American  works,  and  several  days 
were  passed  in  cannonading  and  skirmishing  at  the  bridges  and 
fords. 

On  the  morning  of  the  llth  of  September,  the  British  squadron, 
consisting  of  the  frigate  Confiance,  the  brig  Linnet,  the  sloops 
Chub  and  Finch,  and  thirteen  galleys,  mounting  in  all  ninety-five 
guns,  with  one  thousand  men,  stood  into  the  bay  of  Plattsburg. 
The  American  squadron,  comprising  the  sloop-of-war  Saratoga, 
the  brigs  Eagle  and  Ticonderoga,  the  schooner  Preble  and  ten 
galleys,  mounting  eighty-six  guns,  with. eight  hundred  men,  were 
then  at  anchor  in  the  bay.  The  British  came  to  anchor  in  line 
of  battle,  abreast  of  the  American  squadron,  three  hundred  yards 
distant.  At  nine  o'clock,  a  general  engagement,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  commenced.  For  two  hours  the  ships  maintained  an  equal 
contest,  when  the  American  commodore,  finding  his  starboard 
guns  nearly  all  dismounted,  practised  a  skilful  mano3uvre  by 
dropping  his  stern  anchor,  and  cutting  his  bower  cable ;  his  ship 
immediately  swung  round  and  brought  her  larboard  broadside  to 
bear  upon  the  enemy,  who,  having  suffered  equally,  attempted  the 
same  manosuvre,  but  without  success.  The  British  commodore, 
unable  to  sustain  the  fire  of  the  Saratoga,  struck  his  colors  in  a 


732  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

few  minutes,  and  the  brig  immediately  followed  the  example. 
The  sloops  had  previously  surrendered,  and  three  of  the  galleys 
were  sunk ;  the  remainder  made  their  escape. 


Battle  of  Plattsburg. 

In  the  meantime,  the  enemy's  batteries  had  opened  a  vigorous 
fire  upon  the  American  lines,  which  was  returned  with  equal 
spirit.  In  the  height  of  the  cannonade,  the  British  made  three 
attempts  to  cross  the  Saranac,  two  at  the  bridges  near  the  town, 
and  another  at  a  ford  three  miles  above.  In  all  these  attempts 
they  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  The  battle  between 
the  two  squadrons,  which  took  place  in  sight  of  both  armies, 
arrested  for  a  short  time,  their  attention.  The  capture  of  the 
British  ships  was  received  with  the  most  enthusiastic  cheers  by 
the  Americans,  while  it  speedily  damped  the  courage  of  the  ene- 
my. The  cannonading,  however,  continued  till  sunset,  when  Sir 
George  Prevost,  finding  his  troops  defeated  at  all  points,  drew  off 
his  artillery  from  the  batteries,  and  raised  the  siege.  At  two  in 
the  morning,  the  whole  army  precipitately  retreated,  and  reached 
Chazy,  eight  miles  distant,  before  their  flight  was  discovered. 
More  than  eight  hundred  deserters  left  them  on  their  march,  and 
came  into  the  American  camp.  The  whole  loss  of  the  British 
was  about  twenty-five  hundred  men  ;  that  of  the  Americans  only 
ninety-nine.  The  British  left  behind  them  their  sick,  wounded, 
cannon,  ammunition  and  provisions. 

The  victory  at  Plattsburg  must  be  recorded  as  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  in  American  history.  A  land  army,  composed  mostly  of 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  WAR  IN  THE  SOUTH.  733 

iaw  militia,  repulsed  the  most  powerful  force  of  British  veterans 
that  had  been  collected  in  America  during  the  war ;  while,  at  the 
same  moment,  the  American  squadron  captured  a  British  squa- 
dron superior  both  in  guns  and  men.  The  killed  and  wounded  in 
the  enemy's  ships,  amounted  to  one  hundred  and  ninety-four, 
including  Commodore  Downie,  the  commander.  The  American 
loss  was  one  hundred  and  ten.  The  prisoners  amounted  to  eight 
hundred  and  fifty-six,  a  greater  number  than  that  of  the  Ameri- 
can crews  when  they  commenced  the  action.  Thus  closed  the 
campaign  -in  the  north. 

While  the  war  in  the  north  was  thus  drawing  to  a  termination, 
with  such  brilliant  success  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  the 
last  hostile  expedition  of  the  British  was  in  progress  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  union,  and  the  result  was  equally  glorious 
to  the  American  arms.  The  capture  of  New  Orleans  and  the 
conquest  of  Louisiana  had  been  determined  on  by  the  enemy  at 
an  early  day  in  the  season ;  but  the  design  was  necessarily  defer- 
red till  the  latter  part  of  the  year,  to  avoid  the  heats  and  insa- 
lubrity of  the  summer  months  in  that  unwholesome  climate. 
Toward  the  end  of  August,  three  British  armed  vessels  arrived 
at  Pensacola,  with  a  body  of  troops,  and  a  quantity  of  military 
stores  sufficient  for  a  large  army.  They  took  possession  of  the 
place,  although  it  was  neutral  territory  belonging  to  Spain.  Intel- 
ligence was  received  that  ten  thousand  troops  and  thirteen  ships 
of  the  line  were  expected  there.  The  British  commander  at 
Pensacola,  Colonel  Nichols,  issued  a  proclamation,  calling  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  Louisiana  and  Tennessee  to  throw  off  their 
allegiance  to  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  join  the 
British  standard.  This  had  the  same  effect  as  the  proclamation 
of  Sir  George  Prevost.  The  militia  took  up  arms  to  repel  the 
invaders ;  and  Nichols,  finding  that  none  of  the  inhabitants  joined 
him,  turned  to  the  pirates  of  Barataria,  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
Louisiana,  then  occupied  by  a  band  of  buccaneers.  These  men, 
under  a  bold  and  dexterous  leader,  of  the  name  of  Lafitte,  had 
hitherto  eluded  all  the  attempts  of  the  American  government  to 
suppress  them,  and  continued  to  carry  on  their  trade  of  smuggling 
and  picarooning,  in  defiance  of  law.  Nichols  communicated  the 
whole  plan  of  the  British  expedition  to  Lafitte,  soliciting  his  alli- 
ance; but  the  piratical  chieftain  rejected  the  proposal  at  once; 
and  although  a  price  had  been  set  upon  his  head,  immediately  dis- 
closed the  whole  to  Claiborne,  the  governor  of  Louisiana.  This 
singular  conduct  was  followed  by  important  consequences  to  the 
Baratarians.  The  governor,  struck  with  the  romantic  behavior 
of  Lafitte,  promised  him  a  full  pardon  for  his  whole  band,  on 


734  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

condition  of  their  abandoning  their  lawless  habits,  and  engaging 
in  defence  of  the  country.  This  was  agreed  to,  and  these  outlaws 
rendered  important  services  in  the  sequel. 

On  the  15th  of  September,  the  British  made  an  attack,  by  sea 
and  land,  upon  Fort  Bowyer,  at  the  entrance  of  Mobile  Bay ;  but 
the  garrison  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  under  Major  Law- 
rence, defeated  them  after  they  had  persisted  in  the  assault  for 
three  hours.  The  commodore's  frigate,  the  Hermes,  lost  nearly 
all  her  crew,  drifted  ashore,  and  was  burnt.  The  garrison  lost 
but  nine  killed  and  wounded.  The  British  retreated  to  Pensa- 
cola,  and  General  Jackson,  the  American  commander-in-chief, 
having  now  received  a  reinforcement  of  two  thousand  volun- 
teer militia  from  Tennessee,  marched  upon  Pensacola,  to  demand 
redress  of  the  Spanish  authorities  for  their  violation  of  neu- 
trality, in  allowing  a  hostile  expedition  to  be  fitted  out  from  that 
place  against  the  United  States.  On  the  6th  of  November,  he 
reached  the  neighborhood  of  Pensacola,  and  sent  a  flag  to  the 
governor,  which  was  fired  upon  and  driven  back.  Nevertheless, 
he  contrived  by  other  means  to  convey  a  communication  to  the 
governor,  demanding  that  the  forts  on  the  harbor  should  be  put 
under  the  protection  of  the  United  States,  till  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment were  able  to  enforce  their  neutrality.  This  being  refused, 
Jackson  made  an  attack  on  Pensacola  the  next  day.  Both  the 
Spaniards  and  British  defended  the  place;  but  the  Americans 
speedily  made  their  way  into  the  town,  and  brought  the  Spanish 
commander  to  a  parley,  which  ended  by  a  complete  surrender  of 
Pensacola  to  the  Americans. 

The  British  destroyed  the  fortifications,  and  abandoned  the 
place  with  their  squadron.  Jackson  proceeded  to  New  Orleans 
on  the  1st  of  December,  and  took  measures  for  the  defence  of  that 
city.  Batteries  were  constructed  on  all  the  approaches  toward 
the  place,  and  troops  collected  from  the  neighboring  states.  By 
this  time,  upwards  of  sixty  sail  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  with 
troops  and  military  stores,  had  arrived  at  Ship  Island,  at  the 
entrance  of  Lake  Borgne,  by  which  the  city  was  menaced  with 
an  attack.  A  flotilla  of  small  vessels  had  been  collected  by  the 
Americans,  to  defend  the  passage  of  Lake  Pontchartrain ;  these 
were  attacked  on  the  13th,  by  an  overwhelming  force  of  the 
enemy,  while  becalmed  in  an  unfavorable  position,  and  all  cap- 
tured. This  disaster  caused  a  necessity  for  the  most  prompt  and 
energetic  measures  for  the  defence  of  the  city.  Martial  law  was 
proclaimed  by  Jackson,  an  embargo  laid  on  all  vessels,  and  the 
negroes  were  impressed  and  set  to  work  upon  the  fortifications. 


BATTLE   OF   NEW-ORLEANS.  735 

On  the  21st,  four  thousand  Tennessee  militia,  under  General  Car- 
rol, arrived  at  New  Orleans. 

The  enemy  proceeded  up  Lake  Borgne,  and  on  the  22d, 
surprised  a  small  body  of  Americans  posted  to  defend  the  Bayou 
Bienvenu,  an  inlet  leading  directly  towards  the  city.  Jackson 
advanced  the  next  day  with  a  force  of  about  two  thousand  men, 
and  made  an  attempt  to  drive  them  from  this  position,  but  the 
enemy  being  three  thousand  strong,  the  attempt  proved  abortive, 
and  the  Americans  took  post  higher  up  the  river.  Their  line  of 
defence  extended  from  the  Mississippi  on  the  right,  to  a  thick  and 
impassable  wood  on  the  left.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river 
was  a  battery  of  fifteen  cannon ;  the  ship  Louisiana  and  the 
schooner  Caroline  lay  in  the  stream. 

The  British  army,  amounting  to  ten  thousand  men,  under  Sir 
Edward  Packenham,  well  equipped,  with  a  heavy  train  of  artil- 
lery, were  now  concentrated  near  the  American  lines.  By  the 
arrival  of  the  Kentucky  militia,  Jackson's  force  wfts  augmented 
to  about  eight  thousand  men,,  but  their  equipment  was  bad.  The 
fate  of  New  Orleans  was  now  completely  at  stake,  and  the  odds 
were  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  British.  No  battle  hitherto  fought 
between  the  contending  parties,  equalled  in  importance  the  one 
now  at  hand,  for  on  this  depended  the  possession  of  the  entrance  of 
the  great  river  Mississippi,  and  perhaps  the  permanent  command 
of  the  stream.  The  British  began  their  operations  by  erecting  a 
battery  against  the  Caroline,  whose  fire  gave  them  great  annoy- 
ance ;  and  they  succeeded  in  blowing  her  up  on  the  27th.  The 
next  day,  Packenham  advanced  with  his  whole  force  within  half 
a  mile  of  the  American  works,  and  began  a  furious  cannonade, 
bombardment  and  discharge  of  rockets.  The  American  batteries, 
with  the  Louisiana,  opened  so  heavy  a  fire  upon  the  assailants, 
that  they  drew  off  with  considerable  loss.  The  British  then 
threw  up  batteries  in  front  of  the  American  lines,  and  at  daylight, 
on  the  1st  of  January,  renewed  their  cannonade,  but  with  no 
better  effect.  An  attack  was  then  made  upon  the  left  flank  of  the 
Americans,  but  this  was  repulsed,  and  the  British  decamped  in  the 
evening,  leaving  behind  their  ammunition  and  the  cannon  spiked. 

The  British  had  suffered  severely  from  the  batteries  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  which  they  were  unable  to  cross 
for  want  of  boats.  With  immense  labor,  a  canal  was  dug  from 
the  Bayou  Bienvenu,  to  the  river,  through  which  the  boats  of  the 
fleet  were  brought  on  the  7th.  Everything  being  now  prepared  on 
the  part  of  the  invading  force,  the  grand  attack  was  fixed  for  the 
next  day.  Troops  were  transported  across  the  Mississippi  to  attack 
the  battery  on  that  side  simultaneously  with  the  main  assault. 
63  a  4 


736 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


On  the  8th  of  January,  early  in  the  morning,  the  British  army 
moved  in  two  columns  to  the  attack  of  Jackson's  line.  Generals 
Gibbs  and  Keane  led  the  assault;  and  a  body  of  reserve,  under 
General  Lambert,  kept  in  the  rear  of  the  attacking  columns. 
The  troops  advanced  slowly  and  firmly,  bearing  fascines  and 
scaling  ladders  to  facilitate  their  passage  over  the  ditch  and  ram- 
part. The  American  batteries  opened  upon  them  as  soon  as  they 
came  within  cannon  shot.  The  sharp-eyed  marksmen  of  the 
West  stood  behind  the  entrenchments,  awaiting  the  close  approach 
of  the  enemy;  and  no  sooner  had  their  columns  arrived  within 
fair  reach  of  their  rifles,  than  a  shower  of  bullets  was  discharged 


Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

upon  them  with  such  unerring  aim,  that  they  were  immediately 
brought  to  a  stand.  Sir  Edward  Packenham,  observing  his  troops 
to  falter,  galloped  to  the  head  of  the  column,  and  while  in  the  act 
of  cheering  them  on,  was  struck  by  a  rifle  ball,  and  fell  dead  from 
his  horse.  The  columns  broke  and  retreated  in  confusion,  but 
their  officers  rallied  them  and  urged  them  onward  nearly  to  the 
ditch.  The  deadly  fire  of  the  musketry  again  drove  them  back. 
A  third  assault  was  made,  and  a  third  time  were  the  assailants 
put  to  flight  in  the  greatest  confusion.  Gibbs  and  Keane  were 
both  severely  wounded,  and  the  plain  was  covered  with  the  bodies 
of  the  dead.  General  Lambert  now  took  the  command,  and 
collecting  together  the  fragments  of  the  army,  drew  them  off  into 
the  camp.  In  the  meantime,  the  detachment  under  Colonel 


BATTLE   OF    NEW-ORLEANS.  737 

Thornton  had  succeeded  in  capturing  the  American  battery  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  in  consequence  of  the  panic  of  the 
militia,  who  imagined  the  enemy  had  turned  their  flank ;  but  this 
had  no  influence  upon  the  result  of  the  day,  which  was  a  most 
decided  victory  for  the  Americans. 

Never  had  a  British  army  experienced  such  dreadful  slaughter 
as  on  this  occasion.  More  than  two  thousand  of  their  men, 
including  almost  all  their  chief  officers,  were  killed  or  wounded. 
The  prisoners  amounted  to  eight  hundred.  The  disproportion  too, 
between  the  loss  of  the  victorious  and  that  of  the  defeated  army, 
renders  this  one  of  the  most  remarkable  battles  ever  fought.  The 
Americans  had  but  seven  killed  and  six  wounded.  The  whole 
British  scheme  of  invasion  was  at  once  brought  to  an  end  by  this 
overwhelming  disaster.  A  part  of  the  fleet  had  entered  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  attacked  Fort  St.  Philip,  but  after  bombarding  it  for 
a  week,  they  retreated.  Lambert,  inimediately  after  the  battle  of 
the  8th  of  January,  withdrew  his  troops  from  the  Mississippi,  and 
embarked  for  Fort  Bowyer,  which  place  he  succeeded  in  captur- 
ing, but  this  was  all  they  gained  by  the  expedition  to  New  Orleans. 
The  defence  of  that  city  reflects  the  highest  credit  on  the  skill 
and  firmness  of  General  Jackson,  and  the  courage  of  the  Ameri- 
can militia.  With  this  brilliant  success  closed  the  hostilities 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

During  the  interval  between  the  repulse  of  the  British  and  the 
arrival  of  the  news  of  peace,  their  fleet  still  hung  about  the  coast, 
and  it  was  found  necessary  to  detain  the  militia  at  New  Orleans, 
where  martial  law  was  still  in  force.  The  militia,  imagining  all 
the  danger  passed,  Avere  eager  to  return  to  their  homes,  and  many 
complaints  were  the  consequence.  A  paragraph  in  one  of  the 
New  Orleans  newspapers,  was  thought  by  General  Jackson  cal- 
culated to  excite  mutiny  in  the  army,  and  he  arrested  the  writer. 
A  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  issued  to  liberate  him.  The  gen- 
eral, instead  of  obeying  the  writ,  caused-  the  judge  who  granted 
it  to  be  arrested  and  conveyed  out  of  the  city.  Before  this 
occurrence,  an  un-official  account  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
Ghent  had  reached  New  Orleans,  but  it  was  thought  prudent  not 
to  abandon  any  of  the  measures  that  had  been  taken  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  country.  On  the  13th  of  March,  however,  two  days 
after  the  arrest  of  the  judge,  a  despatch  from  the  secretary  of 
war  arrived  at  head-quarters,  announcing  the  peace,  and  ordering 
a  cessation  of  hostilities.  Military  operations  on  both  sides  ceased 
on  the  19th.  The  judge,  after  his  liberation,  cited  General  Jack- 
son before  him,  and  fined  him  a  thousand  dollars  for  contempt  of 
62*  o4 


738  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

court.  The  fine  was  paid  by  the  general,  although  the  citizens 
of  New  Orleans  offered  to  raise  the  sum  by  contribution. 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  war,  the  government  of  the 
United  States  had  shown  every  disposition  to  settle  the  grounds 
of  dispute  with  Great  Britain  upon  reasonable  terms.  Early  in 
1813,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  offered  his  mediation  between  the 
two  powers.  This  offer  was  communicated  by  President  Madison 
to  congress,  in  May,  1813,  with  the  information  that  the  cabinet 
had  acceded  to  the  proposal,  and  that  three  commissioners  had 
been  despatched  to  St.  Petersburg,  with  powers  to  conclude  a 
treaty  of  peace.  Had  the  British  government  been  moderate  and 
equitable  in  their  demands,  hostilities  between  the  two  countries 
would  soon  have  ceased.  The  highest  hopes  were  indulged, 
throughout  the  country,  that  the  Russian  mediation  would  lead  to 
an  immediate  pacification.  But  the  British  cabinet  refused  to 
admit  the  interference  of  the  Russian  emperor,  on  the  alleged 
ground  that  their  dispute  with  the  United  States  involved  certain 
principles  of  the  internal  government  of  Great  Britain,  which 
could  not  consistently  be  submitted  to  the  mediation  of  a  foreign 
power.  This  decision,  pronounced  by  the  Prince  Regent,  was 
communicated  to  the  American  government  by  a  flag  of  truce 
despatched  for  the  purpose,  which,  at  the  same  time,  signified  to 
the  president  that  (he  British  government  were  willing  to  open  a 
negotiation  with  the  American  commissioners,  either  in  London 
or  Gottenburg.  This  proposal  was  agreed  to  by  the  Americans, 
and  Gottenburg  was  fixed  upon  as  the  place  of  meeting.  Five 
commissioners  were  accordingly  appointed ;  John  Quincy  Adams, 
Albert  Gallatin,  and  James  A.  Bayard,  who  had  already  sailed 
for  Russia,  under  the  proposed  mediation  of  the  emperor,  and 
Henry  Clay  and  Jonathan  Russell.  These  gentlemen  proceeded 
immediately  to  the  place  of  their  destination;  but  the  British 
cabinet  exhibited  so  little  readiness  to  expedite  the  negotiations, 
that  the  commissioners  met  with  nothing  but  delays  for  a  long 
time. 

After  many  preliminary  movements,  the  place  of  conference 
was  shifted  from  Gottenburg  to  Ghent  in  the  Netherlands,  at 
which  city  the  British  commissioners,  Lord  Gambier,  Henry 
Goulburn,  and  William  Adam,  arrived  on  the  4th  of  August,  1814. 
The  conditions  proposed  by  the  Americans  were  very  moderate ; 
they  agreed  to  waive  the  abstract  question  of  the  right  of  British 
ships  to  impress  American  seamen,  as  the  practice  had  ceased 
with  the  general  pacification  of  Europe ;  this  question  they 
reserved  for  future  discussion  and  settlement  between  the  two 
powers.  The  only  obstacle  in  the  way  of  peace  appeared  to  be 


NEGOTIATIONS   FOR   PEACE.  739 

removed  by  this  concession  on  the  part  of  the  Americans.  The 
orders  in  council  had  been  revoked ;  the  blockade  of  the  conti- 
nental ports  had  ceased ;  Napoleon  was  overthrown ;  the  ancient 
governments  of  Europe  were  restored,  and  none  of  the  causes  of 
dissension  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  were 
likely  soon  to  be  revived.  But,  to  the  surprise  of  the  American 
commissioners,  they  were  met  by  demands  highly  unreasonable, 
and  totally  incompatible  with  the  honor  and  security  of  the 
United  States.  The  British  insisted  upon  a  new  boundary  for 
the  Canada  frontier,  surrendering  a  large  tract  of  American  terri- 
tory to  Great  Britain.  The  United  States  were  to  erect  no  fortified 
post  on  the  shores  of  the  great  lakes,  nor  maintain  any  armed 
vessel  on  their  waters,  while  the  British  were  to  be  allowed  both. 
All  the  country  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  Lake  Superior  to  the 
Mississippi,  was  to  be  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  the 
northern  part  of  the  District  of  Maine.  The  boundaries  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Indian  territory  were  to  be  strictly 
denned,  and  no  purchases  of  land  made  from  the  natives.  To 
these  insulting  terms,  the  American  commissioners  replied  by  a 
prompt  and  unqualified  negative. 

When  this  intelligence  reached  the  United  States,  great  indig- 
nation was  excited  throughout  the  country.  The  honor  and 
dignity  of  the  nation  stood  pledged  to  resist  so  humiliating  a 
I  proposal  as  a  surrender  of  the  national  territory  and  the  right  of 
defence.  A  stronger  resolution  than  ever  to  oppose  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  enemy  manifested  itself  among  the  people.  But  the 
exorbitant  nature  of  these  demands  seemed  to  indicate  a  fixed 
determination  in  the  British  government  to  push  the  war  to 
extremities,  and  the  desperate  character  of  the  struggle  was  fully 
appreciated.  This  was  evinced  more  strikingly  in  the  New  Eng- 
land states,  where  the  war  had  encountered  a  strong  disapproval 
from  a  very  numerous  class  of  the  population.  The  government 
of  Massachusetts,  during  the  first  year  of  the  war,  had  so  little 
confidence  in  the  wisdom  of  the  federal  executive,  that  when  the 
militia  of  that  state  was  called  out,  agreeably  to  the  constitution, 
they  declined  giving  the  command  to  the  officer  appointed  by  the 
president,  on  the  plea  that  such  command  could  be  exercised  only 
by  the  president  in  person.  They  also  declined,  when  first  called 
upon,  to  raise  any  portion  of  the  militia,  alleging  that  the  consti- 
tutional exigency,  of  which  they  alone  were  to  be  the  judges,  did 
not  exist.  The  same  was  done  by  the  states  of  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut. 

With  the  increasing  rancor  of  party  spirit,  the  financial  embar- 
rassments of  the  federal  government,  and  the  menacing  and  over- 
63* 


740       .  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

bearing  attitude  of  the  enemy,  in  the  year  1814,  the  affairs  of  the 
country  seemed  to  be  drawing  to  a  crisis.  The  legislature  of 
Massachusetts  met  in  October,  and  proposed  a  convention  of  dele- 
gates from  the  New  England  states,  to  devise  some  measures  for 
the  general  welfare,  suitable  to  the  alarming  state  of  the  times. 
This  scheme  was  agreed  upon ;  delegates  were  chosen  from  the 
states  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  and  from 
a  portion  of  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont.  The  convention  met 
at  Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  on  the  15th  of  December,  1814,  and 
sat  till  the  4th  of  January,  1815,  when  they  adjourned,  after  pub- 
lishing the  result  of  their  deliberations  in  a  report.  This  docu- 
ment specified  some  defects  in  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  proposed  amendments  to  the  following  effect: — That 
representation  and  direct  taxes  should  be  apportioned  according 
to  the  white  population  of  the  country,  irrespective  of  the  slaves ; 
that  no  new  state  should  be  admitted  into  the  union,  without  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  both  houses  of  congress ;  that  no 
declaration  of  war  or  non-intercourse  should  take  place  without 
the  same  majority;  that  no  embargo  should  be  imposed  for  a 
longer  term  than  sixty  days;  that  the  president  of  the  United 
States  should  be  eligible  for  no  more  than  one  term;  and  that 
two  presidents  should  not  be  elected  from  the  same  state  in  suc- 
cession. 

Much  obloquy  has  been  cast  upon  the  Hartford  Convention, 
and  there  are  many,  at  the  present  day,  who  believe  that  it  was 
assembled  with  a  treasonable  design  of  dissolving  the  union. 
Nothing  of  this  nature  can  be  discerned  in  the  proposals  above 
enumerated,  which  constitute  the  substance  of  what  they  submit- 
ted to  the  public.  So  far  from  being  treasonable  or  dangerous, 
some  of  them,  if  adopted,  would  conduce  to  the  preservation  and 
stability  of  the  union ;  and  one,  at  least,  has  become  a  favorite 
maxim,  at  the  present  day,  with  a  large  portion  of  the  American 
people. 

All  fears,  however,  for  the  internal  tranquillity  of  the  country 
were  in  an  instant  dissipated  by  the  arrival,  in  February,  1815,  of 
the  intelligence  that  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed  at  Ghent, 
on  the  24th  of  December.  The  British  government,  after  receiv- 
ing the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  army  of  Sir  George  Prevost,  and 
the  capture  of  their  squadron  on  Lake  Champlain,  appear  to  have 
abandoned  all  hope  of  further  success  to  their  arms,  and  with- 
drew the  arrogant  claims  which  had  been  insisted  upon  at  the 
opening  of  the  negotiations.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  countries  were  to  remain  the  same  as  before 
the  commencement  of  hostilities,  and  all  questions  of  disputed 


TERMINATION   OF    THE   WAR.  741 

territory  were  to  be  settled  by  commissioners  from  both  parties  at 
a  future  day.  Both  nations  were  to  put  an  immediate  end  to  the 
Indian  hostilities,  and  use  their  best  endeavors  to  suppress  the 
slave  trade.  The  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent,  on 
the  28th  of  December,  1814,  and  by  the  American  president  and 
senate,  on  the  18th  of  February,  1815. 

Thus  closed  a  war,  in  which  the  United  States  encountered 
great  perils  and  suffered  deep  disasters,  but  from  which  the  nation 
extricated  itself  with  honor  and  renown.  If  the  republic  sus- 
tained heavy  losses,  she  exhibited  resolution,  talent  and  national 
spirit,  in  the  exertions  she  put  forth  in  her  defence,  and  vindicated 
her  reputation,  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  from  the  opprobrium 
which  had  fallen  upon  it  in  consequence  of  the  insults  of  her 
enemy.  The  American  armies  were  sometimes  defeated;  but 
instead  of  wondering  at  this,  our  wonder  is  excited  that  such 
reverses  were  not  more  numerous.  The  soldiers  of  Britain  were 
veterans,  familiar  with  conquest,  and  fresh  from  the  battle-fields 
of  Europe.  The  United  States  went  into  the  contest  without  an 
army,  and  their  new  levies  and  raw  militia  could  not  be  expected 
to  possess  skill,  discipline  or  practical  familiarity  with  the  duties 
of  the  camp  and  the  manoeuvres  of  the  field.  That  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  committed  errors,  and  occasionally 
showed  weakness  and  indecision  at  critical  moments,  no  one  will 
deny.  But  to  compare  their  conduct  with  that  of  the  European 
cabinets,  and  to  judge  of  them  by  the  comparison,  would  be  doing 
them  gross  injustice.  They  had  no  councils  of  able  and  expe- 
rienced generals,  learned  in  the  history,  theory  and  practice  of  war, 
to  assist  them  in  drawing  up  the  plans  of  their  campaigns,  and 
correcting  their  calculations  of  the  sources,  extent  and  efficiency 
of  supplies.  The  most  fatal  mistake  they  committed,  was  the 
appointment  of  superannuated  generals  to  the  command  of  the 
armies ;  but  as  these  individuals  had  served  in  the  revolution,  and 
of  course  were  the  only  American  officers  who  had  seen  any  regu- 
lar fighting,  the  mistake  was  natural.  Hull,  Dearborn,  Wilkin- 
son, Hampton  and  some  others, had  been  soldiers  of  the  revolution; 
but  the  knowledge  which  they  retained  of  that  period,  served  but 
little  purpose,  we  imagine,  in  enabling  them  to  direct  the  move- 
ments of  armies  on  a  large  scale ;  while  their  advanced  age  had 
diminished  that  energy  and  activity,  both  of  mind  and  body,  so 
preeminently  necessary  in  the  business  of  the  field.  Accordingly, 
we  find  that  none  of  the  successes,  but  almost  all  the  disasters  of 
the  American  campaigns,  happened  under  the  direction  of  the  class 
of  officers  abovementioned.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  deci- 
ded and  brilliant  victories  were  accomplished  by  leaders  of  another 


742  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

character.  Jackson,  Harrison,  Scott,  Brown,  Ripley,  Croghan,  were 
men  younger  in  years,  new  to  the  business  of  regular  warfare, 
but  prompt  in  action,  fertile  in  expedients,  energetic  and  decisive. 
The  most  heroic  action  was  performed  by  the  youngest  officer  of 
all.  Major  Croghan,  who  defended  his  post  with  one  hundred 
and  sixty  men  and  one  cannon,  against  a  force  almost  equal  to 
that  which  captured  Hull's  army,  was  a  youth  of  twenty-two. 

In  the  vicissitudes  of  the  war,  the  reverses  of  the  Americans 
were  much  overbalanced  by  their  successes.  To  the  disasters  of 
Detroit  and  Washington,  may  be  opposed  the  victories  of  New 
Orleans,  Plattsburg,  the  Thames,  Bridgewater,  Lake  Erie  and 
Lake  Champlain,  and  the  brilliant  exploits  of  our  navy  on  the 
Atlantic.  The  effect  of  these  naval  victories  has  been  prodigious 
in  augmenting  the  naval  strength  of  the  country,  in  heightening 
the  national  pride  and  spirit  of  the  people,  and  in  preparing  the 
way  for  the  maritime  greatness  of  the  republic.  The  United 
States,  a  short  time  since  totally  overlooked  or  disregarded  in  the 
scheme  of  European  politics,  and  utterly  incapable  of  self-defence 
upon  the  ocean,  have  suddenly  become  a  first-rate  naval  power. 
Such  an  insult  as  was  perpetrated  upon  the  Chesapeake  in  1807, 
would,  at  the  present  day,  produce  war  or  satisfaction  by  the  time 
a  steam-packet  could  make  two  trips  across  the  Atlantic. 

Another  effect  of  the  war,  less  obvious  at  first,  but  which  has 
since  gradually  developed  itself  till  its  magnitude  and  importance 
have  made  it  a  great  national  concern,  has  been  the  increase  of 
manufacturing  enterprise  in  the  United  States.  Previous  to  the 
hostilities  with  Great  Britain,  the  Americans  were  almost  exclu- 
sively a  commercial  and  agricultural  people ;  they  are  now  rap- 
idly becoming  a  great  manufacturing  nation.  Nearly  all  their 
supplies  of  manufactured  articles  were  furnished  from  Europe 
and  principally  from  Great  Britain.  The  war  put  a  stop  to  all 
importation ;  and  the  consequent  high  prices  gave  strong  encour- 
agement to  domestic  manufactures.  New  establishments  rapidly 
arose,  invention  and  labor  were  stimulated,  and  the  finest  fabrics 
of  Manchester  and  Birmingham  were  soon  rivalled  by  the  inge- 
nuity of  the  New  England  artists.  The  manufacturing  enter- 
prise, begun  upon  the  spur  of  necessity,  has  been  maintained  by 
native  skill,  industry  and  perseverance,  and  the  country  is  daily 
opening  new  sources  of  wealth  for  the  enterprise  of  her  capitalists 
and  the  genius  of  her  artisans. 


CHAPTER   LXXI. 

War  with  Algiers. — Expedition  of  Commodore  Decatur. —  Capture  of  two  Algerine 
ships  of  war. — Peace  with  Algiers. — Affairs  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli. — Domestic 
concerns  of  the  country. —  United  States  bank  established. — Disputes  with  Spain 
concerning  West  Florida. — Seminole  war. —  General  Jackson's  invasion  of 
Florida. — Execution  of  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister. — Florida  ceded  to  the  United 
States. — Mr.  Monroe  chosen  president. — Tranquillity  and  prosperity  of  the 
country. — New  states  admitted  into  the  union. — Expedition  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke. — Treaty  with  Great  Britain  concerning  the  Oregon  territory. — Affairs 
of  the  Spanish  American  republics. — Missouri  admitted  into  the  union. — Affairs 
of  Florida. — Piracies  in  the  West  Indies. — John  Q.  Adams  elected  president. — 
Revival  of  party  spirit. — Affairs  of  Georgia  and  the  Creek  Indians. — Congress 
of  Panama. —  Visit  of  La  Fayette  to  the  United  States. — The  northeastern 
boundary  dispute. —  General  Jackson  president. — Removals  from  office. — Debates 
in  the  Senate,  on  the  subject  of  the  public  lands. —  Treaty  with  France  for  indem- 
nities.— Proposal  of  the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  respecting  the  northeastern 
boundary. — Removal  of  the  southern  Indians. — Jackson's  veto  on  the  United 
States  bank. — Indian  hostilities. — Black  Hawk's  war. — Battle  at  Bad-ax  river. 
—  Treaties  with  the  Indians. 

DURING  the  contest  with  Great  Britain,  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  had  also  been  exposed  to  the  hostilities  of  the 
Algerines.  A  treaty  had  existed  for  many  years  with  that  power, 
but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in  1812,  the  Dey,  under  the 
instigation  perhaps  of  British  agents,  contrived  to  pick  a  quarrel, 
and  despatched  his  corsairs  against  the  American  commerce  in 
the  Mediterranean.  They  made  several  captures  during  the  early 
part  of  the  war,  but  as  the  Barbary  cruisers  seldom  ventured 
outside  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  few  prizes  were  made  after  the 
American  merchantmen  had  forsaken  the  Mediterranean.  On  the 
return  of  peace  with  England,  a  resolution  was  formed  to  chastise 
the  Algerines,  and  in  March,  1815,  an  act  of  congress  authorized 
the  president  to  equip  and  employ  any  force  necessary  for  this 
purpose.  The  navy  of  the  United  States  was  now  fully  compe- 
tent to  this  undertaking.  Several  frigates  and  ships  of  the  line 
had  been  constructed  during  the  last  year  of  the  war,  and  were 
now  ready  for  service.  Commodore  Decatur  was  despatched 
with  three  frigates,  two  sloops  of  war,  and  four  schooners. 
Another  squadron,  consisting  of  a  ship  of  the  line  and  other 
vessels,  was  to  follow,  under  Commodore  Bainbridge.  Decatur 
sailed  from  New  York,  and  arrived  at  Gibraltar  about  the  middle 

R4 


744  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  June,  1815.  Proceeding  up  the  straits,  on  the  17th,  off  Cape 
De  Gatt,  he  fell  in  with  the  Algerine  frigate  Mazouda,  commanded 
by  Rais  Hammida,  a  famous  corsair,  who  had  long  been  the 
terror  of  the  Mediterranean.  Decatur's  flag-ship,  the  Guerriere, 
ran  alongside  the  corsair,  who  endeavored  to  escape ;  but  after  a 
running  fight  of  twenty-five  minutes,  the  Algerine  struck,  her 
commander  having  been  cut  in  two  by  a  cannon  shot.  Two 
days  after,  the  squadron  captured  an  Algerine  brig  of  twenty-two 
guns.  Decatur  then  steered  for  Algiers,  and  arrived  off  that 
place  on  the  28th  of  June.  He  despatched  on  shore  a  letter  from 
the  president,  and  proposed  entering  at  once  upon  negotiations  for 
peace.  The  terms  demanded  by  the  American  government  were, 
that  no  tribute  whatever  should  be  paid  by  the  United  States ; 
that  all  American  prisoners  should  be  given  up  without  ransom ; 
that  compensation  should  be  made  for  American  vessels  captured 
and  property  seized  by  the  Algerines;  that  American  property 
should  not  be  molested  if  found  on  board  an  enemy's  vessel, — 
with  various  other  stipulations,  fully  securing  the  rights  of  the 
American  nation  both  on  the  sea  and  land.  The  Algerines  were 
disposed  to  reject  these  proposals,  being  ignorant  of  the  capture 
of  their  ships  of  war,  which  they  refused  to  believe  till  the  sight 
of  the  prisoners  convinced  them.  Intimidated  by  this  unexpected 
blow,  and  influenced  by  the  Swedish  consul,  who  exerted  himself 
to  promote  the  negotiation,  they  agreed  to  a  suspension  of  hostili- 
ties, and  a  treaty  was  immediately  drawn  up  and  signed.  The 
treaty  also  provided  for  the  release  of  the  Spanish  consul  and  a 
merchant  of  that  nation,  then  prisoners  in  Algiers. 

From  Algiers,  the  squadron  proceeded  to  Tunis,  the  government 
of  which  had  violated  its  treaty  with  the  United  States,  by  allow- 
ing two  prizes  belonging  to  an  American  privateer,  to  be  taken  out 
of  the  harbor  by  a  British  cruiser;  and  by  allowing  a  company 
of  Tunisian  merchants  to  extort  the  property  of  an  American 
citizen  in  their  territory.  Decatur  sent  a  letter  to  the  Tunisian 
vizier,  demanding  immediate  payment  for  these  spoliations.  The 
Bashaw  admitted  the  fact,  and  the  justice  of  the  demand,  but 
requested  a  year  for  the  payment.  This  was  refused,  and  finding 
the  Americans  resolute,  he  agreed  to  their  demand.  The  money 
was  paid  to  the  commodore  by  the  vizier's  brother,  in  presence  of 
all  the  European  consuls.  The  Tunisian  flung  the  bags  on  the 
ground  in  great  indignation,  exclaiming  to  the  British  consul, 
"  See  what  Tunis  is  obliged  to  pay  for  your  insolence !  Do  you 
not  feel  ashamed  to  violate  the  neutrality  of  your  friends,  and 
then  leave  them  to  pay  for  your  aggressions?" — The  barbarian 
was  no  bad  expounder  of  international  law. 


* 


John  Jay. 


William  Wirt. 


John  Marshall,  LL.  D. 


Timothy  Pickering. 


ALGER1NE    WAR.  745 

The  Bashaw  of  Tripoli  had  been  served  with  equal  injustice 
by  his  British  friends,  who  had  cut  out  two  American  vessels 
from  under  the  guns  of  his  castle,  and  compelled  him  to  refuse 
protection  to  an  American  cruiser.  When  this  outrage  was  com- 
mitted, the  American  consul  struck  his  flag.  Decatur,  on  arriving 
at  Tripoli,  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  full  reparation  immedi- 
ately, such  was  the  terror  already  inspired  by  the  exploits  of  the 
Americans.  The  consul  then  hoisted  his  flag,  and  was  saluted 
by  the  castle  with  thirty-one  guns.  Besides  obtaining  indemnity 
for  the  American  property,  Decatur  also  compelled  the  Bashaw  to 
release  ten  Neapolitan  and  Danish  captives.  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  United  States  were  the  first  nation  in  Christendom  that 
refused  the  payment  of  tribute  to  the  Barbary  powers. 

Commodore  Bainbridge,  with  his  squadron,  arrived  shortly 
after  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  took  the  command.  As  a  complete 
pacification  had  been  already  effected,  little  remained  to  do. 
The  squadron  visited  Algiers,  Tunis  .and  Tripoli,  where  the 
people  were  struck  with  surprise  to  behold  an  American  ship  of 
the  line,  having  been  induced  to  believe,  by  the  British,  that  the 
Americans  were  prohibited  by  treaty,  from  building  vessels  of 
that  size.  The  squadron  returned  to  Boston  in  November. 

The  domestic  concerns  of  the  United  States  assumed  an  entirely 
new  face  on  the  restoration  of  peace.  That  event  was  received 
with  a  hearty  welcome  by  all  classes  of  people,  although  the 
.party  which  had  opposed  the  war  were  disposed  to  criticise 
somewhat  severely,  the  circumstance  that  the  treaty  gave  up 
certain  points,  which  had  been  originally  insisted  on  as  essential  to 
the  security  of  American  commerce.  Yet,  in  the  actual  circum- 
stances of  the  two  countries,  it  could  not  be  denied  that  the  pacifi- 
cation of  Ghent  was  settled  on  a  firm  foundation,  and  bid  fair  to 
promote  a  permanent  harmony  between  the  two  countries.  The 
rejoicing  therefore  was  universal.  The  administration  found 
themselves  relieved  of  the  burden  of  a  war  which  daily  brought 
fresh  embarrassments  upon  them.  The  people,  finding  the  honor 
and  reputation  of  the  country  vindicated  by  the  national  arms, 
welcomed  the  revival  of  commercial  enterprise  and  the  diminution 
of  their  taxes.  The  expense  of  the  war  had  been  great.  The 
national  debt,  in  1812,  amounted  to  forty-five  millions  of  dollars. 
In  1816,  it  had  augmented  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-three 
millions.  The  loans,  during  the  last  year  of  the  war,  were  taKen 
up  at  an  enormous  abatement  from  the  par  value.  With  the 
return  of  peace,  the  revenue  increased,  the  national  credit  revived, 
and  confidence  in  the  successful  action  of  the  government  and  the 
general  prosperity  of  the  country  rapidly  augmented. 
64 


746  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

One  of  the  most  important  acts  of  the  congress  which  assembled 
during  the  winter  after  the  peace,  was  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional bank.  This  project  had  nearly  succeeded  in  1814.  The 
bill  at  that  time  passed  both  houses  of  congress,  but  was  rejected 
by  president  Madison.  In  April,  1816,  the  United  States  Bank 
was  incorporated  by  congress,  with  a  capital  of  thirty-five 
millions,  and  a  charter  for  twenty  years.  This  was  sanctioned 
by  Mr.  Madison,  who  had  either  changed  his  opinion  as  to  the 
constitutionality  of  the  bank,  or  became  more  strongly  con- 
vinced of  its  utility.  The  financial  concerns  of  the  country,  as 
well  as  monetary  transactions  'and  trade  in  general,  received  appa- 
rently great  assistance  from  this  institution.  A  commercial  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  relating  to  reciprocal  duties,  had  been  agreed 
upon  in  1815. 

When  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  was  made  by  the  United 
States,  the  territory  of  West  Florida  was  considered  as  being 
included  within  its  limits ;  but  possession  was  not  taken  of  it  till 
1811.  Both  Spain  and  France  made  remonstrances,  and  the 
American  troops  were  withdrawn,  but  without  abandoning  the 
claim.  Subsequently  a  portion  of  the  country  was  reoccupied  by 
the  Americans.  A  negotiation  with  Spain  took  place  in  1816. 
The  American  cabinet  admitted  the  Spanish  title  to  most  of  the 
territory,  but  reminded  the  Spanish  minister  of  the  spoliations 
committed  by  his  countrymen  upon  American  property,  the  pay- 
ment for  which  had  been  delayed,  and  proposed  that  Florida 
should  be  exchanged  with  the  United  States  for  a  tract  of  country 
bordering  on  Mexico,  and  therefore  more  valuable  to  Spain.  The 
Spanish  minister,  however,  although  vested  with  full  powers  to 
conclude  a  treaty,  threw  obstacles  in  the  way,  for  the  evident  pur- 
pose of  gaining  time  and  evading  the  demands  of  the  American 
government.  The  negotiations  on  the  subject  were  protracted 
through  two  years,  when  they  received  a  new  interest  in  conse- 
quence of  the  invasion  of  that  territory  by  General  Jackson. 
That  officer  had  been  sent,  in  1818,  with  a  considerable  force,  on 
a  campaign  against  the  Seminole  Indians,  who  fled  before  his 
army  into  Florida.  Jackson,  in  the  belief  that  the  savages  were 
instigated  and  protected  by  the  Spaniards,  thought  it  necessary, 
for  the  security  of  the  frontier,  to  pursue  the  enemy  into  the 
Spanish  territory.  He  accordingly  took  possession  of  St.  Marks 
and  Pensacola,  in  1818,  although  he  had  received  no  express 
authority  from  the  president  to  commit  such  an  act.  In  the 
course  of  his  hostilities  against  the  Seminoles,  Jackson  made 
prisoners  of  two  Englishmen,  named  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister, 
whom  lie  hanged  as  outlaws,  on  the  charge  of  instigating  the 


PROSPERITY   OF    THE   COLONY.  747 

savages  to  murder,  and  furnishing  them  with  aims  and  ammuni- 
tion. A  violent  outcry  was  raised  against  this  act  in  England, 
and  the  excitement  in  that  country  went  so  far  as  to  threaten  a 
renewal  of  hostilities.  There  were  many  persons  in  the  United 
States  who  thought  Jackson's  conduct  altogether  unjustifiable. 
A  correspondence  ensued  between  the  British  and  American  gov- 
ernments, and  the  latter  disavowed  the  conduct  of  their  general, 
but  held  him  excused  by  the  extraordinary  circumstances  of  the 
case.  Jackson's  great  popularity  saved  him  from  a  reprimand  by 
the  American  government ;  and  the  British,  finding  them  not  dis- 
posed to  make  any  reparation  beyond  a  disavowal  of  the  act, 
desisted  from  urging  the  matter  any  further. 

In  1818,  the  disputes  with  Spain  were  settled  by  a  treaty 
ceding  the  whole  territory  of  Florida  to  the  United  States  as  an 
indemnity  for  the  claims  of  American  merchants  against  that 
power.  Five  millions  of  dollars  were  paid  by  the  American  gov- 
ernment to  the  claimants;  which  sum  may  be  considered  the  pur- 
chase money  of  Florida.  ^  •<>• 

James  Monroe  became  president  of  the  United  States  in  1817, 
and  in  the  summer  of  that  year  made  a  public  tour  through  the 
country.  Party  distinctions  were  now  rapidly  subsiding,  and  a 
remarkable  quiet  pervaded  the  union  during  the  administration  of 
Mr.  Monroe,  who  proved  the  most  popular  president  since  Wash- 
ington. During  his  tour,  the  attention  of  the  president  was 
drawn  to  the  surviving  soldiers  of  the  revolution,  who  assembled 
at  every  place  upon  his  route  to  greet  him.  In  a  message  to  con- 
gress afterward,  he  recommended  granting  pensions  to  these  per- 
sons, and  an  act  was  accordingly  passed,  extending  this  relief  to 
all  the  surviving  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  served  nine  months 
in  the  revolutionary  army.  Upwards  of  thirteen  thousand  sol- 
diers became  pensioners  of  the  United  States  by  this  act. 

The  country  was  now  rapidly  advancing  in  wealth,  commerce, 
manufactures,  revenue  and  population.  New  states  were  admitted 
into  the  union.  The  thirteen  original  states  had,  in  1820,  in- 
creased to  twenty-four.  Vermont  was  separated  from  New  York 
in  1791 ;  Tennessee  from  North  Carolina  in  1796 ;  Kentucky  from 
Virginia  in  1799.  Ohio  was  erected  into  a  state  in  1802 ;  Louis- 
iana, in  1812 ;  Illinois,  in  1818 ;  Alabama,  in  1819 ;  Missouri,  in 
1820,  and  Maine  was  separated  from  Massachusetts  in  the  same 
year.  The  immense  tract  of  territory  in  the  west  had  been  ex- 
plored as  early  as  1803,  when  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke  were 
despatched  by  the  government,  with  an  armed  party,  on  an  expe- 
dition of  discovery.  They  ascended  the  Missouri  to  its  head 
waters,  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  following  the  coast  of 


748  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

the  river  Oregon,  descended  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They  returned 
across  the  continent,  after  an  absence  of  three  years,  having  visited 
all  the  various  tribes  of  Indians  on  the  route.  The  expedition  was 
highly  successful.  The  country  was  in  general  discovered  to  be 
fertile  and  well  watered,  and  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of  cul- 
tivation. Amicable  relations  were  established  with  the  natives ; 
and  many  discoveries  made  in  natural  history.  This  long  and 
hazardous  expedition  was  accomplished  without  any  disaster,  and 
may  be  considered  one  of  the  most  interesting  ever  performed. 
The  character  and  value  of  the  great  western  territory  remained 
unknown  till  1814,  when  the  narrative  of  the  expedition  was  first 
published. 

A  treaty  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain,  in  October,  1818. 
respecting  the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  the  north- 
western boundary,  and  the  Oregon  territory.  By  this  convention 
it  was  stipulated  that  the  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
should  be  open  to  the  subjects  of  both  powers  for  ten  years,  with- 
out prejudicing  claims  of  either  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  territory. 
The  treaty  also  prolonged  for  ten  years  the  convention  of  1815, 
and  made  provision  for  the  restoration  of  slaves  captured  during 
the  war. 

In  the  meantime  the  Spanish  colonies  of  South  America  had 
revolted,  and  there  was  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  domin- 
ion of  the  mother  country  in  that  quarter  would  never  be  restored. 
Commissioners  had  been  sent  to  the  several  South  American 
states,  by  the  American  government,  as  early  as  1816,  to  examine 
the  condition  of  the  country  with  a  view  to  the  inquiry  as  to  the 
stability  of  the  new  government.  The  commissioners  published 
their  report  in  1818 ;  and  President  Monroe,  in  1819,  laid  the  sub- 
ject before  congress.  A  neutral  position  was  recommended,  bui 
the  president  stated  formally  that  the  United  States  could  not  be 
indifferent  to  any  attempts  to  subjugate  the  new  republics  by  the 
monarchical  powers  of  Europe,  with  a  view  to  support  the  prin- 
ciples of  legitimacy  prevailing  on  the  old  continent. 

The  subject  of  internal  improvement  was  now  taken  up  by  con- 
gress, and  in  1820,  an  act  was  passed  for  extending  the  great 
Cumberland  road  from  Wheeling  on  the  Ohio,  westward  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  The  admission  of  Missouri  into  the  union,  this 
year,  was  attended  with  violent  debates  in  congress  and  much 
excitement  throughout  the  country,  on  account  of  the  question  of 
slavery,  which  many  wished  to  exclude  from  the  new  state.  Mis- 
souri, however,  was  admitted  without  any  restriction  on  slavery ; 
but  the  act  was  amended  by  a  clause  prohibiting  the  existence  of 
slavery  in  future  in  any  territory  north  of  the  latitude  of  thirty- 


COMMERCIAL   TREATIES.  749 

six  degrees  and  a  half,  not  included  within  the  state  of  Missouri. 
Mr.  Monroe  was  this  year  reflected  president ;  so  satisfactory  had 
his  administration  been  to  the  people,  that  he  received  all  the  elec- 
toral votes  except  one. 

Arrangements  were  made,  in  1821,  for  occupying  and  govern- 
ing Florida.  The  president  appointed  General  Jackson  governor, 
with  a  liberal  discretionary  authority.  Much  difficulty  attended 
the  occupation  of  the  country,  in  consequence  of  the  Spanish 
officer  refusing  to  give  up  the  archives  and  documents  relating 
to  the  country.  This  caused  great  confusion  and  embarrass- 
ment respecting  the  titles  of  lands,  and  the  usages  and  cus- 
toms of  the  inhabitants,  which  the  treaty  of  cession  obliged  the 
United  States  to  maintain.  Jackson  having  arrested  a  Spanish 
officer,  one  of  the  judges  appointed  by  the  American  government 
granted  him  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  which  drew  on  an  acrimoni- 
ous controversy  between  the  governor  and  the  judge.  Jackson 
soon  after  resigned  his  office  as  governor  of  Florida. 

The  census  of  1820  showed  the  .population  of  the  United  States 
to  amount  to  9,638,166,  being  an  increase  of  2,398,263  in  ten 
years.  The  representation  in  congress  was  fixed  at  one  member 
for  40,000  inhabitants.  In  conformity  to  a  recommendation  of 
the  president,  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  American  repub- 
lics was  acknowledged  by  congress  in  January,  1822,  and  envoys 
to  most  of  these  were  shortly  after  appointed.  In  his  message  to 
congress,  in  December,  the  president  alluded  to  the  struggle  for 
independence  which  had  lately  commenced  in  Greece ;  a  hope 
was  expressed  that  the  Greeks  would  succeed  in  their  endeavors, 
but  no  interference  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  was  recom- 
mended. During  this  year  the  commerce  of  the  country  suffered 
much  from  the  depredations  of  pirates  in  the  West  India  seas, 
who  committed  their  outrages  in  so  systematic  and  audacious  a 
manner,  that  a  squadron  of  twelve  vessels  was  despatched  by  the 
United  States  government  against  them.  .  By  their  exertions  the 
pirates  were  soon  all  captured  or  dispersed.  A  convention  of 
navigation  and  commerce  with  France  was  concluded  in  1822, 
placing  the  system  of  trade  and  duties  on  a  basis  of  reciprocity. 
In  1824  the  tariff  was  remodified,  and  the  duties  on  several  arti- 
cles raised,  to  encourage  domestic  manufactures.  Commercial 
treaties  were  concluded  this  year  with  Russia,  Prussia,  Sweden, 
the  Netherlands  and  the  Hanse  Towns.  A  separate  treaty  with 
Russia  also  settled  the  boundaries  of  the  Russian  and  American 
territory  in  the  northwest.  The  boundary  line  was  fixed  at  fifty- 
four  degrees  forty  minutes  north  latitude ;  all  unoccupied  places 
64*  8  4 


750  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

to  be  free  for  ten  years  to  the  subjects  of  either  power  for  th« 
purposes  of  fishing,  or  trading  with  the  natives. 

At  the  election  for  president  in  the  autumn  of  1824,  General 
Jackson,  Mr.  Adams,  Mr.  Clay,  and  Mr.  Crawford  were  candi- 
dates ;  neither  of  whom  received  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes. 
John  Quincy  Adams  was  chosen  president  by  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives. At  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Monroe's  administration, 
the  quiet  of  the  country  began  again  to  be  disturbed  by  the  dis- 
sensions of  party.  The  United  States  were  now  in  an  unexam- 
pled state  of  prosperity,  which  bid  fair  to  be  permanent.  The 
rival  interests,  which  had  infused  such  bitterness  into  the  quarrels 
of  preceding  factions,  had  subsided,  and  the  old  animosities  were 
entirely  healed.  The  country  was  well  governed,  the  public  offi- 
cers were  honest,  able  and  patriotic.  The  Americans  universally 
believed  their  form  of  government  the  wisest,  and  their  popula- 
tion the  freest  and  happiest  in  the  world.  Materials  for  faction  or 
discontent  appeared  nowhere  to  exist;  yet  it  is  precisely  at  this 
moment  that  we  are  called  upon  to  record  the  revival  of  those  un- 
happy party  dissensions  and  rivalries  which  have  continued  with 
unabated  rancor  to  the  present  day. 

Troubles  soon  arose  with  the  state  of  Georgia,  respecting  the 
Indian  lands  in  that  quarter.  A  treaty  had  been  made  with  the 
Creeks,  at  Indian  Springs,  in  February,  1825,  which  was  imme- 
diately ratified  by  the  federal  government,  in  the  belief  that  it  had 
been  negotiated  in  good  faith ;  but  it  subsequently  appeared  that 
a  portion  of  the  tribe  had  not  been  consulted,  and  that  a  majority 
of  the  Indians  did  not  consent  to  the  treaty.  A  delegation  of  the 
tribe  proceeded  to  Washington,  requesting  that  the  treaty  might 
be  annulled,  and  complaining  of  the  fraud  and  oppression  prac- 
tised toward  them  by  the  Georgians.  By  a  contract  with  the  fed- 
eral government  in  1802,  Georgia  ceded  a  portion  of  the  Indian 
land  to  the  United  States, — the  government,  on  the  other  hand, 
guaranteeing  the  remainder  to  Georgia,  and  stipulating  to  extin- 
guish the  claim  of  the  natives,  and  remove  them  from  the  state, 
"  as  soon  as  it  could  be  done  peaceably  and  on  reasonable  terms." 
Georgia  was  now  impatient  for  the  fulfilment  of  this  part  of  the 
contract;  and  the  federal  government,  wishing  to  observe  good 
faith  toward  that  state,  and  at  the' same  time  to  behave  with 
lenity  and  kindness  toward  the  Indians,  found  itself  beset  with 
embarrassments.  The  governor  of  Georgia  insisted  on  the  imme- 
diate removal  of  the  Indians,  and  even  threatened  to  take  posses- 
sion of  their  lands  by  force.  Some  apprehensions  were  felt  that 
this  would  lead  to  a  collision  between  the  federal  and  state  gov- 
ernments. A  new  treaty,  however,  was  concluded  at  Washing- 


VISIT    OF   GEN.    LA   FAYETTE. 


751 


ton  with  the  Creeks,  in  March,  1826,  by  which  the  United  States 
granted  them  an  indemnity  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  guar- 
anteed them  the  possession  of  the  lands  not  expressly  ceded  by 
them.  This  adjusted  the  difficulties  for  some  time,  but  they  were 
renewed  the  following  year. 

The  Spanish  American  republics  had  proposed  a  general  con- 
gress of  the  American  powers,  to  be  held  this  year  at  Panama,  to 
consult  on  some  combined  measures  for  the  general  welfare. 
They  had  requested  that  the  United  States  might  be  represented 
at  this  congress.  President  Adams  announced  that  he  contem- 
plated sending  ministers  to  Panama,  agreeably  to  this  request. 
Much  debate  arose  in  the  congress  of  the  United  States  upon  this 
declaration.  The  power  of  the  president  to  make  such  appoint- 
ments on  his  own  responsibility,  was  called  in  question,  and  the 
proceeding,  in  any  shape,  was  thought  by  some,  to  hazard  the 
peace  of  the  country.  A  committee  of  the  senate  reported  against 
the  measure,  yet  it  was  finally  approved  in  congress,  and  two 
envoys  were  appointed.  One  of  them  proceeded  on  his  mission, 
but  the  whole  design  miscarried.  The  policy  of  the  Spanish 
Americans  lacked  stability  and  system,  and  the  congress  of  Pana- 
ma never  was  convened. 

The  year  1824  was  distinguished  by  the  visit  of  La  Fayette 
to  the  United  States.  He  had  spent  the  brightest  days  of  his 
youth  in  combating  by  the  side  of  Washington,  for  American 
independence,  devoting  his  military  talent  and  his  fortune  to  the 


Landing  of  General  La  Fayette  at  New  York. 

cause  of  liberty.  After  the  establishment  of  independence,  he 
returned  to  his  native  country,  where  he  bore  a  leading  part  in 
the  transactions  of  the  French  revolution  while  the  acts  of  the 


752  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

liberal  party  were  guided  by  moderation  and  justice.  Their  ex- 
cesses soon  drove  him  from  the  stage,  and  he  had  been  many 
years  withdrawn  from  public  notice.  In  his  declining  age  he  was 
inspired  with  a  wish  to  re-visit  the  scenes  of  his  youthful  exploits, 
and  contemplate  the  progress  of  a  nation  whom  he  had  assisted 
to  make  free,  prosperous  and  powerful.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic 
and  arrived  at  New  York  in  August,  1824.  He  made  the  tour 
of  the  United  States,  and  was  everywhere  received  as  the  "guest 
of  the  nation,"  with  expressions  of  gratitude,  respect,  and  honor, 
that  made  his  progress  a  triumphal  march.  On  the  17th  of  June, 
1825,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  monument  on  Bunker  Hill,  in 
the  presence  of  two  hundred  thousand  spectators.  He  returned 
to  France  in  September  of  the  same  year. 

The  state  of  Georgia,  in  1827,  again  threatened  a  collision 
with  the  federal  government  on  the  subject  of  the  Creek  Indians, 
who  had  not  yet  removed  from  their  lands.  The  government  of 
that  state  ordered  the  lands  to  be  surveyed,  and  committed  acts 
of  encroachment  against  the  Indians,  who,  unable  to  defend  them- 
selves, applied  to  the  United  States  government  for  protection. 
The  president  despatched  troops  for  this  purpose.  The  governor 
of  Georgia  called  out  the  militia  to  oppose  them,  and  wrote  an 
insolent  letter  to  the  cabinet  of  Washington,  threatening  them 
with  a  war.  President  Adams  replied  with  great  firmness  to 
the  governor,  that  he  should  protect  the  Indians,  in  conformity 
to  the  laws  of  the  country  and  the  treaty  last  concluded  with 
them,  and  that  he  should  employ  force,  if  necessary,  to  put  down 
any  attempt  made  by  the  government  of  Georgia  in  obstruction 
of  this  design.  This  subject  was  laid  before  congress  in  a  mes- 
sage, and  caused  much  alarm.  But  a  large  majority  of  that  body 
approved  the  proceedings  of  the  executive ;  and  the  firmness  and 
prudence  of  the  president  again  succeeded  in  Quieting  the  troubles 
without  military  interference. 

The  commercial  convention  with  Great  Britain  was  this  year 
prolonged  by  an  agreement  between  the  two  governments.  But 
in  July  the  British  government  excluded  American  vessels  from 
their  colonies.  The  subject  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
United  States  began  now  to  attract  a  high  degree  of  attention. 
This  boundary,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  in 
1783,  and  that  of  Ghent,  in  1814,  had  never  been  precisely  set- 
tled ;  and  many  examinations,  discussions  and  controversies  had 
taken  place  from  time  to  time.  A  tract  of  debatable  territory 
between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  had  been  withheld  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  either  party  while  the  negotiations  were  going  on 


Daniel  Morgan. 


John  C.  Callumn. 


Lewis  Cass. 


Daniel  Webster. 


THE   PUBLIC    LANDS.  '    753 

But  at  this  period,   a  collision  between  the  inhabitants  of  these 
two  districts  began  to  be  apprehended. 

Andrew  Jackson  was,  by  a  large  majority,  elected  president  of 
the  United  States,  in  the  autumn  of  1828.  The  administration 
of  Mr.  Adams  had  been  eminently  prosperous  for  the  country. 
Never  was  the  government  of  the  United  States  more  ably  admin- 
istered ;  never  was  the  nation  more  respectable  abroad,  or  more 
thriving  at  home.  Yet,  from  various  causes,  president  Adams 
was  not  popular.  As  a  New  England  man,  he  was  regarded  with 
illiberal  jealousy  by  the  people  of  the  south ;  from  his  broad  and 
comprehensive  views  as  a  politician,  he  incurred  the  hostility  of 
the  advocates  of  the  anomalous  doctrine  of  "state  rights,"  which 
now  began  to  be  asserted  to  a  mischievous  extent.  His  attach- 
ment to  the  system  of  protecting  duties,  gained  him  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  "anti-tariff"  party.  He  had,  moreover,  a  most  pow- 
erful rival  to  contend  against;  for  no  man  surpassed  General 
Jackson  in  popularity  with  the  people  of  the  United  States. 

The  beginning  of  the  new  administration  was  marked  by  a 
most  sweeping  change  in  the  public  affairs.  Numerous  incum- 
bents of  places  in  the  appointment  of  the  executive  were  imme- 
diately dismissed,  and  their  posts  supplied  by  avowed  supporters 
of  the  new  government;  but  this  only  added  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  president,  and  his  party  went  on  increasing  in 
strength.  In  his  first  message  to  congress,  he  showed  himself 
less  favorable  to  the  American  manufacturing  system  than  his 
predecessor,  but  his  language  on  this  topic  was  too  cautious  to 
give  serious  offence  to  either  party.  The  United  States  bank,  the 
great  object  of  his  subsequent  hostilities,  was  mentioned  in  terms 
of  commendation.  On  the  subject  of  state  rights,  and  the  juris- 
diction over  the  Indians,  he  differed  from  president  Adams,  and 
leaned  strongly  toward  the  southern  policy. 

A  treaty  with  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  negotiated  under  the  pre- 
ceding administration,  was  ratified  in  March,  1829.  The  session 
of  congress  in  1830  is  less  distinguished  for  the  active  business 
transacted,  than  for  the  interest  and  eloquence  of  the  debates. 
The  subject  of  the  public  lands  came  before  the  senate,  on  a  reso- 
lution offered  by  a  member  to  abolish  the  office  of  land-commis- 
sioner, and  suspend  the  sales  for  some  years,  till  the  land  should 
acquire  a  greater  value.  The  public  lands  were,  and  are  still,  of 
immense  extent,  and  constitute  a  source  of  incalculable  wealth  to 
the  country.  The  subject  was  therefore  of  the  highest  interest; 
but  the  orators  of  the  senate  digressed  to  topics  altogether  de- 
tached from  the  main  point.  Mr.  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  took 
occasion  to  charge  the  New  England  people  with  enviously  op- 


754  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

posing  the  settlement  and  prosperity  of  the  western  states.  From 
this  matter  he  launched  into  the  subject  of  state  rights,  which 
doctrine  he  defended  to  what  was  deemed  a  disorganizing  extent. 
The  real  question  before  the  senate  was  quite  overlooked,  and  the 
speaker  pointed  his  rhetoric  with  severe  sarcasms  and  invectives 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  states. 

This  attack  called  forth  immediately  a  most  indignant  and  elo- 
quent reply  from  Mr.  Webster,  the  senator  of  Massachusetts. 
With  a  force  of  language,  and  a  power  of  argumentation,  only  the 
more  admirable  for  being  unpremeditated,  he  defended  the  New 
England  people  and  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  in  a 
manner  that  carried  overpowering  conviction  to  all  his  hearers. 
Never  has  this  great  orator,  either  before  or  since,  exhibited  the 
brilliancy  of  his  eloquence,  and  the  clearness  and  force  of  his  ar- 
gumentation, more  than  in  this  incidental  debate.  The  character 
of  New  England  stood  vindicated  from  the  illiberal  aspersions  of 
her  accusers,  and  the  sophistries  of  the  doctrine  of  "  state  rights" 
seemed  to  be  dissipated  to  the  winds  by  the  champion  of  the  fed- 
eral constitution. 

This  great  oratorical  display,  however,  led  to  no  legislative  en- 
actment, and  the  subject  of  the  public  lands  continued  long  before 
congress.  A  bill  for  retrenchment  in  the  public  expenditures 
came  up  frequently  for  discussion ;  but  although  a  great  outcry 
had  been  raised  against  the  extravagance  of  Mr.  Adams's  admin- 
istration, it  was  found,  on  examination,  that  all  possible  economy 
had  been  practised.  No  retrenchments,  therefore,  were  made. 
In  1830  a  commercial  convention  was  renewed  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  the  colonial  ports  were  not  opened.  A  treaty  was  made 
with  Denmark,  by  which  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars 
were  paid  by  that  power  as  an  indemnity  for  spoliations  upon 
American  commerce.  In  1831  the  government  of  France  having 
become  more  favorable  to\vard  the  United  States,  in  consequence 
of  the  revolution  which  had  seated  Louis  Philippe  on  the  throne,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  with  that  power  for  the  payment  of  twenty- 
five  millions  of  francs,  for  similar  depredations  committed  under  the 
government  of  the  Directory  and  Napoleon.  The  same  year  also 
witnessed  a  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  The 
census  of  1830  showed  a  population  of  12,858,670.  The  ratio  of 
representatives  in  congress  was  fixed  at  47,700. 

The  dispute  with  Great  Britain  concerning  the  northeastern 
boundary  was  referred  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands ;  the  two 
parties  agreeing  to  abide  by  his  decision,  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
treaty  of  1783.  That  monarch,  however,  professed  himself  un- 
able to  explain  the  treaty,  and  suggested  a  compromise  by  divid- 


HOSTILITIES    WITH    THE   INDIANS.  755 

ing  the  contested  territory.  The  government  of  the  United  States 
did  not  accept  the  compromise,  as  the  king  had  not  been  appoint- 
ed umpire,  but  expounder  of  the  treaty.  It  was,  moreover,  not  in 
their  power  to  cede  the  land  to  Great  Britain  by  their  own  au- 
thority, unless  upon  a  decision,  that,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty, 
it  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  State  of  Maine.  The  dispute,  there- 
fore, remained  as  far  from  adjustment  as  ever. 

In  1832,  the  Indians  of  the  states  of  Georgia,  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  were  removed  to  lands  provided  for  them  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  beyond  the  settlements  of  the  whites,  and  measures 
were  taken  to  promote  their  security,  tranquillity  and  gradual 
civilization.  The  hostility  of  President  Jackson  against  the  bank 
of  the  United  States,  which  had  been  gradually  developing  itself, 
now  took  a  more  emphatic  tone.  The  charter  of  that  institution 
would  expire  in  1836,  and  the  renewal  of  it  was  anxiously  expect- 
ed by  its  friends ;  but  the  president,  in  his  message  to  congress,  in 

1831,  took  a  defcided  stand  against  it.     Notwithstanding  this,  the 
bank  was  considered,  generally,  by  the  mercantile  class,  as  well  as 
by  the  ablest  statesmen  and  financiers  of  the  country,  to  be  essen- 
tially necessary  for  the  stability  of  the  commercial  and  monetary 
system  of  the  country.     Congress,  although  the  majority  consisted 
of  the  political  partisans  of  the  president,  passed  an  act  renewing  the 
charter,  in  the  summer  of  1832.     The  act,  however,  was  defeated 
by  the  president,  who  interposed  his  veto.     From  this  moment  it 
became  evident  that  the  bank  had  little  chance  of  being  continued 
as  a  national  institution,  and  preparations  were  made  by  the  direc- 
tors to  close  its  concerns. 

For  some  years  the  northwestern  frontier  had  been  disturbed  by 
the  hostilities  of  the  Indians.  A  great  influx  of  settlers,  traders 
and  adventurers,  into  the  territory  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  had 
been  caused  by  the  discovery  of  the  lead  mines  of  Galena.  Sev- 
eral murders  were  committed  by  the  Indians,  and  an  expedition 
of  United  States  troops  was  sent  against  the  Winnebagoes,  in 
1828.  Many  of  the  hostile  Indians  were  captured.  One  of  these, 
a  celebrated  chieftain,  named  Red  Bird,  died  in  prison.  Black 
Hawk,  a  friend  of  Red  Bird,  undertook  to  avenge  hirri.  Hostili- 
ties were  renewed,  and  for  several  years  the  savages  of  the  whole 
frontier  harassed  the  settlers  with  their  incursions.  In  May, 

1832,  a  detachment  of  about  three  hundred  troops  was  attacked 
at  Sycamore  Creek,  by  an  army  of  nearly  two  thousand  savages, 
and  defeated.     In  July,  Black  Hawk,  with  a  body  of  above  one 
thousand  warriors,  took  post  at  a  point  between  Rock  river  and 
Wisconsin ;  but  receiving  intelligence  that  General  Atkinson,  with 
a  strong  force,  was  advancing  upon  him,  he  retreated  into  the 

65  T4 


756  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

wilderness.  Atkinson  pursued  the  Indians,  and,  on  the  2d  of 
August,  came  up  with  them  near  Bad-ax  river,  on  the  Mississippi. 
A  battle  took  place,  which  lasted  three  hours ;  the  savages  fought 
With  desperation,  and  gave  way  only  when  they  were  charged  at 
the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Many  were  driven  into  the  Mississippi, 
and  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  were  killed.  Black  Hawk 
made  his  escape,  but  was  soon  after  given  up  to  the  Americans 
by  two  of  his  own  countrymen.  The  savages  were  completely 
humbled  by  this  defeat,  and  a  general  pacification  was»the  conse- 
quence. Black  Hawk  was  well  treated,  and  travelled  over  a 
great  part  of  the  United  States,  after  which  he  was  permitted  to 
return  to  his  own  tribe. 

In  September,  1832,  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  Winnebagoes, 
by  which  they  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  their  lands  east  of 
the  Mississippi  and  south  of  the  Wisconsin,  amounting  to  four 
million  six  hundred  thousand  acres  of  valuable  territory.  By 
another  treaty  with  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  an  acquisition  was  made 
of  six  millions  of  acres  of  land  abounding  in  metallic  ores,  princi- 
pally lead.  For  these  territories,  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay 
the  Indians  twenty  thousand  dollars  per  annum  for  thirty  years; 
to  discharge  all  the  debts  of  the  tribes ;  to  furnish  them  with 
provisions,  and  to  support  blacksmiths  and  gunsmiths  fpr  their 
accommod  ation. 


CHAPTER     LXXI1. 

Dissensions  respecting  the  tariff. — Hostility  of  the  southern  states  towards  the 
manufacturing  system. — State  of  feeling  in  South  Carolina. — Doctrines  of  nul- 
lification.— Convention  of  Columbia,  S.  C. — The  revenue  laws  nullified. — 
Proclamation  of  the  president  against  the  nullificrs. — Public  sentiment. —  Con- 
gress declares  against  the  South  Carolinians. — The  Compromise  Act  of  1833. — 
Jackson's  tour. — Removal  of  the  public  deposits. — Conduct  of  the  senate. — Finan- 
cial embarrassments  of  the  country. — Petitions  to  the  president. — The  hard 
money  system. — Disputes  with  the  French  government. — Jackson's  hostile  mes- 
sage to  congress. — Mediation  of  the  king  of  Great  Britain. — Effects  of  the 
discontinuance  of  the  United  States  Bank. — Multiplication  of  small  banks. — 
Increase  of  paper  money. — Mania  of  speculation. — Increase  of  the  revenue. — The 
national  debt  discharged. — Flattering  prospects  of  the  country. — End  of  Jack- 
son's administration. — False  system  of  trade  and  finance. — Mr.  Van  Buren 
chosen  president. — His  policy. — The  pet  bank  system. — Division  of  the  surplus 
revenue  among  the  states. — Mercantile  disasters  of  1837. — Stoppage  of  the 
banks. — Distress  of  the  country. — Mr.  Van  Buren's  doctrine  of  non-interfe- 
rence.— Deficit  in  the  treasury. —  The  distribution  suspended. — Issue  of  treasury 
notes. — Increase  of  paper  money. — The  sub-treasury  system. — Increase  of  public 
expenditures. —  The  Florida  war. — General  Harrison  elected  president. — His 
death. — Administration  of  John  Tyler. — Extra  session  of  Congress.— Retirement  of 
Mr.  Clay.— Return  of  exploring  expedition. — Settlement  of  north-eastern  bounda- 
ry.— Modification  of  the  tariff. — Doings  of  3d  session  of  27th  Congress. — Celebra- 
tion of  Bunker  Hill  monument. — Remission  of  fine  to  Gen.  Jackson. —  Treaty  with 
Texas  rejected. — Treaty  with  China  ratified. —  Texas  annexed  by  joint  resolution.—- 
Election  of  Mr.  Polk. 

Two  rival  interests  had  been  for  some  years  maintaining  a 
struggle  in  the  United  States, — that  of  the  cotton  planters  in  the 
south,  and  that  of  the  manufacturers  in  the  middle  and  eastern 
states.  The  duties  on  imports,  established  by  the  tariff  of  1828, 
operated  as  an  encouragement  to  domestic  manufactures ;  for 
which  reason  it  was  disrelished  at  the  south,  where  the  people 
imagined  their  interests  had  been  sacrificed.  The  manufactures 
of  New  England  had  indeed  given  a  great  stimulus  to  the  indus- 
try and  enterprise  of  that  part  of  the  union,  and  the  rapidly 
increasing  wealth  and  power  of  the  eastern  states  could  not  be 
viewed  with  perfect  complacency  by  their  neighbors.  There  can 
be  no  dispute  that  the  prosperity  of  the  New  England  people  is 
owing  more  to  their  native  industry  and  ingenuity,  than  to  the 
artificial  helps  of  a  tariff ;  yet  the  belief  had  taken  deep  root  at 
the  south,  and  particularly  in  the  state  of  South  Carolina,  that 
nothing  but  the  system  of  protecting  duties  enabled  the  north  to 
prosper  more  rapidly  than  the  south.  Complaints  on  this  subject 
were  uttered  at  an  early  period,  and  soon  became  a  standing  topic 
with  the  public  speakers  and  writers  in  the  southern  states.  The 


758 


THE   UNITED    STATES. 


system  of  duties  was  denounced  as  unequal  in  its  application ;  and 
as  the  opponents  of  the  tariff  heated  themselves  in  their  declama- 
tions, they  assumed  a  bolder  and  more  sweeping  tone  of  denun- 
ciation. The  import  duties  were  pronounced  unconstitutional, 
and  it  was  declared  that  any  state  possessed  the  power  to  annul 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  by  which 'such  duties  were  imposed.. 
Hence  arose  the  doctrine  of  "nullification." 

The  revenue  law,  passed  in  1832,  made  a  partial  reduction  of 
the  duties,  but  the  politicians  of  the  south,  who  had  by  this  time 
persuaded  themselves  into  a  belief  that  nearly  the  whole  system 
of  duties  was  to  be  swept  off,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
their  new  doctrine,  were  not  in  the  least  quieted  by  this  change. 
Their  opposition  waxed  stronger  on  perceiving  that  the  people  of 
the  United  States  were  not  prepared  to  admit  so  radical  and 
sweeping  a  change  in  their  affairs.  The  excitement  and  ani- 
mosity in  South  Carolina  rose  to  a  great  height ;  the  doctrine  was 
publicly  avowed,  and  at  length  formally  announced  by  the  legis- 
lature of  that  state,  in  July,  1832,  that  the  execution  of  the  rev- 
enue laws  within  the  state  was  to  be  prevented  by  force,  if 
necessary. 

Nothing  equal  in  bold  audacity  to  this  act  was  ever  before 
exhibited  in  the  United  States.  All  impartial  and  considerate 
men  felt  alarm  for  the  tranquillity  of  the  country,  as  it  was  evi- 
dent that  if  such  doctrines  were  to  go  into  practice,  the  union  of 
the  states  was  at  once  destroyed,  and  the  federal  authority  would 
be  set  at  naught  by  any  state,  according  to  its  temporary  interest 
or  caprice.  The  principles  of  nullification  received  countenance 
from  some  other  states  at  the  south,  although  not  in  so  emphatic 
and  undisguised  a  manner  as  in  South  Carolina.  A  convention  of 
the  people  of  that  state  assembled  at  Columbia  on  the  19th  of 
November,  1832,  and  on  the  24th,  passed  resolutions,  declaring 
unconstitutional,  and  formally  nullifying,  the  revenue  laws  of 
1828  and  1832.  They  also  published  an  address  to  the  people  of 
the  state,  inviting  them  to  assist  in  obstructing  the  execution  of 
those  laws.  Such  a  proceeding  as  this  was  not  to  be  passed 
without  notice  from  the  federal  government.  Accordingly,  on 
the  10th  of  December,  President  Jackson  issued  a  proclamation, 
warning  all  people  to  abstain  from  any  attempts  to  resist  the  laws 
or  authority  of  the  United  States,  and  announcing  his  deter- 
mination to  put  down  by  force,  if  necessary,  all  attempts  of  that 
nature.  The  proclamation  stated  distinctly  the  causes  for  which 
it  was  issued,  and  gave  a  brief  but  lucid  exposition  of  the  consti- 
tutional principles  on  which  the  president  was  bound  to  sustain 
the  authority  of  the  federal  government.  Edward  Livingston, 


JACKSON'S  TOUR  THROUGH  THE  UNITED  STATES.  759 

known  as  one  of  the  soundest  jurists  of  the  age,  was  at  that  time 
secretary  of  state,  and  this  able  document  was  understood  to  pro- 
ceed from  his  pen.  The  effect  of  the  proclamation  was  instanta- 
neous and  powerful ;  the  public  voice  in  almost  all  portions  of  the 
country  approved  the  stand  which  the  president  had  taken ;  his 
strongest  political  opponents  were  among  the  first  to  come  forward 
and  applaud  his  decision  and  firmness  in  support  of  the  consti- 
tution. The  legislatures  of  most  of  the  states  published  resolu- 
tions condemning  the  conduct  of  South  Carolina,  and  sustaining 
the  views  of  the  president. 

Shortly  after  the  meeting  of  congress,  this  subject  was  brought 
before  them,  and  an  act  was  passed  giving  the  president  full  power 
to  enforce  the  revenue  laws  in  every  part  of  the  United  States. 
This  proceeding  was  also  viewed  with  high  satisfaction  by  the 
people  generally,  and  called  forth  their  prompt  applause.  The 
nullifiers,  although  their  scheme  of  forcibly  resisting  revenue 
laws  was  at  once  defeated  by  this  firm  action  of  the  general 
government,  yet  were  not  quie.ted,  and  after  much  discussion  in 
congress,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  modify  the  tariff  still  further, 
so  as  to  make  it  less  odious  to  the  south.  Accordingly,  in  March, 
1833,  the  act  commonly  termed  the  "compromise  act,"  was  intro- 
duced, which  provided  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  duties  on 
imports,  to  take  effect  in  parts,  in  January,  1834,  1836,  1838  and 
1840,  diminishing  the  duties  at  each  of  those  periods.  This  act 
encountered  some  opposition,  principally  from  the  members  of 
the  eastern  and  middle  states, — being  considered  by  them  as  an 
unwarrantable  abandonment  of  the  settled  policy  of  the  country, 
and  much  more  injurious  to  the  manufacturers  of  the  north  than 
a  high  tariff  could  be  to  the  cotton  planters  of  the  south.  The 
compromise  act,  however,  was  passed.  Its  opponents  were  not 
inclined  to  go  the  length  of  the  South  Carolinians,  by  nullifying 
it,  and  the  revenue  laws  went  peaceably  into  effect. 

President  Jackson,  in  the  summer  of  1833,  made  a  public  tour 
throughout  the  country,  in  the  course  of  which  he  was  received  and 
entertained  with  every  demonstration  of  respect.  His  popularity 
was  now  at  its  height.  He  had  been  reelected  to  his  office,  and 
whatever  opposition  he  had  encountered  seemed  only  to  strengthen 
his  party. 

His  opposition  to  the  United  States'  Bank,  from  this  period, 
became  more  decided  and  effective.  He  had  expressed  doubts  to 
congress,  as  to  the  safety  of  the  institution,  and  recommended 
the  removal  of  the  public  funds  to  some  other  place  of  deposit. 
A  committee  of  congress  examined  the  institution,  and  reported 
it  to  be  sound,  and  its  affairs  well  managed.  The  president. 
65* 


760  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

however,  by  his  own  authority,  caused  the  deposits  to  be  removed 
to  banks  of  his  selection,  in  September,  1833.  Great  excitement 
followed,  and  a  general  shock  was  felt  throughout  the  commercial 
affairs  of  the  country.  For  a  time,  large  portions  of  the  people, 
and  even  many  of  the  president's  political  friends,  questioned  the 
wisdom  and  propriety  of  his  conduct,  in  these  measures,  but  he 
was  sustained  by  his  party,  and,  the  elections  seemed  to  show,  by 
a  large  majority  of  the  people.  The  measures  against  the  bank 
were  continued,  and  the  denunciations  against  banks  in  general 
became  so  common,  that  the  idea  of  an  exclusively  metallic  cur- 
rency became  a  favorite  one,  and  was  advocated  by  certain  lead- 
ing friends  of  the  administration. 

For  many  years  a  dispute  had  existed  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  on  the  subject  of  the  north-eastern 
boundary.  The  line  of  separation  between  Maine  and  the  British 
provinces  had  been  described  by  the  treaty  of  1783,  in  terms  not 
exactly  conformable  to  the  geographical  features  of  the  territory. 
This  circumstance,  which  was  owing  to  the  imperfect  state  of 
the  maps  of  that  period,  led  the  way  to  a  long  and  perplexing 
controversy  between  the  two  governments.  The  treaty  of  Ghent, 
in  1815,  left  this  point  unsettled,  and  the  dispute  was  now 
renewed  with  more  zeal  and  earnestness,  on  both  sides,  than  ever. 
The  disputed  territory  was  gradually  filling  up  with  settlers,  both 
British  and  American,  and  the  contested  jurisdiction  of  the 
debatable  land  threatened  to  involve  the  inhabitants  in  serious 
trouble.  There  appears  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  the  full 
justice  of  the  American  claim  to  the  whole  territory.  Yet,  as  the 
obscure  language  of  the  treaty  afforded  the  British  some  plausible 
ground  for  their  pretensions,  the  American  government  consented 
to  submit  the  dispute  to  the  decision  of  the  king  of  the  Nether- 
lands. That  monarch,  after  diligent  investigation,  confessed 
himself  unable  to  explain  the  words  of  the  treaty,  and  advised  a 
compromise  by  dividing  the  disputed  territory.  This  was  not 
acceded  to  by  the  American  government,  on  the  principle  that  the 
royal  arbitrator  was  not  authorized  to  pronounce  a  compromise, 
but  to  award  the  whole  territory  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  con- 
tending parties. 

Subsequent  disclosures  show  that  the  British  government  acted 
with  no  great  degree  of  candor  and  fairness  in  advancing  their 
claim,  they  having  all  the  while,  in  their  private  possession,  sev- 
eral maps  of  the  country,  executed  in  London  at  the  period  of 
the  treaty  of  1783,  in  which  their  own  authorities  had  laid  down 
the  boundary  precisely  according  to  the  American  claim.  The 
territory,  however,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Maine  possessed 


Andrew  Jackson. 


Martin  Van  Buren. 


William  Hem~y  Hatrison. 


John  Tyler. 


DISPUTE   WITH   THE   FRENCH    GOVERNMENT.  761 

an  important  value  to  the  British,  as  it  interposed  between  Nova 
Scotia  and  Canada  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cut  off  all  direct  com- 
munication between  the  former  province  and  Quebec ;  and  they 
had  long  been  sensible  of  the  value  of  a  short  military  road 
between  the  capitals  of  the  two  provinces.  They  continued, 
therefore,  to  urge  their  claim  with  unabated  zeal. 

In  the  meantime  the  United  States  had  become  somewhat 
involved  in  difficulty  with  the  French  government,  who  had 
stipulated  by  treaty  to  pay  twenty-five  millions  of  francs,  in 
annual  instalments,  the  first  payment  to  be  made  in  January, 
1833.  The  French  government,  by  some  oversight,  neglected  to 
make  provision  for  this  payment  in  season,  and  the  bills  drawn 
upon  the'ir  exchequer  by  the  United  States,  were  dishonored. 
The  president  stated  this  fact  to  congress,  and  used  language  not 
very  complimentary  to  the  French.  Another  year  passed  without 
payment,  and,  early  in  1834,  he  addressed  congress  in  a  special 
message  on  this  subject,  condemning,  in  strong  terms,  the  unjusti- 
fiable behavior  of  the  French,  and  affirming  it  to  be  a  sufficient 
|  cause  for  war.  He  did  not,  indeed,  recommend  in  express  words 
a  resort  to  arms ;  but,  from  his  well-known  resolute  and  inflexible 
temper,  and  the  sensitiveness  of  the  French  nation,  serious  antic- 
ipations were  indulged,  both  in  America  and  Europe,  that  hos- 
tilities would  be  the  consequence.  Great  anger,  indeed,  was 
manifested  by  the  French,  when  the  decided  language  of  the 
American  president  became  known.  His  suggestion  of  reprisals 
upon  French  commerce  was  resented  as  an  insult.  A  strong  hos- 
tile feeling  against  the  United  States  began  to  exhibit  itself;  and 
a  determination  was  apparent  in  the  government  to  delay  the  pay- 
ment till  the  president  had  apologized.  In  this  threatening  state 
of  affairs,  the  king  of  Great  Britain  interposed  his  mediation,  and 
the  difficulty  was  adjusted.  The  president  disavowed  any  inten- 
tion of  treating  the  French  with  disrespect,  and  the  French  gov- 
ernment made  immediate  arrangements  for  complying  with  the 
terms  of  the  treaty.  About  the  same  time,  a  treaty  was  made 
with  the  king  of  Naples,  for  the  payment  of  similar  indemnities 
to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  of  commerce  was  also  concluded 
with  the  Sublime  Porte. 

The  president  continued  his  opposition  to  the.  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  and,  as  it  closed  its  concerns,  the  effects  of  the 
change  developed  themselves  more  and  more.  The  project  of 
totally  abolishing  banks,  and  introducing  a  hard  money  system, 
proved  abortive.,  An  immense  number  of  smaller  institutions 
started  suddenly  into  existence,  and  the  country  was  flooded  with 
paper  money,  founded  upon  an  insufficient  and  insecure  capital. 

u4 


762  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

The  easy  acquisition  of  loans  from  these  banks  tempted  the  rash- 
ness and  cupidity  of  every  mercantile  adventurer,  and  a  reckless 
system  of  trade  and  speculation  soon  prevailed,  which  led  to  the 
most  overwhelming  disasters.  Imports  to  an  enormous  amount 
were  made  from  foreign  countries,  and  the  first  effect  of  this 
over-excitement  in  business  was  a  prodigious  increase  of  the 
revenue  of  the  United  States ;  in  consequence  of  which  the  whole 
national  debt  was  paid  off  before  the  end  of  1835.  The  revenue 
now  became  more  than  sufficient  for  the  yearly  expenditures, 
and  schemes  were  devised  for  disposing  of  the  surplus.  The 
condition  of  the  United  States  was  now  considered  to  be  one  of 
unrivalled  prosperity.  Within  thirty  years  they  had  discharged 
a  national  debt  of  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions, 
besides  making  vast  appropriations  for  public  works ;  the  increas- 
ing revenue  promised  them  a  large  unexpended  balance  every 
year;  population  and  trade  had  multiplied  in  every  quarter  of 
the  Union,  and  everything  wore  the  most  flattering  appearance. 
General  Jackson  retired  from  office  in  March,  1837,  with  the 
memorable  words,  "I  leave  this  great  nation  prosperous  and 
happy." 

Prosperous  and  happy  the  people  of  the  United  States  indeed 
might  have  been,  beyond  all  other  men,  had  their  prudence  been 
equal  to  their  enterprise.  Unfortunately,  the  brilliant  phantom 
of  prosperity  which  now  dazzled  their  vision,  was  the  fruit  of 
hasty  innovation.  The  enormous  increase  of  banking  institu- 
tions seemed  to  open  at  once  an  inexhaustible  flood  of  riches. 
Without  solid  capital,  without  responsibility  or  prudent  manage- 
ment, they  became  engines  of  incalculable  mischief  in  the  hands 
of  schemers  and  adventurers.  Real  estate  rose  excessively  in 
value ;  the  mania  of  land  speculation  infected  the  whole  country ; 
tracts  of  wilderness,  not  worth  the  cost  of  surveying,  sold  for 
millions  of  dollars  to  purchasers  who  looked  for  millions  more  of 
profit.  Agriculture  and  all  slow  and  safe  modes  of  acquiring 
wealth,  were  disregarded ;  the  madness  of  the  gaming-table 
seemed  to  inspire  the  market,  the  shop,  and  the  exchange ;  and  a 
second  "South  Sea  bubble"  was  inflated  to  the  full  extent. 

In  this  critical  and  overwrought  state  of  public  feeling,  Martin 
Van  Buren  became  president  of  the  United  States,  in  1837.  He 
was  understood  to  profess  the  same  political  principles  with  his 
predecessor,  and  owed  his  election  to  the  circumstance  of  being 
the  most  prominent  individual  of  the  party  which  had  supported 
President  Jackson.  His  administration  may  be  considered  but  as 
carrying  out  the  views  of  that  which  preceded  it.  Yet  it  was 
already  evident  that  the  steps  taken,  instead  of  diminishing  paper 


FINANCIAL   EMBARRASSMENTS.  763 

currency,  had  thus  far  increased  it.  The  public  deposits,  removed 
from  the  national  bank,  were  lodged  in  different  institutions 
throughout  the  large  commercial  cities,  which,  on  that  account, 
received  the  popular  name  of  "pet  banks."  The  free  use  of 
enormous  funds  led  immediately  to  swelling  profits  in  these 
banks,  and  as  speedily  to  rash  proceedings  in  the  persons  who 
controlled  them. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1836,  a  sum  of  forty-seven  million,  seven 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  surplus  revenue,  remained  in  the  treas- 
ury of  the  United  States.  So  flattering  and  deceitful  had  been 
the  prospects  of  the  country,  that  no  one  imagined  the  revenue 
was  about  to  suffer  any  considerable  diminution.  An  act  of  con- 
gress was  therefore  passed,  distributing  forty-one  millions  among 
the  several  states,  according  to  their  population.  It  is  probable 
that  the  distribution  of  this  large  sum  hastened  the  mercantile 
catastrophe  of  1837.  In  sober  truth,  the  millions  of  the  surplus 
revenue  never  existed : — paper  to  that  amount  existed  in  the  pet 
banks,  but  when  attempts  were  made  to  realize  it  in  solid  cash,  it 
vanished  from  the  grasp.  The  inflated  and  overstrained  system 
of  trade  experienced  a  violent  collapse.  Early  in  1837,  a  sudden 
embarrassment  was  felt  in  mercantile  transactions  connected  with 
the  banks ;  great  numbers  of  these  institutions  were  found  to  be 
in  the  most  insecure  and  hazardous  situations;  an  instant  convic- 
tion followed,  that  the  whole  exaggerated  system  of  trade  preva- 
lent for  the  last  three  years,  had  rested  on  a  false  and  depeitful 
foundation.  A  panic  now  seized  all  the  trading  classes;  the 
banks  throughout  the  country  suspended  the  payment  of  specie ; 
commerce,  trade,  and  manufactures  received  a  violent  shock,  and 
all  the  bubbles  of  speculation  and  mercantile  adventure  burst  in 
an  instant.  Thousands  of  men,  who  supposed  themselves  to  be 
in  the  possession  of  enormous  wealth,  were  in  a  moment  reduced 
to  bankruptcy. 

Such  an  overwhelming  disaster  seemed  to  call  for  the  inter- 
ference and  aid  of  the  government.  Accordingly,  numerous 
petitions,  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  requested  the  president  to 
convene  congress  at  an  earlier  day  than  usual.  That  officer,  at 
length,  yielding  to  importunities,  issued  a  proclamation,  calling 
upon  congress  to  meet* in  September.  Meantime  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States  began  to  feel  the  embarrassments  of  the  times. 
Vast  sums  of  money  had  been  lost  in  the  pet  banks,  and  it  was 
found  necessary  to  suspend  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  reve- 
nue in  October,  1837,  after  three  fourths  of  the  money  had  been 
transferred  to  the  states.  So  great  had  been  the  revulsion  that 


764  THE   UNITED    STATES. 

even  this  measure  did  not  save  the  treasury  from  a  deficit,  and  it 
was  found  necessary  to  raise  ten  millions  by  loan  or  otherwise,  to 
supply  an  exchequer,  which,  a  year  previous,  seemed  filled  with 
inexhaustible  funds.  Congress,  therefore,  authorized  the  issuing 
of  ten  millions  of  dollars,  in  treasury  notes,  with  additional  power 
to  the  secretary  to  raise  loans  if  necessary.  The  treasury  notes 
were  made  negotiable,  and  thus  answered  the  purposes  of  paper 
money.  Ten  millions  more  were  issued  in  1838,  and  the  same 
sum  in  1839. 

One  of  the  favorite  projects  of  Mr.  Yan  Buren  was  the  Sub- 
Treasury  system,  by  which  the  national  funds  were  placed  under 
the  control  of  agents,  in  different  cities,  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment. This  plan  was  approved  by  congress,  but  the  system  con- 
tinued in  operation  only  about  a  year;  the  repeal  of  the  sub- 
treasury  being  one  of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  first  congress  which 
convened  under  Mr.  Van  Buren's  successor.  The  necessities  of 
the  treasury  had  continued  to  increase,  on  account  of  the  falling 
off  in  the  revenue,  the  augmentation  in  the  number  of  public 
agents,  and  the  breaking  out  of  a  new  Indian  war  in  Florida. 
These  hostilities  had  their  origin  in  1835,  from  the  fugitive 
Creeks  and  Cherokees  who  were  compelled  to  remove  from  their 
lands  in  Georgia  and  Alabama.  They  withdrew  to  Florida,  with 
feelings  of  hostility  to  the  whites,  and  commenced  a  series  of 
murders  and  outrages,  against  the  settlers  and  military  establish- 
ments in  that  country,  which  continued  for  several  years.  The 
militia  of  the  neighboring  states  were  found  insufficient  to  sup- 
press them,  and  the  federal  government  sent  large  bodies  of 
troops  into  the  country.  The  numerous  disasters  and  petty  ren- 
counters that  have  occurred  during  six  successive  years,  would 
only  fatigue  the  reader  in  a  detailed  narration.  One  of  the  most 
painful  events  of  the  struggle  took  place  in  December,  1835,  when 
two  companies  of  United  States  troops,  consisting  of  one  hundred 
and  ten  persons,  were  attacked  near  Tampa  Bay,  by  an  over- 
whelming force  of  Seminoles,  and  all  slain  but  three,  who,  though 
wounded,  escaped.  Fifty-three  days  after,  the  bodies  of  the  slain 
were  found,  untouched,  upon  the  field.  The  officers,  of  which 
there  were  eight,  were  distinguished,  and  all  were  duly  interred. 
Many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  expended,  and  many  valu- 
able lives  lost,  in  these  several  campaigns,  till,  at  the  present 
time,  1843,  the  Florida  war  appears  to  be  ended. 

Mr.  Van  Buren  retired  from  office  at  the  end  of  a  single  term, 
and  William  Henry  Harrison  became  president  in  March,  1841. 
General  Harrison  had  lived  in  retirement  ever  since  the  close  of 


SETTLEMENT    OF    THE  NORTHEASTERN   BOUNDARY. 


765 


the  war  in  1815,  excepting  that,  for  a  brief  period,  he  had  been 
ambassador  to  one  of  the  South  American  states,  and  had  held 
some  local  office  in  Ohio.  On  being  inducted  into  the  presidency, 
he  found  himself  transported  immediately  from  the  peaceful  repose 
of  his  farm  to  the  cares,  embarrassments,  and  anxieties  of  public 
business.  So  sudden  a  transition  produced  a  fatal  effect  upon  a 
frame  advanced  in  years  and  declining  in  health.  Labor,  excite- 
ment and  exposure  brought  on  an  inflammatory  disorder,  and 
he  died  at  Washington,  after  an  administration  of  a  month,  on 
the  4th  of  April,  1841. 


Indian  massacres  in  Florida. 

On  the  demise  of  General  Harrison,  John  Tyler,  at  that  time  vice- 
president,  assumed  the  government,  agreeably  to  the  Constitution, 
and  soon  after  issued  an  official  address  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  explanatory  of  his  political  principles.  These  were,  in  gen- 
eral, in  accordance  with  those  of  his  predecessor,  and  of  the  party 
which  had  elevated  him  to  the  second  office  in  the  nation. 

On  the  31st  of  May,  an  extra  session  of  Congress,  which  had  been 
convened  by  General  Harrison,  commenced  its  session.  Several 
measures  of  importance  were  adopted ;  among  which  was  a  bill  to 
establish  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy,  throughout  the  United 
States ;  also  a  bill  for  the  distribution,  among  the  states,  of  the  net 
proceeds  of  the  public  lands.  The  sub-treasury  law,  adopted  towards 
the  close  of  Mr.  Van  Buren's  administration,  was  repealed.  The 
great  measure,  however,  of  this  extra  session,  was  the  establishment 
of  a  United  States  Bank.  This  the  whig  party  had  long  desired, 

and  a  favorable  opportunity,  it  was  apprehended,  had  arrived,  for  the 
66 


766  THE    UNITED^  STATES. 

establishment  of  such  an  institution.  To  the  surprise  and  regret  oi 
the  friends  of  this  great  measure,  President  Tyler  vetoed  the  bill, 
nor  could  he  be  induced  to  sanction  another  bill,  creating  a  "  Fiscal 
Corporation  for  the  United  States,"  which  was  introduced,  and  which 
was  supposed  to  have  his  entire  approbation.  The  immediate  conse- 
quence of  these  repeated  vetoes  was  the  dissolution  of  his  cabinet — 
the  several  secretaries  retiring,  with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Webster, 
«  the  then  secretary  of  state.  From  this  time  all  harmony  between 
the  president  and  his  former  political  friends  was  suspended. 

No  measures  of  national  importance  were  adopted  during  the 
second  session  of  the  27th  Congress,  excepting  an  act  apportioning 
the  Representatives  among  the  several  States,  according  to  the  sixth 
census.  The  ratio  adopted  was  70.680. 

Before  the  close  of  the  session,  Mr.  Clay,  after  a  continuous  service 
of  nearly  thirty-six  years  in  the  public  councils,  retired  from  the 
Senate,  carrying  with  him  the  profound  respect  of  all  parties,  and 
especially  of  those  of  similar  political  principles. 

During  the  summer  of  1842,  the  exploring  expedition,  which  the 
government  of  the  United  States  had  equipped  and  sent  out  at  the 
national  expense,  returned,  having  been  absent  nearly  four  years, 
during  which  it  had  sailed  nearly  ninety  thousand  miles.  The  ex- 
pedition was  successful,  and  the  discoveries,  surveys,  scientific 
observations,  sketches  of  natural  scenery,  portraits,  specimens  in 
ornithology,  &c.,  made  and  collected,  were  highly  honorable  to  the 
enterprise. 

During  the  same  summer,  the  long  agitated  and  embarrassed  ques- 
tion respecting  the  north-eastern  boundary,  was  finally  settled  by  a 
treaty  arranged  at  Washington,  between  Lord  Ashburton  and  Mr. 
Webster.  For  half  a  century,  this  question  had  been  pending  be- 
tween the  two  countries — England  and  America ;  and  serious  ap- 
prehensions were,  on  several  occasions,  entertained  of  hostilities 
between  the  two  countries  on  account  of  it.  Fortunately  for  the 
peace  of  the  two  nations,  Mr.  Webster  had  continued  in  the  cabinet ; 
and  fortunate  was  it  that  a  gentleman  of  great  urbanity  and  equal 
judgment  was  selected  by  England  to  conduct  the  negotiations  in 
her  behalf.  On  the  10th  of  November,  the  President  issued  his 
proclamation  announcing  the  ratification  of  the  treaty. 

Before  the  adjournment  of  the  second  session  of  the  twenty-sev- 
enth Congress,  (August  31st,)  a  bill,  modifying  in  some  important 
particulars  the  existing  tariff,  passed  both  houses  of  Congress,  and 
received  the  signature  of  the  President.  The  first  bill  introduced 
was  vetoed  by  the  Executive ;  and,  for  a  time,  the  friends  of  the 


BUNKER    HILL   MONUMENT.  767 

measure  had  little  prospect  of  effecting  their  object.  But  the  impe- 
rious necessity  of  the  measure,  the  wants  of  the  national  treasury, 
and  the  embarrassed  condition  of  various  branches  of  industry, 
induced  Congress  to  yield  to  the  prejudices  of  the  president.  Ac- 
cordingly, such  alterations  were  made  in  the  bill  vetoed,  as  com- 
ported with  Mr.  Tyler's  views,  and  it  received  his  sanction. 

At  the  next  session  of  Congress,  the  third  of  the  twenty-seventh, 
the  principal  acts  passed  related  to  the  repeal  of  the  bankrupt  law, 
which  had  become  odious  to  a  large  portion  of  the  business  men  of 
the  country — to  suitable  provisions  for  promoting  friendly  inter- 
course between  the  United  States  and  China,  and  also  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  late  treaty  with  Great  Britain.  By  the  act  relating 
to  intercourse  with  China,  forty  thousand  dollars  were  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Executive  ;  who  nominated  Caleb  Gushing,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, as  commissioner,  under  the  act,  to  the  Celestial  Empire. 
On  the  3d  of  March,  1843,  Congress  closed  its  session:  and  on  the 
8th  of  May  following,  Mr.  Webster  retired  from  the  Cabinet,  and 
was  succeeded  in  the  responsible  office  of  Secretary  of  State  by 
Hugh  S.  Legare,  of  South  Carolina. 

In  June  was  celebrated,  with  great  pomp  and  appropriate  cere- 
monies, the  completion  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument.  This  great 
public  work  had  met  with  numerous  delays :  but  having,  at  length, 
received  its  topmost  stone,  the  17th  of  June,  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle,  was  assigned  to  celebrate  the  event.  The  president  and  sev- 
eral members  of  his  cabinet  honored  the  celebration.  A  multitude 
of  all  classes,  and  from  various  parts  of  the  country,  were  present. 
An  oration  was  pronounced  by  Mr.  Webster  on  the  occasion.  The 
pageant  was  grand  and  imposing,  and  calculated  to  exalt,  in  the 
hearts  of  the  assembled  thousands,  the  virtues  and  the  patriotism  of 
the  men,  who  had  in  by-gone  years  moistened  the  soil  on  which  the 
monument  stands  with  their  richest  blood. — A  sad  event,  however, 
followed  fast  upon  the  festivities  of  the  day — this  was  the  sudden 
decease  of  Mr.  Legare,  the  recently  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 
He  had  followed  the  president  to  witness  the  celebration,  but  sud- 
den sickness  fell  upon  him,  and  he  died  at  his  lodgings  in  Boston  on 
the  morning  after  the  celebration. 

During  the  following  winter,  Jan  8th,  1844,  an  act  passed  Con- 
gress, refunding  a  fine,  which  had  been  imposed  upon  Gen.  Jack- 
son at  the  time  of  the  attack  upon  New  Orleans,  in  the  late  war 
with  England.  The  repayment  of  this  fine  had  been  recommended 
by  the  president  as  early  as  1842  ;  but  the  measure  had  been  till  now 
strongly  and  successfully  resisted.  It  had  been  imposed  on  the 


768  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

General  by  Judge  Hall,  for  his  refusal  while  commanding  the  army 
at  New  Orleans,  to  obey  a  summons  to  appear  before  the  court,  and 
answer  for  his  disobedience  of  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  The  fine  was 
one  thousand  dollars.  The  amount  now  refunded— fine  and  interest, 
was  two  thousand  seven  hundred  dollars  :  but  the  act  disclaimed  any 
reflection  upon  Judge  Hall. 

In  April,  Congress  was  informed  by  a  special  message  from  the 
president,  that  a  treaty  had  been  negotiated  with  Texas,  by  which 
she  was  annexed  as  a  territory  to  the  United  States.  This  annuncia- 
tion excited  no  small  surprise  throughout  the  country,  and  awakened 
great  solicitude  in  the  minds  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  the 
measure  ;  as,  in  their  view,  it  involved  an  extension  of  slavery  and 
a  probable  rupture  with  Mexico,  which  power  laid  claim  to  the 
republic,  as  a  part  of  her  rightful  domain.  The  treaty,  however, 
was  rejected  by  the  Senate ;  and  the  object  of  the  President  for 
the  present  failed. 

During  the  second  session  of  the  28th  Congress,  an  important 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and  the  Chinese  Empire  was 
ratified  by  an  unanimous  vote  of  the  Senate.  This  treaty  was  con- 
cluded by  Caleb  Gushing  and  Tsiyeng,  on  the  3d  of  July,  1844; 
and  by  it  our .  relations  with  China  were  placed  on  a  new  footing, 
eminently  favorable  to  the  commerce  and  other  interests  of  the 
United  States. 

The  rejection  of  the  treaty  with  Texas  by  the  Senate,  instead  of 
cooling,  increased  the  ardor  of  President  Tyler  to  accomplish  his 
plan  of  annexation.  According  to  his  wishes,  and  probably  at  his 
suggestion,  at  the  following  session  of  Congress,  a  joint  resolution 
for  her  annexation  was  introduced  into  Congress,  and  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives,  January  23d,  by  a  vote  of  118  to  101.  In 
the  Senate,  the  resolution  underwent  several  inportant  amendments, 
which,  having  been  concurred  in  by  the  House,  received  the  sanction 
of  the  Executive  ;  and  thus  the  way  was  prepared,  in  violation  of  the 
Constitution,  as  many  believed,  for  the  annexation  of  Texas. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1845,  the  presidential  career  of  Mr.  Tyler 
closed.  For  a  time,  he  had  been  before  the  country  as  a  candidate 
for  re-election,  but  finding  himself  sustained  by  no  party,  he  with- 
drew from  the  canvass.  The  two  candidates  left  in  the  field  were 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  and  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee.  These 
had  been  nominated  by  the  two  great  political  parties  in  the  coun- 
try by  conventions,  which  had  assembled  at  the  city  of  Baltimore — 
one  on  the  1st,  and  the  other  on  the  27th  of  May,  1844.  During 
the  contest  prior  to  the  election,  the  friends  of  the  respective  can- 


ELECTION    OP    MR.     POLK. 


769 


didates  used  every  effort  to  secure  their  election.  On  the  votes 
being  counted,  in  the  presence  of  both  houses  of  Congress,  Feb- 
ruary 12th,  it  was  officially  declared,  that  Mr.  Polk  was  elected. 
The  whole  number  of  votes  given  was  two  hundred  and  seventy-five, 
of  which  he  had  one  hundred  and  seventy.  Mr.  Clay  received  one 
hundred  and  five.  George  M.  Dallas  was  elected  Vice  President 
over  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  by  a  similar  majority. 


Bunker  Hill  Monument.     P.  767. 
66*  v4 


CHAPTER    LXXI11. 

MB  I'oLft's  INAUGURATION. — Formation  of  the  Cabinet. — Death  of  General  Jackson — 
First  message  of  Mr.  Polk. — Relations  with  Mexico. — Question  about  Oregon— Ad' 
mission  of  Texas. — State  of  the  controversy  with  Mexico. — Battles  of  Palo  Alto  and 
Resaca  de  la  Palma. — Army  increased. — Proclamation  of  war  by  the  President. — 
Discussion  in  relation  to  Oregon. — Notice  to  British  government  in  relation  to  Ore- 
gon.— Capture  of  California  by  Commodore  Sloat. — Blockade  of  the  Mexican  coast. 
—Adjournment  of  Congress. — Bills  passed.' — Bills  vetoed. — Naval  operations. — 
Capture  of  California. — Attack  on  Alvarado.— Capture  of  Tabasco. — Capture  of 
Tampico. — Military  operations. — Capture  of  Santa  Fe. — Siege  and  Capture  of 
Monterey. — Bombardment  and  occupation  of  Vera  Cruz. — Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo.— 
Capture  of  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Jalapa,  Perote,  Puebla,  and  Molinos  del  Rey. — • 
Entrance  into  the  Capital. — Battle  of  Huamantla. — Death  of  Captain  Walker,  tfc. 

AGREEABLY  to  the  Constitution,  James  K.  Polk  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  George  M.  Dallas, 
Vice  President,  on  the  fourth  day  of  March,  1845.  Mr.  Folk's  eleva- 
tion to  this  office  was  unexpected  to  both  political  parties.  At  the 
Democratic  convention  held  in  Baltimore  in  May  of  the  previous 
year,  Mr.  Van  Buren  was  expected  to  be  the  prominent  candidate ; 
but  from  various  causes,  particularly  his  opposition  to  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  his  popularity,  especially  at  the  south,  had  diminished. 
Hence,  a  plan  was  projected  to  supersede  him  by  selecting  another 
candidate ;  which  was  accomplished,  by  requiring  a  major  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  the  delegates  present,  in  favor  of  the  candidates, 
who  should  be  selected.  This  rule,  now  for  the  first  time  adopted, 
was  strenuously  opposed  by  the  friends  of  Mr.  Van  Buren ;  but  the 
advocates  of  the  change  succeeded ;  and  as  a  consequence  a  can- 
didate was  ultimately  selected,  whose  name,  previously  to  the  con- 
vention, had  scarcely  been  heard  of  in  connection  with  the  presi- 
dency. Once  before  the  democratic  party  as  a  candidate,  every 
effort  was  of  course  made  to  elect  Mr.  Polk  ;  and,  yet,  it  is  doubt- 
ful, whether  his  friends  seriously  anticipated  success  ;  be  this,  how- 
ever, as  it  may,  so  signal  a  triumph  over  a  rival  candidate  so  distin- 
guished and  popular  as  was  Mr.  Clay,  was  unanticipated. 

The  ceremonies  at  the  induction  of  Mr.  Polk  into  office  were,  as 
usual,  grand  and  imposing,  and  were  witnessed  by  a  great  concourse 
of  citizens  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  his  Inaugural 
Address,  delivered  at  the  time,  he  gave,  as  usual,  a  summary  of  his 
political  principles — entering  somewhat  minutely  into  the  course 
which  he  designed  to  pursue  in  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment. "  It  will  be  my  first  care,"  said  he,  "  to  administer  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  true  spirit  of  the  Constitution,  and  to  assume  no  power 


James  K.  Polk. 


George  M.  Dallas. 


772  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

not  expressly  granted,  or  clearly  implied  in  its  terms."  It  would, 
also,  be  his  aim  to  see  that  the  general  government  did  not  trench 
on  the  rights  of  the  states :  nor  the  states  overstep  the  limits  of 
power  reserved  to  them.  He  expressed  himself  in  opposition  to  a 
national  bank,  and  all  other  extraneous  institutions,  planted  around 
the  government  to  control  or  strengthen  it,  in  opposition  to  the  will 
of  its  authors.  In  regard  to  the  adjustment  of  the  revenue  laws  and 
the  levy  of  taxes,  necessary  to  support  the  government,  he  consid- 
ered it  a  fundamental  principle  to  collect  no  more  than  would  be 
required  by  an  economical  administration.  In  regard  to  a  tariff,  he 
was  in  favor  of  one  which,  while  it  furnished  an  ample  revenue,  would 
afford  incidental  protection  to  home  industry  ;  but  was  opposed  to  a 
tariff  for  protection  only.  He  was  in  favor  of  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  and  expressed  his  satisfaction  that  measures  were  in  progress 
to  effect  that  object.  Our  title  to  Oregon  he  considered  to  be  "  clear 
and  unquestionable."  In  the  management  of  our  foreign  relations, 
his  aim  would  be  to  regard  the  rights  of  other  nations,  while  those 
of  our  own  country  would  be  the  subject  of  constant  vigilance. 
Public  officers,  especially  those  entrusted  with  the  collection  and 
disbursement  of  the  revenues,  would  be  held  to  a  strict  perform- 
ance of  their  duties. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  Inaugural  Address  of  President  Polk. 
It  was  in  several  respects,  especially  in  its  pledges,  worthy  of  a  high- 
minded  and  honest  man,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  contained 
views  in  respect  to  a  tariff,  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  other 
questions  of  political  economy,  which  could  meet  with  no  favor  from 
his  political  opponents. 

The  formalities  of  the  Inauguration  were  follpwed  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  new  cabinet,  which  consisted  of  James  Buchanan,  of 
Pennsylvania,  Secretary  of  State  :  Robert  J.  Walker,  of  Mississippi, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury:  William  L.  Marcy,  of  New  York,  Sec- 
retary of  War :  George  Bancroft,  of  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy :  Cave  Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  Post-Master-General :  and 
John  Y.  Mason,  of  Virginia,  Attorney  General. 

But  a  few  months  had  the  new  administration  been  in  power, 
when  an  event  occurred  which  was  calculated  to  make  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  the  nation,  and  especially  upon  the  officers  of  govern- 
ment. This  was  the  decease  of  General  Jackson,  who  breathed  his 
last,  at  his  residence  in  Tennessee,  on  the  evening  of  the  8th  of  June. 

General  Jackson  had  attained  to  the  79th  year  of  his  age.  He 
had  long  occupied  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  civil  and  military  his- 
tory of  the  country.  In  many  respects,  he  was  a  remarkable  man. 


DEATH    OF    GENERAL    JACKSON.  773 

He  had  enjoyed  but  few  advantages  for  acquiring  an  education  in 
his  early  days,  and  the  want  of  it  was  not  unfrequently  betrayed 
in  after  life.  But  he  had  a  suprising  power  over  men.  As  a  soldier, 
he  excelled  in  courage  and  vigor ;  and  in  perseverance  was  indom- 
itable. At  the  head  of  an  army,  he  evinced  great  skill  and  sagacity  ; 
he  was  ever  prompt  to  take  advantage  of  circumstances,  and  few,  if 
any,  were  ever  more  resolute  in  the  execution  of  a  plan  or  purpose 
which  they  had  once  formed.  That  he  was  stern,  no  one  could 
doubt ;  and  in  military  discipline  he  was  thought  to  be  sometimes 
severe.  That  in  general  he  had  the  good  of  his  country  in  view 
is  admitted  by  his  political  opponents,  but  the  wisdom  and  expedi- 
ency of  the  means  and  measures,  which  he  at  times  adopted,  to 
secure  that  good,  may  be  questioned.  During  his  administration,  he 
met  with  powerful  opposition ;  but  few  men  ever  succeeded  in  carry- 
ing forward  their  own  plans  more  successfully,  or  triumphed  more 
uniformly  over  political  opposition. 

It  is  said  that  he  died  a  Christian.  On  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ, 
he  claimed  to  found  his  hopes  of  acceptance  with  God ;  and  thus 
passed  away  from  the  turmoils  of  life,  leaving  to  the  nation  and  to 
the  world,  as  the  result  of  his  convictions,  that  the  gospel  possesses 
a  paramount  value,  as  a  sure  foundation  upon  which  to  rest  in  refer- 
ence to  a  judgment  to  come.  The  news  of  his  death  was  received 
with  due  sensibility,  and  appropriate  honors  were  paid  to  his  memory 
in  all  parts  of  the  land. 

The  foreign  relations  of  the  country,  on  the  accession  of  Mr.  Polk, 
were  far  from  being  settled  and  satisfactory.  The  annexation  of 
Texas  had  excited  the  jealousy  and  hostility  of  Mexico,  and  the 
prospect  of  an  open  rupture  with  her  was  steadily  increasing.— 
The  question  as  to  the  title  of  Oregon  was  still  in  dispute  between 
America  and  England,  and  was  assuming  a  serious  and  even  alarm- 
ing aspect.  Questions  of  internal  policy,  which,  it  was  hoped,  had 
been  settled,  were  likely  to  be  again  agitated  with  a  change  of 
administration.  On  every  side  there  was  promise  and  prediction  of 
an  unsettled  state  of  affairs,  both  foreign  and  domestic. 

The  message  of  the  president,  on  the  assembling  of  Congress  in 
December,  1845,  was-Tby  no  means  calculated  to  diminish  the  anx- 
iety, which  some  entertained  of  approaching  trouble.  By  the  joint 
resolution  of  Congress,  parsed  at  the  preceding  session,  Texas  was 
to  be  admitted  as  a  state  into  the  Union,  upon  certain  conditions. 
These  the  president  informed  Congress  she  had  complied  with, 
and  nothing  further  remained  but  the  passage  of  an  act  (which  h« 
65* 


774  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

strongly  recommended,  should  be  immediately  done)  to  admit  her 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  other  states. 

The  relations  with  Mexico  were  represented  as  still  more  dis- 
turbed than  when  Congress  adjourned.  The  minister  of  Mexico, 
resident  at  the  seat  of  government,  had  made  a  formal  protest 
against  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  had  demanded  his  passports. 
Diplomatic  intercourse  with  that  government  had  consequently 
ceased.  Besides,  the  belligerent  conduct  of  Mexico  had  been  such 
as  to  require  countervailing  measures,  and  he  had  consequently 
deemed  it  prudent  to  send  a  strong  squadron  to  the  coast  of  Mexico, 
and  to  concentrate  a  sufficient  military  force  on  the  western  frontier 
of  Texas,  between  the  Neuces  and  Del  Norte.  Such,  according  to 
the  message,  was  the  position  of  our  relations  with  Mexico,  on  the 
opening  of  the  session  of  Congress. 

In  regard  to  the  Territory  of  Oregon,  the  president  represented 
to  Congress  that  several  attempts  had  been  made  to  settle  all  ques- 
tions pending  between  the  two  countries  laying  claim  to  it,  but 
without  success.  Negotiations  had  been  carried  on  during  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Monroe  and  Mr.  Adams,  but  they  had  only 
resulted  in  a  convention  for  the  joint  occupancy  of  the  territory 
for  ten  years.  Another  convention  was  entered  into,  August  6th, 
1827,  which  continued  in  force  for  an  indefinite  period  the  article  of 
the  prior  convention,  touching  the  joint  occupancy  of  the  territory, 
while  it  provided  that  at  any  time  after  the  20th  of  October,  1828, 
either  party  might  annul  the  convention,  by  giving  the  other  party 
a  twelve-month's  notice. 

Here,  for  several  years,  the  subject  had  rested.  The  citizens  of 
each  nation  had,  according  to  their  pleasure,  settled  upon  the  terri- 
tory, or  had  carried  on  their  hunting  operations,  in  peace  and  amity. 
But  the  statesmen  of  both  countries  could  not  but  perceive  the  im- 
portance of  settling  in  due  time  a  controversy,  which  might  one  day 
disturb  the  relations  of  the  two  governments.  In  1843,  the  minister 
of  the  United  States  resident  in  London  brought  the  subject  to  the 
notice  of  the  British  government,  and  made  an  offer  of  partition  of 
the  territory,  similar  to  that  which  had  been  made  in  1818  and  1826. 

In  this  state  of  the  question,  the  negotiation  was  transferred  to 
Washington,  and  was  renewed  by  an  offer  from  the  British  minister 
(August,  1844,)  to  divide  the  territory  by  the  49th  parallel  of  north 
latitude,  leaving  the  navigation  of  the  Columbia  river  to  be  equally 
and  freely  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  of  both  countries.  This  proposi- 
tion was  immediately  rejected  by  the  American  Secretary ;  upon 
receiving  notice  of  which  rejection,  the  British  minister  requested 


OREGON.  775 

that  a  proposition  should  emanate  from  the  American  government, 
for  an  equitable  settlement  of  the  controversy. 

At  this  stage  of  the  negotiation,  Mr.  Polk  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency. Anxious  to  settle  the  long  pending  question,  he  directed  the 
Secretary  of  State  again  to  offer  the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
without  the  free  navigation  of  the  Columbia.  This,  the  British  min- 
ister rejected,  and  here  the  negotiation  for  a  time  was  suspended. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things,  touching  this  delicate  question,  on 
the  meeting  of  Congress.  It  was  apparent  to  men  of  observation, 
that  the  subject  could  not  long  remain  in  quietness.  The  territory 
was  fast  settling.  Jealousies  were  beginning  to  exist.  Questions  as 
to  rights  would  soon  become  matters  of  magnitude,  and  the  longer 
the  controversy  was  permitted  to  continue,  the  less  probability  ex- 
isted of  its  amicable  settlement.  In  this  state  of  things,  the  presi- 
dent advised  that  the  year's  notice,  required  by  the  convention  of 
the  6th  of  August,  1827,  should  be  given  to  Great  Britain.  "  By  so 
doing,"  said  the  president,  "  at  the  expiration  of  a  year,  we  shall 
have  reached  a  period  when  Our  national  rights  in  Oregon  must 
either  be  abandoned,  or  firmly  maintained." 

In  his  message  at  the  opening  of  the  session,  as  already  noticed, 
the  president  recommended  the  adoption  of  joint  resolutions  to  admit 
Texas  as  a  State  into  the  Union.  In  accordance  with  this  recom- 
mendation, joint  resolutions  were  early  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Representatives.  They  were  as  follows : 

"Whereas  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  by  a  joint  resolu- 
tion, approved  March  the  1st,  1846,  did  consent,  that  the  territory 
properly  included  within,  and  rightfully  belonging  to  the  republic  of 
Texas,  might  be  erected  into  a  new  State,  to  be  called  the  State 
of  Texas,  with  a  republican  form  of  government,  to  be  adopted  by 
the  people  of  said  republic  by  deputies  in  convention  assembled,  with 
the  consent  of  the  existing  government,  in  order  that  the  same  might 
be  admitted  as  one  of  the  states  of  the  Union ;  which  consent  of 
Congress  was  given  upon  certain  conditions  specified  in  the  1st  and 
2d  sections  of  said  joint  resolutions :  and  whereas,  the  people  of  the 
said  republic  of  Texas,  by  deputies  in  convention  assembled,  with 
the  consent  of  the  existing  government,  did  adopt  a  constitution,  and 
erect  a  new  state,  with  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  in 
the  name  of  the  people  of  Texas,  and  by  their  authority,  did  ordain 
and  declare,  that  they  assented  to  and  accepted  the  proposals,  con- 
ditions, and  guaranties  contained  in  said  1st  and  2d  sections  of  said 
resolutions :  and  whereas,  the  said  constitution,  with  the  proper  evi- 
dence of  its  adoption  by  the  people  of  the  republic  of  Texas,  has 


776  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

been  transmitted  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  laid  before 
Congress,  in  conformity  to  the  provisions  of  said  joint  resolutions ; 
Therefore 

"  Be  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  state 
of  Texas  shall  be  one,  and  is  hereby  declared  to  be  one,  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing 
with  the  original  states  if!  all  respects  whatever. 

"  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  until  the  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress shall  be  apportioned,  according  to  an  actual  enumeration  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States,  the  state  of  Texas  shall  be 
entitled  to  choose  two  Representatives." 

It  was  scarcely  within  the  reasonable  hopes  of  the  opposers  of  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  that  after  the  adoption  of  the  measures,  with 
that  object  in  view,  by  the  preceding  Congress,  the  present  Con- 
gress would  do  any  thing,  by  which  to  prevent  her  admission  into 
the  Union.  A  few,  perhaps,  indulged  the  belief,  that  further  pro- 
ceedings might  be  stayed ;  and  with  that  object  in  view,  petitions 
and  remonstrances  were  sent  in  from  various  parts  of  the  Union. — 
The  President  had,  indeed,  in  his  message  congratulated  Congress 
and  the  nation  that  "  this  accession  (of  Texas)  to  our  territory  had 
been  a  bloodless  achievement.  No  arm  of  force  had  been  raised  to 
produce  the  result.  The  sword  has  had  no  part  in  the  victory.  We 
have  not  sought  to  extend  our  territorial  possessions  by  conquest,  or 
our  republican  institutions  over  a  reluctant  people."  This  was  ad- 
mitted by  the  opposite  party,  but  they  predicted  war  as  a  conse- 
quence, and  this  danger  of  a  collision  with  Mexico  they  would  have 
avoided,  by  preventing  the  admission  of  Texas.  Besides,  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  was  more  distressing  to  many  in  all  quarters  of  the 
Union ;  and,  moreover,  it  was  urged  that  it  was  of  dangerous  ten- 
dency and  doubtful  consequences,  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  this 
government  or  territory,  over  which  our  laws  are  now  established. 
"  There  must  be  some  limit,"  said  a  wise  and  aged  statesman,  "  to 
the  extent  of  our  territory,  if  we  would  make  our  institutions  perma- 
nent." 

The  opposers  of  annexation  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  were 
anticipating  a  warm  and  exciting  debate  on  the  subject  in  Congress, 
and  members  of  that  body,  who  represented  this  party,  were  them- 
selves, it  is  believed,  prepared  to  present  strong,  and  to  themselves, 
satisfactory  reasons,  why  the  project  should  be  abandoned.  But  to 
the  surprise  of  all,  when  the  subject  came  up  for  consideration,  dis- 
cussion was  prevented  by  an  early  movement  of  the  previous  ques- 


MEXICO.  777 

tion.  To  such  a  summary  process  strong  remonstrances  were  made ; 
but  to  the  friends  of  the  measure  in  Congress,  who  believed  the  most 
valuable  benefits  would  result  to  the  Union  by  its  consummation, 
debate  seemed  needless ;  and,  consequently,  the  resolutions  were 
urged  to  a  speedy  adoption.  On  the  16th  of  December  the  ques- 
tion was  taken,  and  the  resolutions  were  adopted  by  a  majority  of 
141  to  56.  A  few  days  after  they  received  the  sanction  of  the  Sen- 
ate. In  this  latter  body,  however,  an  opportunity  was  given  for  the 
opposers  of  annexation  to  urge  their  objections.  This  was  done 
with  great  dignity ;  but  a  majority  in  the  Senate,  as  in  the  House, 
if  not  in  the  country,  were  found  in  favor  of  the  measure. 

Thus  by  a  novel,  and  to  many  an  unconstitutional  process,  was 
Texas  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  "  without  any  intermediate  time 
of  probation,  such  as  other  territories  had  undergone  before  their 
admission,  she  was  vested  with  a  right  to  send  two  Representatives 
to  Congress,  while  her  population  was  insufficient  to  entitle  her  to 
one,  except,  under  the  specific  provision  of  the  Constitution,  that 
each  state  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative." 

We  again  resume  the  history  of  affairs  with  Mexico. — Late  in 
the  Autumn  of  1845,  the  American  government  commissioned  the 
Hon.  John  Slidell,  of  Louisiana,  to  proceed  to  Mexico  as  envoy  to 
bring  to  an  amicable  close  all  questions  in  dispute  between  the  two 
governments.  But  on  reaching  his  place  of  destination,  the  exist- 
ing government  of  Mexico  refused  to  receive  him  in  his  diplomatic 
character.  After  a  residence  of  some  months,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  capital,  and  repeatedly  bringing  the  subject  of  his  reception 
to  the  notice  of  the  Mexican  government,  he  was  obliged  to  return 
to  the  United  States,  without  having  effected  a  single  object  of  his 
mission.  This  rejection  of  its  envoy  was  the  more  offensive  to  the 
American  government,  from  the  fact,  that,  previous  to-  his  appoint- 
ment, assurances  had  been  received  from  the  Mexican  government, 
that  an  envoy  entrusted  with  adequate  powers  would  be  received. 

Prior,  however,  to  the  final  rejection  of  Mr.  Slidell,  but  under  an 
apprehension  that  such  an  indignity  would  be  offered  both  to  the 
envoy  and  his  government,  the  president  directed  General  Taylor, 
in  command  of  the  American  forces  at  Corpus  Christi,  in  Texas,  to 
break  up  his  encampment  at  that  place,  and  concentrate  his  forces 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Del  Norte.  In  obedience  to  these  orders,  a 
movement  of  the  troops  from  Corpus  Christi  commenced  on  the 
llth  of  March,  1846,  and  on  the  28th  an  encampment  was  formed 
opposite  Matamoras.  About  the  same  time  a  depot  was  established 
67*  w4 


778  THE    UNITE"    STATES, 

at  Point  Isabel,  near  the  Brazos  Santiago,  some  thirty  miles  in  the 
rear  of  the  American  camp. 

For  years,  the  Mexicans  had  claimed  the  Neuces  to  be  the  proper 
dividing  line  between  themselves  and  Texas.  The  passage  of  this 
boundary,  therefore,  by  the  American  army,  gave  great  offence  to 
the  Mexicans,  who  considered  this  an  act  of  invasion.  Nor  was 
a  large  portion  of  the  American  people  convinced  either  of  the  jus- 
tice, or  expediency  of  the  measure.  Instead  of  leading  to  peace,  it 
was  apparent  that  it  would  serve  to  increase  the  misunderstanding 
already  existing,  and  end  in  open  and  possibly  long  protracted  war- 
fare. It  was  indeed  claimed  by  Texas,  that  her  territory  extended 
to  the  Rio  Grande ;  but  this  being  a  disputed  point,  the  invasion  of 
the  territory  was  deemed  impolitic  and  belligerent. 

The  Mexican  General,  Ampudia,  at  this  time  commanding  at  Mata- 
•iioras,  naturally  indignant  at  seeing  a  hostile  force  in  his  immediate 
vicinity,  warned  General  Taylor  to  retire,  and  that  within  the  space 
of  twenty- four  hours.  Just  at  this  juncture,  Ampudia  was  succeeded 
in  command  by  Arista,  an  officer  of  still  more  enterprise  and  deter- 
mination. The  latter,  on  taking  command,  communicated  to  General 
Taylor,  that  unless  he  retired,  he  should  consider  that  hostilities  had 
begun.  That  same  day,  blood — the  first  blood  was  shed.  A  party 
of  American  dragoons,  consisting  of  sixty-three,  who  had  been  on 
a  reconnoitering  expedition  up  the  Del  Norte,  was  attacked  by  a 
body  of  Mexicans,  and  sixteen  were  killed  and  wounded,  and  the 
remainder  captured. 

The  force  under  command  of  the  American  General  before  Mata- 
moras  was  far  from  being  adequate  to  any  hostile  movement,  and 
scarcely  sufficient  for  defence.  In  view  of  this  fact,  and,  indeed,  in 
anticipation  of  such  inadequacy,  the  president  had  authorized  a  call 
upon  the  go.vernor  of  Texas  for  four  regiments,  and  a  similar  num- 
ber from  the  governor  of  Louisiana.  These  regiments  were  expected 
to  add  about  5,000  men  to  the  force  of  General  Taylor.  But  be- 
fore they  had  reached  the  American  camp,  the  situation  of  the  army 
had  become  critical  and  alarming.  The  Mexican  force  was  grad- 
ually augmenting,  and  their  means  of  attack  or  defence  increasing. 
Among  the  Americans  the  stock  of  provisions  was  getting  low,  and 
communication  with  Point  Isabel 'was  liable  to  be  interrupted.  Find- 
ing his  situation  critical  on  this  account,  General  Taylor  set  out  on 
the  1st  of  May,  leaving  a  garrison  of  700  or  800  men  to  defend  the 
camp,  and  succeeded  in  reaching  Point  Isabel,  without  molestation. 

His  departure  was,  however,  the  signal  for  an  attack  upon  the 
American  camp,  which  occurred  on  the  3d.  The  assault  was  two- 


BATTLE  OF  PALO  ALTO.  779 

fold — one  from  the  batteries,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river — and 
ihe  other  by  means  of  a  detachment  of  troops,  which  had  crossed 
the  river  for  the  purpose  of  approaching  in  the  rear.  Both  attacks 
were  without  success.  The  Mexican  batteries  were  soon  silenced, 
and  the  troops  in  the  rear  repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  The 
Americans  lost  but  a  single  man. 


Major  General  Taylor. 

The  next  object,  and  one  of  great  importance  to  the  Mexicans, 
was  to  intercept  General  Taylor,  on  his  return  from  Point  Isabel 
and,  if  possible,  to  destroy  the  force  with  him.  This  it  was  thought 
would  lead  to  an  easy  victory  over  the  garrison  opposite  Matamoras. 
With  this  in  view,  the  Mexican  force  took  post  at  Palo  Alto ;  and 
here,  on  the  8th,  occurred  the  memorable  battle  of  that  name,  and 
which  will  long  be  remembered  for  the  desperate  spirit  which  was 
manifested  by  both  armies,  and  for  the  signal  triumph  of  the  Ameri- 
can arms  over  an  enemy  more  than  twice  as  numerous.  The  Mexican 
troops  consisted  of  five  thousand  infantry — seven  pieces  of  artilleiy, 
and  eight  hundred  cavalry.  The  force  of  the  Americans  was  two 
thousand  and  three  hundred  infantry — two  eighteen-pounders,  and 
two  light  batteries.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  comparatively 
small ;  yet  they  had  to  regret  the  loss  of  a  brave  officer  in  Major 
Ringgold.  Captain  Page  was  severely  wounded,  and  died  a  short 
time  afterwards.  General  Arista,  in  his  official  report,  admitted  the 
Mexican  loss  to  be — in  killed,  ninety-eight ;  wounded  and  missing, 


780 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


one  hundred  and  forty-two.     The  American  army,  the  following 
night,  encamped  on  the  ground. 


Battle  of  Palo  Alto. — Fall  of  Major  Ringgold. 

But  the  contest  was  destined  to  be  renewed  the  following  day 
with  even  more  severity,  and  with  greater  sanguinary  results.  The 
American  army  was  put  in  motion  in  the  morning,  with  a  fair  pros- 
pect of  reaching  their  camp :  but  when  within  a  few  miles  of  it 
they  were  suddenly  attacked  at  a  place  called  Resaca  de  la  Palma 


• 


Battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma. 


MOVEMENTS  OF  GENERAL  TAYLOR. 


781 


and  a  battle  ensued,  of  shorter  continuance  than  that  of  Palo  Alto, 
but  attended  with  greater  loss  to  both  contending  forces.  The  Amer- 
icans were  again  triumphant,  capturing  eight  pieces  of  artillery 


Charge  of  CapL  May,  at  the  Battle  ofResacade  la  Palma. 


Surrender  of  Gen.  La  Vega. 

three  standards,  large  quantities  of  ammunition,  and  several  hun« 
dreds  of  prisoners,  among  whom  was  General  La  Vega.     The  loss 
of  the  Americans,  in  both  actions,  as  returned  by  General  Taylor 
67* 


782  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

was  three  officers  and  forty  men  killed — thirteen  officers  and  one 
hundred  men  wounded.  The  Mexican  loss,  officially  reported,  was 
one  hundred  and  fifty-four  officers  and  men  killed ;  two  hundred  and 
five  wounded ;  missing,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six.  Having  no  means 
of  throwing  his  army  across  the  river,  General  Taylor  was  unable 
to  follow  up  the  advantage  gained  over  the  enemy  by  pursuing  them, 
as  he  would  gladly,  and,  in  that  case,  might  have  successfully  done  : 
but,  yielding  to  necessity,  he  now  directed  his  march  towards  his 
encampment  opposite  Matamoras,  where  he  arrived  without  further 
molestation. 

Time  elapsed  ere  the  news  of  these  victories  reached  the  govern- 
ment at  Washington  :  but  already  had  the  critical  state  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  become  known,  both  to  the  government  and  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States.  The  war  was  not  popular.  It  was  deemed 
both  impolitic  and  unnecessary :  but  when  intelligence  was  received 
that  the  American  General  and  his  troops  were  destitute  of  supplies — 
were  surrounded  by  a  greatly  superior  force,  and  were  hence  in 
imminent  danger,  a  deep  and  wide-spread  sympathy  sprung  up,  and 
an  unanimous  and  simultaneous  desire  was  expressed,  that  not  only 
adequate  supplies  should  be  promptly  forwarded,  but  that  a  force 
in  every  respect  competent  should  be  raised,  to  relieve  the  army, 
and  to  prosecute  the  war  to  a  speedy  and  successful  issue.  Con- 
gress itself,  then  in  session,  were  actuated  by  similar  sentiments,  and 
by  a  similar  impulse.  An  act  accordingly  was  soon  passed,  author- 
izing the  President  to  employ  the  forces  of  the  United  States,  naval 
and  military,  and  also  to  call  for  and  accept  of  the  services  of  any 
number  of  volunteers  not  exceeding  fifty  thousand,  either  cavalry, 
artillery,  infantry,  or  riflemen.  Besides  the  above,  the  regular  army 
was  increased  several  thousands. 

Simultaneous  with  the  passage  of  the  above  act,  the  President 
issued  his  proclamation,  announcing  the  existence  of  war,  "  by  the 
act  of  the  republic  of  Mexico,"  and  calling  upon  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  unite  in  preserving  order,  and  in  maintaining  the 
honor  of  the  nation. 

We  turn  again  to  the  subject  of  the  Oregon  territory,  and  the 
issue  of  the  long  pending  question  respecting  the  claims  of  America 
and  England  to  its  soil.  The  President  had,  as  has  been  noticed, 
advised  to  terminate  the  convention  of  August  6,  1827,  by  giving 
England  the  notice  required  by  an  article  therein.  At  length,  the 
subject  came  up  for  consideration,  and  seldom  has  a  question  elicited 
warmer  or  more  protracted  discussion.  Every  member  felt  that  the 
ubject  was  one  of  great  delicacy,  and  pregnant  with  events  of 


OREGON.  783 

solemn  import  to  the  nations  concerned,  and  perhaps  to  the  world. 
It  was  an  experiment,  which  might  lead  to  the  happiest  results — a 
final  and  amicable  settlement  of  a  long-standing  controversy,  or  it 
might  terminate  in  dire  and  lasting  war. 

The  debate,  as  was  natural,  took  a  wide  range,  and  involved 
many  collateral  subjects  for  consideration.  Several  modes  were 
suggested,  according  to  which  the  notice  was  proposed  to  be  given. 
At  length,  on  the  16th  of  April,  the  question  was  taken  in  the  senate 
on  a  resolution,  which  had  originated  in  the  house  and  been  amended 
in  the  senate,  to  give  said  notice,  and  decided  in  the  affirmative  by  a 
majority  of  forty  to  fourteen.  On  being  returned  to  the  house,  the 
latter  agreed  to  the  senate's  amendments,  but  added  still  further 
amendments.  These  latter,  however,  were  negatived  by  the  senate, 
and  the  house  insisting,  a  conference  was  solicited  by  the  latter. 
This  being  accepted  by  the  senate,  a  committee  of  conference  was 
appointed,  who  reported  the  following  preamble  and  resolution, 
which  passed  the  senate  by  a  vote  of  forty-two  to  ten,  and  the  house 
by  a  vote  of  one  hundred  forty-two  to  forty-six.  •«!**:« 

**  A  Joint  Resolution  concerning  the  Oregon  territory. — Whereas, 
by  the  convention  concluded  the  twentieth  day  of  October,  eighteen 
hundred  and  eighteen,  between  the  United  States  of  America  and 
the  King  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  for 
the  period  of  ten  years,  and  afterwards  indefinitely  extended  and 
continued  in  force  by  another  convention  of  the  same  parties,  con- 
cluded the  sixth  day  of  August,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and  twenty-seven,  it  was  agreed  that  any  country 
that  may  be  claimed  by  either  party  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
America  westward  of  the  Stony  or  Rocky  mountains,  now  com- 
monly called  the  Oregon  territory,  should,  together  with  its  harbors, 
bays,  and  creeks,  and  the  navigation  of  all  rivers  within  the  same, 
be  "  free  and  open"  to  the  vessels,  citizens,  and  subjects  of  the  two 
powers,  but  without  prejudice  to  any  claim,  which  either  of  the  par- 
ties might  have  to  any  part  of  said  country ;  and  with  this  further 
provision,  in  the  second  article  of  the  said  convention  of  the  sixth 
of  August,  eighteen  hundred  and  twenty-seven,  that  either  party 
might  abrogate  and  annul  said  convention,  by  giving  due  notice  of 
twelve  months  to  the  other  contracting  party — 

"  And  whereas  it  has  now  become  desirable  that  the  respective 
claims  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  should  be  definitely 
settled,  and  that  said  territory  may  no  longer  than  need  be  remain 
subject  to  the  evil  consequences  of  the  divided  allegiance  of  its 
American  and  British  population,  and  of  the  confusion  and  conflict 


784  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  national  jurisdictions,  dangerous  to  the  cherished  peace  and  good 
understanding  of  the  two  countries — 

"  With  a  view,  therefore,  that  steps  be  taken  for  the  abrogation  of 
the  said  convention  of  the  sixth  of  August,  eighteen  hundred  and 
twenty-seven,  in  the  mode  prescribed  in  its  second  article,  and  that 
the  attention  of  the  governments  of  both  countries  may  be  the  more 
earnestly  and  immediately  directed  to  the  adoption  of  all  proper 
measures  for  a  speedy  and  amicable  adjustment  of  the  difficulties 
and  disputes  in  respect  to  said  territory — 

"  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  President  of  the  United 
States  be,  and  he  is  hereby  authorized,  at  his  discretion  to  give  the 
British  government  the  notice  required  by  its  said  second  article  for 
the  abrogation  of  the  said  convention  of  the  sixth  of  August,  eighteen 
hundred  and  twenty-seven." 

Thus  was  decided  a  question,  which  had  greatly  agitated  the  en- 
tire country,  and  which,  in  the  progress  of  discussion,  had  occasioned 
observations  and  reflections  strongly  calculated  to  disturb  the  har- 
mony of  the  two  governments,  and  which,  in  the  opinions  of  some, 
were  designed  to  produce  such  an  effect.  But  the  folly  and  guilt  of 
engendering  war  between  two  nations  so  allied,  and  in  which  Chris- 
tian principle  was  bound  to  hold  sway,  was,  on  several  occasions, 
and  by  some  of  the  principal  men  of  the  nation,  pointed  out.  Sol- 
emn warning  was  given  to  those,  who  would  madly  have  rushed  to 
arms  by  setting  up  claims  of  doubtful  validity,  and  which,  it  is  well 
known,  would  never  be  acceded  to. by  the  British  government. 
But,  at  length,  the  troubled  waters  grew  calmer ;  and,  while  to  a 
small  portion  of  Congress  and  of  the  nation,  the  resolutions  adopted 
were  still  obnoxious,  a  vast  majority  of  the  people  were  gratified  at 
their  mild  and  conciliatory  tenor. 

It  still  remained  to  be  known,  in  what  spirit  this  resolution  would 
be  received  by  her  Majesty's  government :  but  it  was  devoutly  de- 
sired that  it  might  lead  to  a  final  and  harmonious  settlement  of  all 
questions  pertaining  to  the  territory  of  Oregon.  And  so  it  resulted, 
fortunately  for  the  peace  of  the  two  powers  immediately  concerned, 
and  to  the  peace  of  the  continental  powers  of  Europe. 

On  the  28th  of  April,  the  President  gave  official  notice  to  her  Ma- 
jesty, Queen  Victoria,  that  "the  convention  of  August  6th,  1827, 
would  terminate  at  the  end  of  twelve  months  from  and  after  the 
delivery  of  these  presents." 

Before  the  delivery  of  this  notice,  however,  the  subject  of  an 


OREGON.  785 

amicable  settlement  of  all  questions  relating  to  Oregon,  had  occu- 
pied her  Majesty's  government,  and  on  the  18th  of  May,  Mi. 
M'Lane,  our  Minister,  informed  Mr.  Buchanan  that  the  British 
Minister  at  Washington  would  soon  receive  instructions  to  submit  a 
new  and  further  proposition,  on  the  part  of  the  British  government, 
for  a  partition  of  the  territory  in  dispute. 

On  the  10th  of  June,  the  President  made  a  special  and  confiden- 
tial communication  to  the  Senate,  informing  that  body  that  such  a 
proposal  had  been  made,  and  requesting  their  advice  as  to  the  ac- 
tion, which,  in  their  judgment,  it  was  proper  to  take  in  reference  to 
it.  At  the  same  time  he  reiterated  the  views,  which  he  had  ex- 
pressed in  his  annual  message,  "  that  no  compromise,  which  the 
United  States  ought  to  accept,  could  be  effected  ;"  "  that  our  title  to 
the  whole  of  Oregon"  was  maintained  "  by  irrefragable  facts  and 
arguments,"  and  that  the  claim  "  could  not  be  abandoned,  without 
a  sacrifice  of  both  national  honor  and  interests."  Such  was  the 
tenor  of  the  President's  communication.  But  he  solicited  advice. 

On  the  12th,  the  Senate  adopted,  38  to  12,  the  following  resolu- 
tion :  "  Resolved,  (two-thirds  of  the  Senate  concurring,)  That  the 
President  of  the  United  States  be,  and  he  is  hereby  advised  to  ac- 
cept the  proposal  of  the  British  government  accompanying  his  mes- 
sage to  the  Senate,  dated  June  10th,  1846,  for  a  convention  to  settle 
boundaries,  &c.,  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  west 
of  the  Rocky  or  Stony  mountains." 

On  the  16th  of  June,  the  President  communicated  to  the  Senate 
a  copy  of  a  convention,  or  treaty,  which  had  been  concluded  and 
signed  on  the  15th  inst.,  settling  boundaries,  &c.,  in  relation  to  Ore- 
gon— whereupon  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  41  to  14  advised  and  con- 
sented to  the  ratification  of  the  same. , 

The  two  principal  articles  of  this  treaty  are  as  follows : 

"Art.  1.  From  the  point  on  the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
where  the  boundary,  laid  down  in  existing  treaties  and  conventions 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  terminates,  the  line  of 
boundary  between  the  territories  of  her  Britannic  Majesty  and  those 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  continued  westward  along  the  49th 
parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the  middle  of  the  channel  which  sepa- 
rates the  continent  from  Vancouver's  Island,  and  thence  southerly 
through  the  middle  of  the  said  channel,  and  of  Fuca's  straits,  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean ;  provided,  however,  that  the  navigation  of  the  said 
channel  and  straits,  south  of  the  49th  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
remain  free  and  open  to  both  parties. 

"  Art.  2.  From  the  point  at  which  the  49th  parallel  of  north  lati- 

x4 


786  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

tude  shall  be  found  to  intersect  the  great  northern  branch  of  the 
Columbia  river,  the  navigation  of  the  said  branch  shall  be  free,  and 
open  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  to  all  British  subjects 
trading  with  the  same,  to  the  point  where  the  said  branch  meets 
the  main  stream  of  the  Columbia,  and  thence  down  the  said  main 
stream  to  the  ocean,  with  free  access  into  and  through  the  said  river 
or  rivers — it  being  understood,  that  all  the  usual  portages  along  the 
line  thus  described,  shall  in  like  manner  be  free  and  open.  In  navi- 
gating the  said  river  or  rivers,  British  subjects,  with  their  goods  and 
produce,  shall  be  treated  on  the  same  footing  as  citizens  of  the  United 
States — It  being,  however,  always  understood,  that  nothing  in  this 
article  shall  be  construed  as  preventing  or  intended  to  prevent  the 
government  of  the  United  States  from  making  any  regulations,  re- 
specting the  navigation  of  the  said  river  or  rivers,  not  inconsistent 
with  the  present  treaty." 

Thus  was  finally  settled,  (ratifications  being  afterwards  duly  ex- 
changed,) a  question,  which  had  involved  the  two  governments  in  dis- 
cussions long  and  wearisome  for  a  series  of  years  ;  and  which  in  its 
progress,  was  threatening  the  peace  and  amity  of  the  two  nations. 
The  treaty  thus  confirmed  was  not  in  all  its  provisions  quite  accept- 
able, nor  was  it  considered  the  most  advantageous  that  could  have 
been  negotiated  ;  but  the  Senate  received,  as  it  was  entitled  to,  the 
thanks  of  the  country  for  terminating  a  controversy  fraught  with 
dangers  every  month  that  it  continued. 

Congress  terminated  its  long  and  important  session  on  the  10th 
of  August.  In  addition  to  its  proceedings,  already  developed  in  these 
pages,  several  bills  were  passed,  among  which  was  one  for  the  pro- 
tection of  citizens  resident  in  the  territory  of  Oregon — a  bill  for  the 
establishment  and  regulation  of  the  sub-treasury — a  bill  for  the  im- 
provement of  certain  rivers  and  harbors  in  the  United  States — and 
a  bill  to.  indemnify  citizens  of  the  United  States  for  "  French  spoli- 
ations." 

The  "  harbor  bill,"  as  it  was  denominated,  had  special  reference 
to  the  improvement  of  harbors  on  the  western  waters.  The  great- 
est benefits  had  been  anticipated  from  liberal  appropriations  to  this 
object,  as  many  of  the  harbors  on  the  lakes  were  in  an  exposed  and 
insecure  condition.  Great  was  the  disappointment,  therefore,  when 
it  was  announced  that  the  president  had  vetoed  the  bill,  not  only  be- 
cause of  constitutional  objections,  but  because  the  money  would  be 
needed  in  carrying  on  the  existing  war.  Loud  complaints  were 
uttered,  and  strong  opposition  to  the  president  in  all  that  region  was 
predicted. 


NAVAL    OPERATIONS.  787 

Another  class  of  citizens  were  disappointed,  whose  claims  to  relief 
were  beyond  all  dispute.  These  were  sufferers  on  account  of 
**  French  spoliations."  For  years  had  they  attempted,  but  in  vain, 
to  secure  the  favorable  attention  of  Congress  to  a  subject  which 
should  long  since  have  been  acted  upon,  and  indemnity  granted,  ac- 
cording to  the  pledges  of  the  American  government.  And  now, 
that  both  houses  of  Congress  had  done  some  small  justice,  it  was 
deemed  both  cruel  and  oppressive  in  the  President  to  add  his  veto 
to  this  bill  also,  especially  as  it  had  z-eceived  the  decided  sanction 
of  both  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

It  may  be  added,  that  near  the  close  of  the  session  a  measure  of 
great  importance  was  adopted,  viz.,  an  essential  modification  of  the 
tariff  established  in  1842.  Few  subjects  were  discussed  with  more 
eminent  ability  during  the  session.  The  impolicy  and  suicidal  influ- 
ence of  the  proposed  alteration,  were  strongly  urged  by  the  friends 
of  manufacturers,  and  the  most  serious  consequences  predicted  to 
various  branches  of  industry,  left  by  the  bill  without  adequate  pro- 
tection. But  the  democratic  -party  stood  pledged  to  alter  the  tariff 
of  1842,  and  accordingly  the  whole  strength  of  that  party  was  sum- 
moned to  carry  the  measure  through  Congress.  The  bill  passed  the 
House  by  the  considerable  majority  of  ^nineteen  votes :  in  the  Sen- 
ate, however,  such  was  the  doubt  existing  as  to  the  expediency  of 
the  measure,  notwithstanding  the  encomiums  passed  upon  it  by  its 
advocates,  that  it  was  carried  only  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  Vice 
President. 

Having  detailed,  with  some  particularity,  the  proceedings  of  Con- 
gress to  the  close  of  its  session,  we  revert  to  the  operations  of  the 
government  in  relation  to  the  war  with  Mexico,  from  and  after  the 
battles  of  Palo  Alto  arid  Resaca  de  la  Palma. 

Naval  Operations. — On  the  7th  of  June,  1846,  Commodore  Sloat, 
commander  of  the  naval  force  of  the  United  States  in  the  Pacific 
ocean,  received  information  at  Mazatlan  of  the  existing  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.  On  the  following  day,  he  sailed  in 
the  frigate  Savannah  for  the  coast  of  California,  and  on  the  2d  ot 
July,  entered  the  harbor  of  Monterey.  On  the  7th,  he  demanded 
a  surrender  of  the  place.  This  being  evaded,  an  adequate  force  was 
landed  from  the*  squadron,  and  took  possession  of  the  town,  and 
raised  the  flag  of  the  United  States  without  opposition,  or  blood- 
shed. On  the  9th,  Commander  Montgomery,  of  the  sloop  Portsmouth, 
under  the  Commodore's  orders,  with  like  success  took  possession  of 
Francisco,  and  that  part  of  the  country,  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States.  On  the  17th,  he  dispatched  a  detachment  as  far  as  the 


1S8  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Mission  of  St.  John's,  to  hoist  the  flag  of  the  United  States  there.  On 
his  arrival,  however,  he  found  that  the  place  had  been  captured  an 
hour  or  two  previously  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  Fremont,  of  the  United 
States  Army,  with  whom  he  returned  to  Monterey  on  the  1 9th. 

On  the  15th  of  July,  the  frigate  Congress,  Commodore  Stockton, 
arrived  at  Monterey.  The  health  of  Commodore  Sloat  being  infirm, 
he  delivered  up  the  command  of  the  squadron  to  the  former,  with 
an  intention  of  returning  to  the  United  States. 

On  the  25th  of  July,  the  Cyane,  Captain  Mervine,  sailed  from 
Monterey,  with  Lieutenant-Colonel  Fremont,  and  a  small  volunteer 
force  on  board,  for  San  Diego,  to  intercept  the  retreat  of  the  Mexi- 
can General  Castro.  A  few  days  after,  Commodore  Stockton  sailed 
in  the  Congress  for  San  Pedro,  and  with  a  detachment  from  his 
squadron  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  men,  marched  to  the  enemy's 
camp.  It  was  found  that  the  camp  was  broken  up,  and  the  Mexicans, 
under  Governor  Pico  and  General  Castro,  had  retreated  so  precip- 
itately that  Lieutenant-Colonel  Fremont  was  disappointed  in  inter- 
cepting them.  On  the  13th,  Commodore  Stockton  was  joined  by 
this  gallant  officer,  and  marched  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  entered,  without  opposition,  the  Ciudad  de  los  Angelos,  or 
City  of  the  Angels,  the  capjtal  of  California.  And  on  the  22d  of 
August,  the  flag  of  the  United  States  was  flying  at  every  command- 
ing position,  and  California  was  in  the  undisputed  military  posses- 
sion of  the  United  States. 

Soon  after  taking  possession  of  California,  Commodore  Stockton 
issued  his  proclamation,  constituting  a  new  government,  appoint- 
ing its  officers,  and  declaring  himself  Governor  of  the  territory, 
by  authority  of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  the  Pacific,  the  "  Home 
Squadron"  under  Commodore  Conner,  was  attempting  a  reduction  of 
Alvarado,  on  the  south  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  capture 
of  the  enemy's  vessels  of  war  in  that  river.  Owing,  however,  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  current,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  his  design,  and 
withdraw  his  force. 

On  the  15th  of  October,  however,  he  made  another  attempt 
to  enter  the  Alvarado  river  for  the  same  purpose.  In  endeavoring 
to  cross  the  bar,  one  of  the  steamers,  having  in  tow  the  principal 
division  of  the  attacking  force,  grounded  and  became  entangled  with 
the  vessels  in  tow.  The  current  could  not  be  overcome  in  the  state 
of  the  wind  without  the  aid  of  steam,  and  the  commodore  had  the 
mortification  of  being  compelled  to  retire. 

On  the  16th  of  October,  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  with  the  steamer 


CAPTURE    OF    TAMPICO. 


789 


Mississippi  and  the  small  vessels,  left  the  squadron  at  Lizardo,  and 
sailed  for  Tabasco.  On  the  23d  he  arrived  off  the  bar,  and  with 
great  judgment  and  gallantry  captured  the  town  of  Fron-teira,  with 
the  enemy's  steamers  and  vessels  in  port,  and  proceeded  up  the 
river  a  distance  of  seventy-four  miles,  into  the  interior  of  a  settled 
country,  and  appeared  before  the  city  of  Tabasco.  He  captured 
the  vessels  in  the  port ;  and,  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  foreign  mer- 
chants, humanely  determined  not  to  involve  them  in  ruin,  by  destroy- 
ing the  town.  In  dropping  down  the  river,  one  of  his  prizes  grounded, 
and  a  large  body  of  Mexicans  opened  a  furious  fire  on  her,  which 
was  promptly  returned  with  great  effect — the  stranded  vessel  was 
got  afloat,  and  the  Mexicans  beaten  off.  But  in  this  treacherous 
attack,  one  American  seaman  was  killed,  and  Lieutenant  Charles 
W.  Morris  and  two  seamen  were  wounded.  Lieutenant  Morris  sur- 
vived until  the  1st  of  November,  when  he  died  of  his  wound,  on 
board  the  Cumberland. 

On  the  12th  of  November,  Commodore  Conner  sailed  with  a  large 
portion  of  his  squadron,  and'  on  the  14th  the  important  town  of 
Tampico  capitulated  unconditionally  without  resistance.  Three  fine 


View  of  Tampico. 

gunboats  and  other  property  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  captors. — 
In  the  capture  of  Tampico,  the  Mexicans  lost  one  of  their  most 
considerable  ports  in  the  Gulf.     Arrangements  were  immediately 
68 


790  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

made  to  garrison  the  place — the  command  of  which  was  given  to 
an  officer  of  the  army. 

Military  Operations. — Congress  having  authorized  the  President, 
as  already  noticed,  to  accept  the  service  of  volunteers,  not  exceeding 
fifty  thousand,  a  call  for  that  purpose  was  made  upon  several  of  the 
states  for  twenty-six  regiments,  amounting  in  all  to  about  twenty- 
three  thousand  men,  to  serve  for  the  period  of  twelve  months,  or 
to  the  end  of  the  war.  Much  the  largest  portion  of  this  force  was 
designed  to  co-operate  with  the  regular  army  under  General  Taylor, 
then  on  the  Rio  Grande.  After  establishing  his  base  of  operations 
on  that  river  for  several  hundred  miles,  he  moved  into  the  enemy's 
country  in  the  direction  of  Monterey,  in  the  department  of  New 
Leon.  Another  portion  was  concentrated,  under  General  Wool,  at 
San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  for  a  movement  upon  Chihuahua ;  and  the 
volunteers  from  the  State  of  Missouri  assembled  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth,  to  compose,  with  a  few  hundred  regular  troops,  an  expedition 
to  Santa  Fe,  under  General  Kearney. 

The  operations  of  the  force  under  Generals  Kearney  and  Taylor 
have  resulted  in  important  accessions  to  the  military  acquisition  of 
the  country,  while  it  is  supposed  Coahulia  and  Chihuahua  have  been 
in  effect  wrested  from  Mexico  by  the  force  of  General  Wool. 

On  the  30th  of  June,  General  Kearney,  with  the  force  under  his 
command,  amounting,  in  all,  to  about  1600  men,  regulars  and  volun- 
teers, moved  from  Fort  Leavenworth  upon  Santa  Fe,  where  he 
arrived,  after  a  march  of  873  miles,  on  the  18th  of  August,  and  took 
military  possession  of  New  Mexico  without  resistance.  The  Mexi- 
can forces,  about  four  thousand  in  number,  which  had  been  collected 
near  that  city  under  the  late  governor,  Armijo,  to  oppose  his  pro- 
gress, dispersed  on  the  approach  of  our  troops,  and  the  governoi 
himself  fled  with  a  small  command  of  dragoons  in  the  direction  of 
Chihuahua. 

Having  thus  taken  possession  of  New  Mexico  and  its  capital, 
Santa  Fe,  General  Kearney  proceeded  to  establish  a  provisional 
government,  proclaiming  himself  governor,  and  appointing  several 
civil  officers  to  act  under  his  authority. 

With  a  regular  force  of  about  300  dragoons,  leaving  orders  for 
a  part  of  the  volunteers  to  follow,  he  commenced  his  march  from 
Santa  Fe  for  California,  intending  to  proceed  down  the  Rio  Grande 
about  two  hundred  miles,  thence  to  strike  across  to  the  Gila,  and  to 
move  down  that  river  near  to  its  mouth,  then  across  the  Colorado 
to  the  Pacific,  where  he  hoped  to  arrive  about  the  last  of  Novem- 
ber. After  proceeding  about  180  miles  on  his  route,  he  was  met 


STORMING    OF    MONTEREY.  791 

by  an  express  from  California,  sent  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  Fremont. 
On  learning  the  condition  of  things  in  that  quarter,  and  deeming  that 
an  additional  force  would  not  be  required  in  California,  he  directed 
most  of  that  with  him  to  return  to  Santa  Fe.  Selecting  about  one 
hundred  men  to  accompany  him,  he  continued  on  his  route. 

While  these  events  were  in  progress,  preparations  were  making 
by  the  hero  of  Palo  Alto,  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  to  push  his  con- 
quests west  of  Matamoras,  which  had  already  fallen  into  his  hands. 
His  next  object  was  the  capture  of  Monterey,  the  capital  of  New 
Leon. 

On  reaching  the  city,  on  the  19th  of  September,  it  was  found  to 
be  strongly  fortified :  a  large  work  had  been  constructed,  command- 
ing all  the  northern  approaches,  added  to  which  the  Bishop's  palace 
and  some  heights  in  its  vicinity  near  the  Saltillo  road,  had  been 
fortified,  and  occupied  with  the  troops  and  artillery.  A  close  recon- 
noisance  of  the  several  works,  however,  convinced  Gen.  Taylor  of 
the  practicability  of  throwing  forward  a  column  to  the  Saltillo  road, 
and  thus  turn  the  position  of  the  enemy.  This  duty  was  assigned  to 
General  Worth  ;  who,  on  the  afternoon  of  the  20th,  led  his  division, 
the  second,  to  the  attempt ;  Gen.  Taylor,  meanwhile,  directing  a 
strong  diversion  in  his  favor  by  an  attack  in  front  of  the  town  by  the 
first  division,  under  General  Twiggs,  and  the  first  division  of  volun- 
teers under  Major  General  Butler.  That  night,  General  Worth  and 
his  troops  occupied  a  defensive  position,  just  without  range  of  a 
battery  above  the  Bishop's  palace.  The  diversion  in  favor  of  General 
Worth's  division  was  successful,  and  one  of  the  enemy's  advanced 
works  was  carried,  and  a  strong  foothold  had  in  the  town.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  the  21st,  the  advance  of  the  2d  division  had  en- 
countered the  enemy  in  force,  and  after  a  brief  but  sharp  conflict, 
repulsed  him  with  heavy  loss.  General  Worth  then  succeeded  in 
gaining  a  position  on  the  Saltillo  road — thus  cutting  off  the  enemy's 
line  of  communication.  From  this  position,  the  two  heights  south  of 
the  Saltillo  road  were  carried  in  succession,  and  the  gun  taken  in 
one  of  them  turned  upon  the  Bishop's  palace.  On  the  22d,  the 
heights  above  the  Bishop's  palace  were  carried,  and  soon  after  the 
palace  itself,  and  its  guns  turned  upon  its  fugitive  garrison. 

During  the  night  of  the  22d,  the  enemy  evacuated  nearly  all  his 
defences  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city.  On  the  morning  of  the  23d, 
the  troops  advanced  from  house  to  house,  and  from  square  to  square, 
until  they  reached  a  street  but  one  square  in  rear  of  the  principal 
plaza,  in  and  near  which  the  enemy's  force  was  now  mainly  concen- 
trated 


792       .  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

At  this  stage  of  operations,  General  Taylor,  deeming  it  expedient 
to  make  no  further  attempt  upon  the  city,  without  complete  concert 
as  to  the  lines  and  mode  of  approach,  (General  Worth  being  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  city  and  advancing  from  that  direction) 
dispatched  a  messenger  to  the  latter,  directing  him  to  suspend  his 
advance,  until  he,  General  Taylor,  could  have  an  interview  with  him. 

Early  on  the  24th,  the  Mexican  General,  Ampudia,  proposed  to 
evacuate  the  town:  a  suspension  of  hostilities  was  arranged  till  12 
o'clock,  during  which,  at  the  request  of  Ampudia,  General  Taylor 
had  an  interview  with  him,  which  resulted  in  a  capitulation,  placing 
the  town  and  the  materiel  of  war,  with  certain  exceptions,  in  the 
possession  of  the  American  General. 


Storming  of  Monterey. 

The  place,  on  taking  possession  of  it,  was  found  to  be  of  great 
strength.  There  were  mounted  42  pieces  of  cannon.  The  Mex- 
ican force  consisted  of  seven  thousand  troops  of  the  line,  and  two 
thousand  or  three  thousand  irregulars.  The  American  force  was 
four  hundred  twenty-five  officers  and  six  thousand  two  hundred  and 
twenty  men.  The  artillery  was  one  ten-inch  mortar  ;  two  twenty- 
four  pounder  howitzers,  and  four  light  field  batteries  of  four  guns 
each. 

The  American  loss  was  twelve  officers,  and  one  hundred  and 
eight  men  killed ;  thirty-one  officers  and  three  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Mexicans  was  still  more  consid- 


BATTLE    OF    BUENA    VISTA.  793 

erable. — An  armistice  was  allowed  by  General  Taylor,  of  eight 
weeks,  subject  to  be  revoked  by  either  government.  On  receiving 
intelligence  of  the  armistice,  and  its  conditions,  the  American  gov- 
ernment, it  is  said,  directed  its  termination.  The  Mexican  army 
was  permitted  to  retire,  and  marched  out  with  the  honors  of  war. 

The  capture  of  Monterey,  considering  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  fortified,  and  the  number  of  soldiers  concentrated  to  defend 
it,  was  a  bold  and  daring  achievement.  The  annals  of  war  seldom 
disclose  greater  wisdom  on  the  part  of  a  commanding  officer,  or 
greater  valor  and  determination  on  the  part  of  troops,  than  was 
manifested  by  General  Taylor  and  his  army  at  the  siege  of  Mon- 
terey. 

For  several  months  following  the  capture  of  Monterey,  the  Amer- 
ican forces  were  employed  in  various  military  movements,  having 
for  their  object  the  occupation  of  several  places  in  the  vicinity. 
But  on  the  31st  of  January,  with  about  five  thousand  men,  General 
Taylor  left  Monterey  for  Saltillo,  a  distance  of  sixty-five  miles  in 
the  direction  of  San  Luis  Eotosi.  On  the  2d  of  February  he 
reached  Saltillo,  whence  he  proceeded  about  twenty  miles  farther, 
taking  a  position  at  Agua  Neuva.  At  this  point,  on  the  twentieth 
of  February,  intelligence  was  communicated  to  him  that  General 
Santa  Anna  was  at  the  hacienda  of  Encarnacion  with  a  large  force, 
and  was  meditating  an  attack. 

As  the  camp  of  Agua  Neuva  could  be  turned  on  either  flank,  and 
the  enemy's  force,  especially  of  cavalry,  was  greatly  superior  to 
his  own,  he  deemed  it  expedient  to  retire  to  the  hacienda  of  Buena 
Vista,  about  eleven  miles  nearer  to  Saltillo,  and  there  awaited  an 
attack,  for  which  all  necessary  preparations  were  made,  and  such 
positions  taken  as  were  admirably  adapted  to  resist  a  large  with  a 
small  force. 

On  the  22d,  early  in  the  morning,  the  enemy  made  his  appear- 
ance, and  at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  demand  was  made  by 
General  Santa  Anna,  requiring  General  Taylor  to  surrender  at 
discretion.  This  was  promptly  refused  ;  immediately  upon  which, 
various  skirmishes  ensued,  and  were  continued  without  intermis- 
sion until  dark. 

It  was  now  apparent  that  a  general  battle  was  at  hand.  The 
Mexican  General  had  more  than  twenty  thousand  men,  completely 
organised,  and  elated  with  the  prospect  of  routing  a  force  of  less 
than  five  thousand,  of  which  not  more  than  five  hundred  were 
regular  troops.  It  was  a  night  of  proud  anticipation  on  the  one 
side,  and  of  strong  determination  on  the  other.  The  odds  were 
68*  *4 


794  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

fearful,  but  what  the  Americans  lacked  in  point  of  numbers  they 
were  determined  to  supply  by  superior  skill  and  characteristic 
bravery. 

At  sunrise,  on  the  following  morning,  the  contest  was  renewed, 
and  with  slight  intermissions  was  continued  on  both  sides  until  night. 
By  means  of  his  immensely  superior  force,  the  Mexican  General, 
at  one  time,  drove  the  American  army  for  some  distance,  but  at  a 
moment  the  most  critical,  two  pieces  of  artillery  were  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  enemy,  throwing  canister  and  grape  so  thickly 
— so  destructively,  as  to  compel  him  to. halt.  "Yet,  for  several 
hours,"  says  the  Hero  of  Palo  Alto,  "the  fate  of  the  day  was 
extremely  doubtful,  so  much  so  that  I  was  urged  by  some'of  the 
most  experienced  officers  to  fall  back  and  take  up  a  new  position." 
This  advice,  however,  was  declined,  and  the  struggle  went  on,  which 
according  to  the  American  General's  report,  was  the  severest 
contest  which  he  had  ever  witnessed.  Night  only  put  a  stop  to 
the  contest,  and,  strange  to  say,  both  armies  occupied  the  same  posi- 
tion they  did  in  the  morning  before  the  battle  commenced. 

All  that  night  the  Americans  lay  upon  their  arms,  as  they  had 
done  the  two  previous  ones,  there  being  no  fire  to  be  had,  and 
the  mercury  below  the  freezing  point;  ready,  and  expecting  to 
renew  the  contest  on  the  following  morning.  The  twenty  thousand 
Mexicans,  however,  had  witnessed  a  sufficient  display  of  Ameri- 
can prowess.  Leaving  their  killed  and  many  of  their  wounded 
on  the  field,  they  retreated  during  the  night,  proceeding  in  the 
direction  of  San  Luis,  in  a  wretched  and  disorganised 'condition. 

Few  victories,  whether  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  have  been 
more  remarkable.  The  skill  and  experience  of  Santa  Anna  are  well 
known,  and  yet  with  a  regularly  formed  and  well  disciplined  army 
of  20,000  men,  that  skill  and  experience  were  insufficient  to  cope 
with  the  army  of  General  Taylor,  supported  as  he  was  by  less  than 
one  quarter  of  the  enemy's  number. 

The  loss  on  both  sides  was  great — amounting  on  the  American 
side  to  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  killed,  four  hundred  and  fifty- 
six  wounded,  and  twenty-three  missing.  The  Mexican  loss  in 
killed  and  wounded  probably  reached  two  thousand.  At  least 
five  hundred  of  their  killed  were  left  upon  the  field  of  battle.  The 
loss  of  American  officers  was  severe — twenty-eight  having  been 
killed  on  the  field — and  among  them  may  be  mentioned,  as  conspicu 
ous  not  only  for  their  grade,  but  for  their  great  skill  and  bravery — 
Capt.  George  Lincoln,  Assistant  Adjutant-General — Cols.  Hardin, 


796  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

McKee,  Yell,  and  Lieut.  Col.  Clay,  the  latter  being  a  son  of  the  dis- 
tinguished American  statesman  of  that  name. 

For  some  months  the  attention  of  the  American  Government  had 
been  directed  to  preparations  for  an  expedition  against  Vera  Cruz, 
the  principal  sea-port  of  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the 
castle  San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  the  latter  situated  on  a  small  island  a  short 
distance  from  the  city.  The  reduction  of  these  places  was  thought 
to  be  important,  as  thereby  a  favorable  route  would  be  opened  to 
the  capital  itself,  about  three  hundred  miles  in  a  north-westerly  di- 
rection. This  expedition  was  entrusted  to  General  Scott,  who, 
aware  of  its  difficulties  and  importance,  was  allowed  to  collect  a 
large  military  and  naval  force  for  the  object  contemplated.  His 
troops,  consisting  of  regulars  and  volunteers,  to  the  number  of  some 
thirteen  thousand,  were  in  the  first  instance  collected  at  Tampico,  a 
Mexican  sea-port,  at  this  time  in  possession  of  the  Americans.  Most 
of  the  regular  troops  belonging  to  the  army  of  General  Taylor 
were  detached  for  this  purpose,  and  hence  that  officer  was  left 
with  a  comparatively  small  force  with  which  to  meet  the  thousands 
of  soldiers  under  Santa  Anna  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista*. 

On  the  2d  of  March,  the  above  thirteen  thousand  men  were 
landed  by  the  American  navy  in  the  vicinity  of  Vera  Cruz,  without 
the  loss  of  a  single  life.  On  the  13th,  the  investment  of  the  city 
was  effected.  On  the  22d  the  preparations  were  completed,  and  on 
that  day  the  American  commander-in-chief  demanded  of  the  Gov 
ernor  a  surrender  of  the  city ;  and  urged  that  surrender  by  consid 
erations  drawn  from  a  desire  to  spare  that  beautiful  city — its  gal- 
lant defenders  from  a  useless  effusion  of  blood — and  more  than  all, 
its  women  and  children  from  the  inevitable  horrors  of  a  triumphant 
assault.  The  Governor  replied,  that  cily  and  castle  were  defended 
at  all  points,  and  that  the  American  General  might  commence 
his  operations  in  manner  and  form  as  he  pleased.  The  naval  force 
designed  to  co-operate  in  the  bombardment  was  far  greater  than 
had  ever  before  been  sent  into  action  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment. 

On  receiving  this  refusal  of  the  Governor  to  surrender  the  city, 
seven  mortars  in  battery  were  opened  upon  the  city,  which  soon 
after  were  increased  to  ten,  and  about  the  same  time  two  steamers 
and  five  schooners  opened  a  brisk  fire,  which  continued  with  inter- 
missions up  to  nine  o'clock  on  the  following  morning.  On  the 
24th,  at  daylight,  a  naval  battery,  of  three  thirty-two  pounders  and 
three  eight-inch  Paixhan  guns,  which  the  previous  day  had  been 
transported  from  the  navy,  with  incredible  difficulty,  a  distance  of 


67* 


798  THE    UN1TEL    STATES. 

three  miles,  over  a  sandy  and  difficult  route,  to  a  commanding 
height  within  seven  hundred  yards  of  the  city,  was  prepared  to 
open  its  terrible  fire  upon  the  unsuspecting  place.  The  destruction 
caused  by  these  guns  was  tremendous.  During  the  whole  of  the 
24th  and  25th,  the  bombardment  was  continued,  with  few  interims 
sions ;  and  during  the  same  period,  both  from  the  castle  and  the  city, 
the  Mexicans  returned  the  fire — but  with  comparatively  little  loss 
on  the  side  of  the  Americans. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  26th, — the  work  of  destruction 
having  been  completed, — the  Governor  offered  to  surrender  the  city 
and  castle  into  the  hands  of  the  American  General.  By  the.  terms 
of  capitulation,  the  garrisons  were  to  be  surrendered  as  prisoners 
of  war,  and  all  the  materiel  of  war,  and  all  public  property,  were 
to  belong  to  the  United  States.  The  four  thousand  troops  belonging 
to  the  Mexican  army  were  dismissed  upon  their  parole  of  honor. 
Not  less  than  six  thousand  seven  hundred  shot  and  shells  were 
thrown  froni  the  American  batteries  during  the  bombardment — 
weighing,  in  the  aggregate,  more  than  four  hundred  thousand 
pounds.  Some  estimate  may  be  formed  by  the  reader,  of  the 
destruction  which  must  have  been  caused,  when  he  learns  that  three 
thousand  ten-inch  shells  were  thrown,  each  one  of  which  weighed 
ninety  pounds,  and  one  thousand  Paixhan  shot,  of  sixty-eight 
pounds  weight. 

On  entering  the  city,  the  American  officers  were  met  with  the 
sad  and  sickening  sight  of  roofs  crushed — walls  demolished,  build- 
ings razed. 

"  No  power  of  language,"  observes  a  writer,  "  can  portray  the 
sufferings,  agony,  despair,  and  helpless  misery,  which  the  inhab- 
itants of  Vera  Cruz  had  endured  for  five  days  and  nights  previous 
to  the  cessation  of  hostilities.  Night  and  day,  during  that  time, 
they  had  endured  an  incessant  shower  of  heavy  shells,  which, 
falling  in  every  part  of  the  city,  crushed  roof  and  walls  in  their 
terrible  descent,  and  at  length  burst  with  terrific  violence,  tearing 
every  thing  into  fragments,  and  striking  terror  and  despair  into 
every  heart.  To  all  of  this,  the  naval  battery  added  its  awful  fire, 
crushing  their  last  hope  of  safety  and  escape.  The  number  of  killed 
and  wounded  will,  perhaps,  never  be  known  to  us,  but  it  must  have 
been  very  great ;  though,  in  all  such  cases,  the  soldiers  suffered  less 
than  the  women  and  children." 

Thus  fell,  under  the  power  of  the  Americans,  a  city  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  Mexicans,  and  a  castle  of  far  greater  importance, 


CAPTURE    OF    VERA   CRUZ. 


790 


]ustly  denominated,  from  the  strength  of  its  walls,  from  the  number 
of  its  guns,  and  from  its  isolated  position,  the  "Gibraltar  of  America." 

Great  credit  is  accorded  to  General  Scott  for  the  scientific  manner 
in  which  the  siege  was  planned  and  conducted.  The  American  loss 
was  small,  amounting  to  but  sixty-five  men,  and  but  few  officers ; 
embracing,  however,  in  the  latter,  Captain  John  R.  Vinton,  who  had 
highly  distinguished  himself  in  the  brilliant  operations  of  Monterey. 

Such  military  achievements  reflect  the  highest  honor  upon  those 
who  conduct  them ;  but  who,  after  all,  in  view  of  the  carnage 
caused,  and  the  misery  consequent  thereupon,  can  avoid  adopting 
the  language  of  the  humane,  and  yet  heroic  Taylor,  in  his  letter  to 
a  great  American  statesman,  sympathizing  with  him  on  the  loss  of  a 
son — "I  feel  no  exultation  in  our  success?" 


Major  General  Winfield  Scott. 

The  rejoicing  consequent  upon  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and 
the  successful  bombardment  of  the  important  adjoining  fortress  of 
San  Juan  d'  Ulloa,  were  scarcely  over,  when  came  the  news  of 
another  brilliant  triumph  of  our  arms,  and  of  the  victorious  progress 
of  our  legions  towards  the  "  Halls  of  the  Montezumas."  On  the 
18th  of  April,,the  gallant  commander-in-chief,  General  Scott,  encoun- 
tered the  enemy,  fifteen  thousand  strong,  under  the  personal  com- 
mand of  Santa  Anna,  at  Sierra  Garda  or  Cerro  Gordo,  as  it  is 
otherwise  spelt,  a  mountain  pass  on  the  road  to  Jalapa,  about  sixty 
miles  from  Vera  Cruz. 

The  road  from  Vera  Cruz  as  it  passes  the  Plan  del  Rio,  which  is 


800  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

a  wide  rocky  bed  of  a  once  large  stream,  is  commanded  by  a  series 
of  high  cliffs  rising  one  above  the  other,  and  extending  several  miles, 
all  of  which  were  well  fortified.  A  front  attack  of  these  forts  must 
have  terminated,  it  was  apparent,  in  an  annihilation  of  the  American 
army.  Such  a  mode  of  attack,  however,  was  expected  by  the 
enemy ;  but  the  skillful  eye  of  General  Scott  perceived  that  by 
cutting  a  road  to  the  right,  the  position  of  the  enemy  might  be 
turned,  on  the  left  flank.  This  movement  was  made  known  to  the 
enemy  by  a  deserter  from  our  camp,  upon  which  a  large  force  under 
General  La  Vega  was  sent  to  the  forts  on  their  left.  In  order 
however,  to  cover  his  flank  movements,  General  Scott  on  the  17th 
of  April  ordered  General  Twiggs  to  attack  the  fort  on  the  steep 
ascent  in  front,  and  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  Cerro.  Fortunately, 
this  position  was  carried  by  Colonel  Harney  detached  by  General 
Twiggs  for  that  purpose.  This  position  having  thus  been  secured, 
with  incredible  labor  one  of  the  large  guns  was  elevated  to  the  top 
of  the  fort,  in  order  to  follow  up  the  advantage  which  had  been 
gained. 

On  the  following  day,  General  Twiggs  was  ordered  forward  from 
the  position  he  had  already  captured,  against  the  principal  fort, 
which  commanded  the  Cerro.  At  the  same  time,  an  attack  was 
made  on  the  fortifications  on  the  enemy's  left  by  the  divisions  of 
Gens.  Shields  and  Worth,  which  moved  in  separate  columns, 
while  General  Pillow  was  ordered  to  advance  against  the  strong 
forts  and  difficult  ascents  on  the  right.  Aware  of  these  intended 
movements  of  General  Scott,  large  bodies  of  the  enemy  had  been 
thrown  into  the  various  positions  to  be  attacked.  The  most  important 
and  serious  enterprise  was  that  of  General  Twiggs,  who  advanced 
against  the  main  fort  commanding  the  Cerro.  The  undertaking 
was  difficult  and  hazardous.  The  ascent  was  steep  and  rough. 
The  forts  and  batteries  of  the  enemy,  poured  forth  a  constant  and 
galling  fire.  The  steepness  of  the  ascent  furnished  the  only  shelter. 
But  the  American  soldiers  sought  no  shelter,  and,  as  usual,  feared 
no  danger.  Led  on  by  the  gallant  Harney,  whose  voice  was  heard 
amidst  the  thunder  of  the  cannon,  and  whose  arm  was  seen  waving 
to  his  men  to  rush  on  to  the  charge,  they  paused  not,  but  leaping  from 
one  rocky  barrier  to  another,  they  at  length  reached  the  fort,  from 
which  the  enemy  was  soon  compelled  to  retire.  It  was  here  the 
enemy  received  their  heaviest  loss,  and  their  General  Vasquez  was 
killed. 

Shortly  after  the  force  under  General  Worth  with  incredible  effort 
passed  the  steep  and  craggy  heights  on  the  enemies  left,  and  sum- 


BATTLE  OF  CERRO  GORDO.  801 

moned  a  strong  fort  in  the  rear  of  the  Cerro,  to  surrender.  This 
fort  was  manned  by  a  large  force  under  General  Pinson,  a  mulatto 
officer  of  considerable  ability  and  courage,  who,  seeing  the  Cerro 
carried,  thought  proper  to  surrender,  which  he  did,  with  all  his  force. 


Colonel  Harney  at  Cerro  Gordo. 


General  Shields  was  less  fortunate.  In  the  battery  which  he 
attacked,  and  which  was  commanded  by  General  La  Vega,  a  heavy 
fire  was  opened  upon  him,  under  which  the  fort  was  indeed  carried, 
but  with  considerable  loss.  The  gallant  general  himself  here  re* 
ceived  a  grape-shot  through  his  lungs,  which  at  the  time  and  for 
some  time  after  was  thought  would  prove  mortal.  On  the  enemy's 
right,  General  Pillow  commenced  an  attack  upon  the  strong  forts 
near  the  river,  but  was  at  length  obliged  to  withdraw  his  men  to 
save  them  from  a  heavy  fire  from  a  masked  battery.  As  he  was 
preparing,  however,  for  another  attack,  the  enemy  concluded  to  sur- 
render. The  victory  was  complete.  Three  thousand  of  the  enemy 
were  taken  prisoners,  with  the  usual  proportion  of  field  and  com- 
pany officers,  besides  five  generals,  several  of  them  of  great  distinc- 
tion. These  wjere  Pinson,  Jarrero,  La  Vega,  Noriega  and  Obando. 
The  force  of  General  Scott  was  about  eight  thousand,  General 
Quitman's  brigade  not  having  arrived  in  time  to  take  part  in  the 
engagement.  General  Ampudia  was  second  in  command  of  the 
Mexicans,  and  superintended  the  operations  of  the  enemy. 

When  the  Cerro  was  carried,  he  was  seen  retreating  on  a  fine 
white  charger,  his  hat  falling  off,  as  he  galloped  away.     Our  army 
69  z4 


802  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

captured  about  thirty  pieces  of  beautiful  brass  cannon  of  large 
calibre,  and  mostly  manufactured  at  the  extensive  foundry  of  Seville. 
A  large  quantity  of  fixed  ammunition  was  also  taken.  The  private 
baggage  and  money-chest  of  Santa  Anna,  containing  some  twenty 
thousand  dollars,  was  also  captured.  Santa  Anna,  with  Generals 
Canalize  and  Almonte  and  some  six  thousand  men,  escaped  towards 
Jalapa,  but  so  hotly  was  the  former  pursued  that  he  was  obliged,  it 
is  reported,  to  mount  a  mule  attached  to  his  carriage,  the  harness 
of  which  was  cut  in  order  to  effect  his  escape.  The  carriage  itself 
was  captured,  and  in,  or  near  it,  was  found  his  cork  leg.  Even  his 
dinner  was  left  uneaten,  which  formed  an  acceptable  repast  for 
several  American  officers,  after  the  heat  and  fury  of  the  battle  was 
over.  Besides  General  Shields,  General  Pillow  was  wounded ;  as 
were  also  Major  Sumner  of  the  Rifles,  and  Captain  Mason,  with 
Lieuts.  Maury,  Gibbs,  Davis,  Ewell  and  McLane.  The  loss  of  the 
Americans,  in  killed  and  wounded,  was  four  hundred  and  thirty-four, 
of  whom  sixty-three  were  killed ;  that  of  the  enemy  from  one  thou- 
sand to  twelve  hundred,  embracing  many  valuable  and  promising 
officers. 

The  charge  on  Cerro  Gordo  was  one  of  those  cool,  yet  deter- 
mined ones  so  characteristic  of  the  American  soldier.  From  the 
time  that  our  troops  left  the  hill,  nearest  that  prominent  height,  the 
fire  was  incessant,  yet  they  pressed  on  with  their  wonted  bravery, 
determined  to  conquer  or  die. 

As  for  the  Mexican  general-in-chief,  loud  complaints  were  uttered 
by  his  troops  against  him  for  his  pusillanimity  and  flight.  But  a  few 
days  before,  in  an  official  communication  addressed  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Constituent  Congress,  he  had  made  proclamation  of  his  pat- 
riotism and  willingness  to  yield  up  life,  if  that  were  necessary  for  his 
country's  good.  "  As  to  myself,"  said  he, "  I  am  determined  to  breast 
the  dangers  of  the  campaign,  confident  that  my  conduct  will  gain 
the  approbation  of  my  fellow-citizens.  If  I  am  crowned  by  victory, 
and  succeed  in  driving  the  enemy  from  our  soil,  I  shall  retire  to 
private  life,  satisfied  that  I  shall  have  rendered  my  country  some 
service ;  or,  if  the  lead  or  steel  should  cut  the  thread  of  my  life,  I 
shall  die  contented,  as  I  shall  leave  to  my  country  an  honorable 
memory,  and  to  my  children  a  name  at  which  they  need  never 
blush."  But  he  hastily  and  ingloriously  flies,  entering  comparatively 
unprotected  and  unattended  a  chapparal,  through  which  it  is  sup- 
posed he  passed  to  Orizaba,  a  small  town  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain 
of  that  name,  leaving  the  road  open  to  Mexico  for  the  American 
troops  by  the  way  of  Jalapa  and  Perote. 


CAPTURE  OF  JALAPA PEROTE PUEBLA.  803 

The  Americans  having  thus  carried  the  various  positions  of  the 
enemy,  the  division  under  General  Twiggs  started  in  pursuit  of  the 
fugitive  Mexican  army,  which  it  followed  to  within  three  miles  of 
Jalapa,  where  they  encamped  for  the  night,  and  entered  and  took 
possession  of  the  city  early  on  the  following  morning. 

This  city  occupies  a  high  hill — highest  in  the  centre — so  that  the 
streets  incline  so  much  that  no  wheeled  vehicle  can  pass  along  any 
of  them,  except  Main  street.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
and  has  a  strongly-built  church  near  the  western  gate.  The  streets 
are  paved.  The  houses,  as  in  other  Mexican  towns,  are  of  stone, 
with  flat  roofs  and  iron-barred  windows.  Jalapa  yielded  to  General 
Twiggs  without  opposition,  and  subsequently  became  a  depot  for 
part  of  the  American  forces. 

On  receiving  intelligence  of  the  surrender  of  Jalapa,  the  Mexican 
troops,  which  were  stationed  in  the  castle  of  Perote,  were  with- 
drawn, and  marched  with  the  greatest  precipitancy  for  the  interior. 

Perote  is  distant  from  Jalapa  about  fifty  miles,  being  nearly  mid- 
way between  the  capital  and  Vera  Cruz.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  nearly  ten  thousand.  It  is  a  walled  city;  the  houses  are 
generally  of  one  story,  built  of  stone,  and  covered  with  terraces ; 
the  principal  street  is  remarkably  fine ;  the  others  are  wide  and 
paved.  The  castle  of  Perote,  together  with  the  city,  were  taken 
possession  of  by  Gen.  Worth  on  the  22d  April  without  opposition: 
both  being  surrendered  by  Col.  Velasquez,  who  was  left  behind  for 
the  purpose  of  negotiating  with  the  advancing  American  general. 

The  castle  or  fortress  of  Perote  is  considered  one  of  the  strongest 
in  Mexico,  and  its  surrender  to  the  Americans  without  opposition 
was  a  national  loss.  Two  thousand  troops  with  their  officers  could 
be  well  accommodated  within  the  walls,  where  were  found  ample 
store-houses,  hospitals,  and  magazines,  with  an  excellent  supply  of 
water.  The  munitions  of  war,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans,  consisted  of  more  than  fifty  guns  and  mortars,  of  various 
calibre,  most  of  them  in  good  condition ;  eleven  thousand  and  sixty- 
five  cannon-balls ;  fourteen  thousand  three  hundred  bombs  and  hand- 
grenades  ;  and  five  hundred  muskets.  Within  the  castle  were  found 
Generals  Landero  and  Morales,  who  had  been  there  confined  since 
the  surrender  of  Vera  Cruz.  These,  with  several  American  prison- 
ers, were  set  at  liberty. 

Possession  having  thus  been  taken  of  Perote,  an  advance  was  not 
long  after  made  upon  Puebla,  the  next  most  considerable  town  upon 
the  route  to  the  capital.  This  city  is  walled  and  fortified.  It  is 
built  of  stone,  and  the  streets  are  well  paved.  It  is  situated  at  the 


804  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

extremity  of  a  large  plain,  on  the  Vera  Cruz  side,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion variously  estimated  at  from  fifty  to  eighty  thousand.  The  public 
place  would  be  admired  in  almost  any  part  of  the  world:  it  forms  a 
perfect  square;  facing  it,  stands  the  cathedral;  on  three  other  sides 
are  magnificent  palaces.  There  are  many  other  edifices  of  striking 
beauty.  Few  churches  are  more  magnificently  ornamented  than 
the  cathedral.  All  the  chandeliers  and  lamps — and  they  are  not 
few — are  of  massive  gold  and  silver;  the  dome  is  of  the  marble  of 
the  country,  and  of  great  beauty  and  fine  workmanship ;  the  chapels 
— ten  in  number — are  richly  decorated,  with  an  iron  grate-door  to 
each,  of  great  height,  and  of  the  finest  finish.  The  church  was 
finished  in  1808,  at  an  expense,  it  is  said,  of  $600,000.  The  Almeida, 
or  public  walk,  is  well  kept:  it  is  composed  of  three  alleys,  of  five 
or  six  hundred  feet  each,  which  are  severally  lined  with  trees;  and 
the  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  at  the  foot  of  which  runs  a  fine 
stream  of  water.  Few  cities  in  Europe  present  a  finer  appearance. 
But  no  great  encomium  can  justly  be  passed  upon  the  inhabitants : 
they  are  far  less  elevated  and  refined  than  were  the  European  Span- 
iards, who  were  some  years  since  expelled. 

Such  is  a  brief  view  of  Puebla,  which  the  division  of  the  Ameri- 
can army,  four  thousand  strong,  under  Gen.  Worth,  entered  and 
occupied  on  the  15th  of  May.  A  spirited  opposition  was  anticipated, 
as  the  enemy,  it  was  understood,  were  in  considerable  numbers  gar- 
risoning the  city ;  but  only  a  feeble  resistance  was  made.  At  Ama- 
zogue,  a  distance  of  some  ten  or  twelve  miles  from  the  city,  a  body 
of  lancers,  headed  by  Santa  Anna,  made  their  appearance,  and  a 
skirmish  ensued.  No  loss,  however,  was  sustained  on  the  American 
side,  and  but  few  of  the  Mexicans  were  killed.  The  latter  soon 
retreated,  and  thus  presented  an  easy  access  to  the  city.  On  enter- 
ing, Gen.  Worth  took  possession  of  such  prisoners  and  such  public 
and  military  stores  as  the  place  contained.  Here  also  he  established 
his  head-quarters,  while  Santa  Anna  proceeded  towards  the  capital. 

From  this  time,  for  several  weeks  no  important  movements  took 
place.  The  army  rested  and  recruited.  On  the  8th  of  June,  a  party, 
consisting  in  part  of  soldiers  and  in  part  of  citizens,  to  the  number  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty,  under  command  of  Captain  Bainbridge,  third 
artillery,  left  Puebla  for  Vera  Cruz.  They  reached  Jalapa  with- 
out opposition.  But  the  road  from  that  point  to  Vera  Cruz,  it  was 
understood,  was  infested  by  strong  guerilla  parties.  These  were 
now  multiplying  in  all  parts  contiguous  to  the  theatre  of  war.  They 
consisted  either  of  detached  bodies  of  soldiers,  or  of  banded  citizens, 
which,  occupying  the  mountains,  or  the  chapparals,  would  easily 


GUERILLA    PARTIES.  805 

4 

rush  out,  and  suddenly  attack  reconnoitering  or  recruiting  parties 
and  trains  of  waggons,  transporting  provisions  or  munitions  of  war. 
And  it  may  here  be  stated,  that  the  history  of  these  guerillas,  during 
the  present  war  with  Mexico,  in  all  its  details,  could  those  details  be 
written,  would  shock  the  most  hardened  minds.  Such  wanton 
cruelty,  such  savage  barbarity,  is  scarcely  to  be  believed — and  yet, 
from  the  representations  of  some  few,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to 
escape  their  vengeance,  we  learn  that  language  almost  fails  to 
describe  the  cruelties  which  are  not  unfrequently  practised  by  them. 


Guerillas  attacking  a  train. 

The  above  party  on  approaching  Cerro  Gordo  were  apprised  that 
a  considerable  Mexican  force  was  concealed  in  that  pass,  and  that 
signal  danger  attended  their  march.  Notwithstanding  this,  they 
continued  their  journey  through  the  pass  without  meeting  with  the 
anticipated  opposition,  and  arrived  at  the  National  bridge  the  same 
evening.  While  preparing  to  encamp,  they  learned  that  a  party 
of  the  enemy  was  barricading  the  bridge  to  prevent  their  progress. 

In  the  morning,  however,  the  bridge  was  cleared  without  opposi- 
tion, and  the  main  body  passed  over  in  safety.  A  different  fortune 
awaited  their  waggon-train.  For  the  purpose  of  bringing  this  over, 
an  officer  and  soldier  were  sent  across  the  bridge.  But  they  were 
fired  upon  by  a  guerilla  party  of  twenty-five,  as  were  also  the  attend- 
ants of  the  waggon.  The  waggon-master  and  four  attendants 
were  killed,  and  the  waggon  captured.  Upon  this,  Captain  Bain- 
bridge  prepared  for  action ;  but  the  Mexicans  retreating,  the  captain 
69* 


806  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

pursued  his  way  to  the  encampment  of  Colonel  Mclntosh.  This 
officer  had  been  previously  attacked  by  the  enemy,  and  was  await- 
ing reinforcements.  During  the  night,  the  enemy  continued  to  fire 
on  the  camp,  and  occasionally  manwuvred  as  if  about  to  charge. 
Great  credit  was  given  to  the  dragoons  under  Captain  Duperus,  to 
whose  courage  and  protection  the  whole  party  was  doubtless  in- 
debted for  their  safety. 

The  day  following,  Capt.  Bainbridge  and  his  party  continued  their 
march  towards  Vera  Cruz,  which  they  reached  in  safety.  Mean- 
while, Capt.  Duperus  having  in  charge  a  long  return  train,  halted  at 
Santa  Fe,  where  he  was  attacked  by  a  strong  guerilla  party,  greatly 
superior  in  force,  but  which  he  repulsed  with  considerable  loss  to 
the  enemy.  He  also  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  with  his  command, 
having  lost  only  a  few  waggons,  and  but  three  killed  and  wounded. 

Fortunately,  on  the  day  that  Capt.  Bainbridge  left  the  encamp- 
ment of  Mclntosh,  Gen.  Cadwallader  arrived  with  eight  hundred  men 
and  two  howitzers,  and  pushed  on  to  the  National  bridge.  Here  he 
was  attacked  by  a  large  Mexican  force.  The  struggle  was  brief, 
but  obstinate  and  sanguinary.  It  resulted  in  a  repulse  of  the  enemy, 
with  the  signal  loss  of  one  hundred  killed,  besides  many  wounded. 
The  loss  of  the  Americans  did  not  exceed  fifteen  killed,  and  from 
thirty  to  forty  wounded. 

Previously  to  this  battle,  the  loss  of  Col.  Mclntosh  from  the  guer- 
illas had  been  considerable.  In  an  engagement,  the  colonel  and  his 
party  had  fallen  back  with  the  expectation  of  being  pursued,  and  of 
thus  saving  their  waggon-train :  but  the  enemy  seized  upon  twenty- 
eight  waggons  and  nearly  two  hundred  pack-mules ;  the  estimated 
value  of  which  was  nearly  four  thousand  dollars. 

The  affairs  of  Mexico,  it  was  apparent,  had  for  some  months  been 
wearing  a  more  and  more  gloomy  aspect.  Every  battle  had  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  her  armies.  Her  councils  were  distracted.  Her 
generals  were  captured,  or,  being  defeated  one  after  another,  were 
fast  losing  the  confidence  of  the  nation.  The  proud  and  boastful 
language  of  Santa  Anna  previous  to  the  eventful  battle  of  Cerro 
Gordo,  and  his  hasty  and  inglorious  flight  ere  it  was  finished,  had 
lessened  the  confidence  of  both  army  and  people  in  him.  Besides, 
there  was  an  increasing  party  in  the  nation,  which  desired  peace, 
and  which  were  now  not  slow  to  advocate  the  election  of  Herrera 
to  the  presidency,  in  order  the  more  readily  to  secure  that  object. 
In  this  party  were  included  the  clergy  and  a  respectable  minority 
in  Congress:  but  the  measure  was  not  agreeable  to  the  army  and  a 
majority  of  the  nation. 


ADVANCE    UPON    CONTRERAS. 


The  state  of  affairs  and  his  several  reverses  served  to  perplex  and 
discourage  Santa  Anna  himself:  and  perhaps  induced  him  about  this 
time  to  tender  his  resignation  to  Congress  of  the  presidency  of 
Mexico  and  the  chief  command  of  the  army.  There  were,  however, 
those  who  considered  this  offer  on  the  part  of  this  wily-  chieftain 
only  a  manoeuvre  by  which  to  regain  his  former  popularity,  and  to 
entrench  himself  more  firmly  in  power.  Be  his  motives  what  they 
may  have  been,  he  secured  the  objects  of  his  ambition.  The  Con- 
gress declined  acceding  to  his  offers.  His  former  services  were 
lauded,  and  confidence  reposed  in  his  patriotism  and  ability ;  and  to 
Mexico  and  the  cause  of  her  arms  the  movement  was  doubtless  aus- 
picious. A  temporary  impulse  was  given  to  her  operations.  Greater 
confidence  prevailed,  and  the  enlistment  of  troops  was  more  easy 
and  in  greater  numbers. 

For  some  time  following  the  brilliant  exploits  at  Cerro  Gordo, 
Gen.  Scott  necessarily  remained  inactive  at  Puebla,  waiting  for  rein- 
forcements. Meanwhile,  the  Mexicans,  notwithstanding  their  many 
reverses,  industriously  employed  themselves  in  collecting  another 
army,  and  in  fortifying  the  several  approaches  to  the  capital. 

Having,  at  length,  received  a  small  reinforcement,  Gen.  Scott 
broke  up  his  camp,  and  marched  for  the  metropolis.  A  spirited 
opposition  was  anticipated  at  the  Rio  Frio  pass, — a  deep  gorge, 
which  takes  its  name  from  a  small  river  adjacent.  This  pass  the 
Mexicans  had,  for  some  time,  been  engaged  in  fortifying;  but  on 
reaching  the  dreaded  defile,  no  opposition  was  made.  The  loss  of 
this  opportunity  of  resisting  the  progress  of  the  Americans,  was  a 
sad  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  Mexicans,  as  the  gorge  was  capable 
of  being  strongly  defended,  and,  perhaps,  of  proving  an  insuperable 
barrier  to  the  American  army,  with  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  troops. 

On  descending  into  the  basin  of  the  capital,  seventy-five  miles 
from  Puebla,  the  several  divisions  of  the  American  army,  which  had 
left  Puebla  on  the  7th,  8th,  9th,  and  10th  of  August,  became  closely 
approximated  about  the  head  of  Lake  Chalco.  On  the  12th  and 
and  13th,  reconnoisances  were  made  upon  the  Pennon,  an  isolated 
mound,  eight  miles  from  Mexico,  of  great  height,  and  strongly  for- 
tified, and  flooded  round  the  base  by  trenches  filled  with  water. 
This  fortification,  being  close  to  the  National  road,  commanded  the 
principal  eastern  approach  to  the  city.  The  strength  of  this  fortifi- 
cation, munitioned  and  garrisoned  in  the  most  careful  manner, 
induced  Gen.  Scott  to  abandon  the  project  of  an  attack  upon  the 
Pennon,  and  to  take  advantage  of  an  old,  concealed  road,  by  which 


808  THE    UNITED     STATES. 

the  whole  army  passed  in  safety,  south  of  Lake  Chalco,  first  to 
Ayotla,  and  thence  to  San  Augustine,  where  they  arrived  on  the 
17th.  This  place  is  about  ten  miles  south  of  Mexico  on  the  Aca- 
pulco  road.  This  masterly  movement  was  entirely  unanticipated  by 
the  Mexicans.  The  Pennon  fortification  stood,  it  was  supposed,  as 
an  insuperable  obstacle  to  their  approach,  and,  although  that  fortifi- 
cation might  doubtless  have  been  carried,  it  must  have  been  with 
the  loss  of  many  a  gallant  soldier.  By  a  happy  manoeuvre  of  the 
commander-in-chief,  this  loss  was  spared,  and  his  army  reserved  for 
the  intensely  interesting  scenes  which  lay  before  them. 

On  the  18th,  Worth's  division  and  Harney's  cavalry  moved  on  the 
road  in  the  direction  of  San  Antonio.  This  village  was  found 
strongly  defended  by  field-works,  heavy  guns,  and  a  numerous  gar- 
rison. During  a  reconnoitre  of  the  place,  a  heavy  discharge  from 
the  Mexican  battery  killed  Capt.  Thornton,  of  the  second  dragoons, 
a  gallant  officer,  who  was  covering  the  operation  with  his  company. 
This  caused  the  dragoons  to  be  withdrawn,  but  various  movements 
took  place  during  the  remainder  of  the  day,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  secure,  if  possible,  a  favorable  position  for  attacking  and  dis- 
lodging the  Mexicans,  in  order  to  open  the  way  towards  the  capi- 
tal. A  cold  and  heavy  rain,  however,  now  set  in,  which  induced  the 
general-in-chief  to  suspend  further  offensive  operations  for  the  day. 

The  morning  of  the  20th  found  the  American  army — notwithstand- 
ing that  the  troops  had  lain  in  the  field  all  night,  destitute  of  tents  or 
blankets,  and  exposed  to  a  drizzling  rain,  which  ended  towards 
morning  in  unbroken  torrents — ready  for  new  duties,  and  for  the 
achievement  of  victories  (all  in  view  of  the  capital)  which  have  sel- 
dom, if  ever,  been  surpassed. 

On  the  night  of  the  19th,  Gens.  Shields,  Smith,  and  Cadwallader, 
with  their  brigades  and  the  fifteenth  regiment,  under  Col.  Morgan, 
found  themselves  in  and  about  the  important  position,  the  village  or 
hamlet  of  Contreras,  half  a  mile  nearer  to  the  city  than  the  enemy's 
entrenched  camp  on  the  same  road  towards  the  factory  of  Mag- 
dalena. 

That  camp  had  been  unexpectedly  a  formidable  point  of  attack 
the  afternoon  before,  and  it  was  now  to  be  taken  without  the  aid 
of  cavalry  or  artillery,  or  the  advanced  corps  to  be  thrown  back 
upon  the  road  from  San  Augustine  to  the  city,  and  thence  a  passage 
be  forced  through  San  Antonia.  To  meet  contingencies,  Gen. 
Worth  was  ordered  to  leave,  early  in  the  morning  of  the  20th, 
one  of  his  brigades,  for  the  purpose  of  masking  San  Antonio,  and 
to  march,  with  the  other,  six  miles  upon  Contreras,  via  San 


VICTORY     OF    CONTRERAS. 


809 


Augustine.  Other  movements  and  orders  were  now  made,  having 
for  their  object  a  general,  united,  and  effective  attack  upon  the 
strong  entrenchments  of  the  enemy  at  Contreras.  Without  entering 
into  the  particulars  of  this  engagement,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  using 
the  language  of  the  general-in-chief  in  his  official  report:  "I  doubt 
whether  a  more  brilliant  or  decisive  victory,  taking  into  view  ground, 
artificial  defences,  batteries,  and  the  extreme  disparity  of  numbers, 
without  cavalry  or  artillery,  is  to  be  found  on  record.  Including  all 
our  corps  directed  against  the  entrenched  camp,  with  Shield's 
brigade  at  the  hamlet,  we  positively  did  not  number  over  4,500  rank 
and  file ;  and  we  knew  by  sight,  and  since  more  certainly,  by  many 
captured  documents  and  letters,  that  the  enemy  had  actually 
engaged  on  the  spot  7,000  men,  with  at  least  1,200  men  hovering 
within  sight  and  striking  distance,  both  on  the  19th  and  20th.  All, 
not  killed  or  captured,  now  fled  with  precipitation. 


Battle  of  Contreras. 

"Thus  was  the  great  victory  of  Contreras  achieved;  one  road 
to  the  capital  opened;  700  of  the  enemy  killed;  813  prisoners, 
including  88  officers,  4  generals,  besides  many  colors  and  standards, 
22  pieces  •  of  brass  ordinance,  half  of  large  calibre,  thousands  of 
small  arms  and  accoutrements ;  an  immense  quantity  of  shot,  shells, 
powder  and  cartridges ;  700  pack-mules,  many  horses,  &c.,  &c.,  fell 
into  our  hands. 

"It  is  highly  gratifying  to  find  that,  by  skilful  arrangement  and 
rapidity  of  execution,  our  loss,  in  killed  and  wounded,  did  not  exceed, 

A5 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


on  the  spot,  sixty;  among  the  former  the  brave  Capt.  Charles 
Hanson,  of  the  sixth  infantry,  not  more  distinguished  for  gallantry, 
than  for  modesty,  morals,  and  piety.  Lieut.  J.  P.  Johnstone,  first 
artillery,  serving  with  Magruder's  battery,  a  young  officer  of  high 
promise,  was  killed  the  evening  before. 

"One  of  the  most  pleasing  incidents  of  the  victory  is  the  recap- 
ture, by  Capt.  Drum,  fourth  artillery,  under  Maj.  Gardner,  of  the  two 
brass  six-pounders  taken  from  another  company  of  the  same  regi- 
ment, though  without  loss  of  honor,  at  the  glorious  battle  of  Buena 
Vista,  about  which  guns  the  whole  regiment  had  mourned  for  so 
many  long  months.  Coming  up,  a  little  later,  I  had  the  happiness  to 
join  in  the  protracted  cheers  of  the  gallant  fourth  on  the  joyous  event ; 
and  indeed  the  whole  army  sympathizes  in  its  just  pride  and 
exultation." 

The  victory  of  Contreras  was  almost  immediately  followed  by  a 
second  brilliant  event,  viz:  the  forcing  of  San  Antonio.  This  was 
accomplished  chiefly  by  Gen.  Worth's  division.  Great  importance 
was  attached  to  the  capture  of  this  position,  as  thereby  a  shorter 
and  better  road  would  be  opened  to  the  capital.  It  was  a  bold 
achievement,  but  doubtless  the  more  easily  accomplished  from  the 
total  defeat  of  the  enemy's  forces  at  Contreras. 

This  desirable  object  accomplished,  the  division,  which  had  been 
temporarily  separated,  was  soon  united  in  hot  pursuit,  and  was 
joined  by  Maj.  Gen.  Pillow,  who,  marching  from  Coyracon,  and  dis- 
covering that  San  Antonio  had  been  carried,  immediately  turned  to 
the  left,  and  though  much  impeded  by  ditches  and  swamps,  hastened 
to  the  attack  of  Churubusco. 

The  hamlet,  or  scattered  houses  bearing  this  name,  presented, 
besides  the  fortified  convent,  a  strong  field-work,  (tete  de  poni) 
with  regular  bastions  and  curtains  at  the  head  of  a  bridge,  over 
which  the  road  passes  from  San  Antonia  to  the  capital. 

The  whole  remaining  forces  of  Mexico — some  twenty-seven 
thousand  men — cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry,  collected  from  every 
quarter — were  now  in  on  the  flanks,  or  within  supporting  distance 
of  these  works,  and  seemed  resolved  to  make  a  last  and  desperate 
stand ;  for,  if  beaten  here,  the  feebler  defences  at  the  gates  of  the 
city — four  miles  off — could  not,  as  was  well  known  to  both  parties, 
delay  the  victors  an  hour.  The  capital  of  an  ancient  empire,  now 
of  a  great  republic,  or  an  early  peace,  the  assailants  were  resolved 
to  win.  Not  an  American — and  we  were  less  than  a  third  of  the 
enemy's  number — had  a  doubt  as  to  the  result. 

The  fortified  church  or  convent,  hotly  pressed  by  Twiggs,  had 


CAPTURE    OF    CHURUBUSCO. 


811 


already  held  out  about  an  hour,  when  Worth  and  Pillow — the  latter 
having  with  him  only  Cadwallader's  brigade — began  to  manoeuvre 
closely  to  tete  de  pont  with  the  convent  at  half  gunshot  to  their  left. 
Garland's  brigade  (Worth's  division),  to  which  had  been  added  the 
light  battalion  under  Lieut.  Col.  Smith,  continued  to  advance  in  front, 
under  the  fire  of  a  long  line  of  infantry,  off  on  the  left  of  the  bridge  ; 
and  Clarke,  of  the  same  division,  directed  his  men  along  the  road,  or 
close  by  its  side.  Two  of  Pillow's  and  Cadwallader's  regiments,  the 
eleventh  and  fourteenth,  participated  in  this  direct  movement ; 
the  other  (the  voltigeurs)  was  left  in  reserve.  Most  of  these  corps 
— particularly  Clarke's  brigade — advancing  perpendicularly,  were 
made  to  suffer  much  by  the  fire  of  the  tete  de  pont,  and  they  would 
have  suffered  greatly  more,  by  flank  attacks  from  the  convent,  but 
for  the  pressure  of  Twiggs  on  the  other  side  of  that  work. 

This  well-combined  and  daring  movement,  at  length  reached  the 
principal  point  of  attack,  and  the  formidable  tete  de  pont  was  at 
once  assaulted,  and  carried  by  the  bayonet.  Its  deep,  wide  ditch,  was 
first  gallantly  crossed  by  the  eighth  and  fifth  infantry,  commanded 
respectively  by  Major  Waite  and  Lieut.  Col.  Scott — followed  closely 
by  the  sixth  infantry  (same  brigade),  which  had  been  so  much  ex- 
posed on  the  road — the  eleventh  regiment,  under  Lieut.  Col.  Graham, 
and  the  fourteenth,  commanded  by  Col.  Gronsdale,  both  of  Cadwalla- 
der's brigade,  Pillow's  division.  About  the  same  time,  the  enemy 
in  front  of  Garland,  after  a  hot  conflict  of  an  hour  and  a  half,  gave 
way  in  a  retreat  towards  the  capital. 

The  immediate  results  of  this  third  signal  triumph  of  the  day 
were :  three  field-pieces,  192  prisoners,  much  ammunition,  and  the 
colors  taken  in  the  tete  de  pont. 

The  capture  of  the  tete  de  pont  was  soon  followed  by  the  sur- 
render of  the  convent,  and  doubtless  contributed  thereto.  The  two 
works  were  only  some  four  hundred  and  fifty  yards  apart,  and  no 
sooner  had  the  former  been  carried,  than  a  captured  four-pounder 
was  turned  against  the  convent.  Lieut.  Col.  Duncan,  from  the  San 
Antonia  road,  soon  brought  two  guns  to  bear  upon  the  principal 
work  and  upon  the  tower  of  the  church.  Finally,  twenty  minutes 
after  the  tjete  de  pont  had  been  carried  by  Worth  and  Pillow,  at  the 
end  of  a  desperate  conflict  of  two  hours  and  a  half,  the  church  or 
convent — the  citadel  of  the  strong  line  of  defence  along  the  rivulet 
of  Churubusco — yielded  to  Twiggs'  division,  and  threw  out  on  every 
side  signals  of  surrender.  The  more  sure  exhibition  of  surrendei 
—the  white  flag — not  long  after  followed. 

The  capture  of  the  enemy's  citadel,  was  the  fourth  signal  victory 


812 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


achieved  that  day.  The  immediate  results  of  this  victory  were : 
the  capture  of  seven  field-pieces,  some  ammunition,  one  color,  three 
generals,  one  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  prisoners,  including 
the  officers.  The  loss  of  officers  on  the  American  side  was  Captains 
Capron  and  Burke,  and  Lieut.  Hoffman,  all  of  the  first  artillery,  and 
Captain  Anderson  and  Lieut.  Easley,  both  of  the  second  infantry. 


Battle  of  Churubusco. 

To  the  foregoing  should  be  added  a  fifth  victory,  under  General 
Shields,  in  the  rear  of  Churubusco,  during  an  engagement  about  the 
same  time  with  the  one  above  described.  "  This  battle,"  as  described 
by  the  general-in-chief,  was  "  long,  hot,  and  varied ;  but  success 
ultimately  crowned  the  zeal  and  gallantry  of  our  troops,  ably  di- 
rected by  their  distinguished  commander,  Brig.  Gen.  Shields." 

During  this  engagement,  Gen.  Pierce,  from  a  hurt  received  the 
evening  before — under  pain  and  exhaustion — fainted  on  the  field. 
Col.  Morgan  being  severely  wounded,  the  command  of  the  fifth 
infantry  devolved  on  Lieut.  Col.  Howard.  Col.  Burnett  receiving  a 
like  wound,  the  command  of  the  New  York  volunteers  fell  on  Lieut. 
Col.  Baxter ;  and  on  the  fall  of  the  lamented  Col.  P.  M.  Butler,  the 
command  of  the  South  Carolina  volunteers  devolved  first  on  Lieut. 
Col.  Dickinson,  who  being  severely  wounded,  the  regiment  ultimately 
fell  under  the  orders  of  Maj.  Gladden. 

Lieuts.  David  Adams  and  W.  B.  Williams,  of  the  same  corps ; 
Capt.  Augustus  Quarles,  and  Lieut.  J.  B.  Goodman,  of  the  fifteenth, 


FRUITLESS    NEGOTIATIONS.  813 

and  Lieut.  E.  Chandler,  New  York  volunteers,  all  gallant  officers, 
nobly  fell  in  the  same  action. 

Shields  took  three  hundred  and  eighty  prisoners,  including  officers; 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  rage  of  the  conflict  between  him 
and  the  enemy,  just  in  the  rear  of  the  tete  de  pont  and  the  convent, 
had  some  influence  on  the  surrender  of  those  formidable  defences. 

As  soon  as  the  tete  de  pont  was  carried,  the  greater  part  of 
Worth's  and  Pillow's  forces  passed  that  bridge  in  rapid  pursuit  of 
the  flying  enemy.  These  distinguished  generals/  coming  up  with 
Brig.  Gen.  Shields,  now  also  victorious,  the  three  continued  to  press 
upon  the  fugitives  to  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of  the  capital.  Here, 
Col.  Harney,  with  a  small  part  of  his  brigade  of  cavalry,  rapidly 
passed  to  the  front,  and  gallantly  charged  the  enemy  up  to  the 
nearest  gate. 

Such  were  the  results  of  this  important  day.  Thirty-two  thousand 
men  had,  in  several  battles,  been  defeated  and  routed.  Three 
thousand  prisoners,  including  eight  generals,  had  been  made,  and 
two  hundred  and  five  other  officers.  Four  thousand  of  all  ranks 
had  been  killed  or  wounded,  besides  entire  corps  dispersed  and  dis- 
solved. Thirty-seven  field-pieces  had  been  captured,  besides  a 
large  number  of  small  arms,  and  large  quantities  of  ammunition  of 
every  kind. 

The  loss  on  the  American  side  was  one  thousand  and  fifty-three : 
killed,  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine,  including  sixteen  officers; 
wounded,  eight  hundred  and  seventy-one,  with  sixty  officers.  The 
greatest  number  of  the  dead  and  disabled  were  of  the  highest  worth 
and  promise. 

The  victories  thus  achieved  presented  an  easy  access  to  the 
capital,  which,  doubtless,  might  have  been  occupied  the  same  even- 
ing; but  Mr.  Trist,  a  commissioner  from  the  United  States,  sent  for 
the  purpose,  if  possible,  of  effecting  a  treaty,  being  now  with  the 
army,  and  the  hope  being  indulged  that  the  time  had  arrived  when 
an  adjustment  of  difficulties  might  be  made,  without  a  forcible  entry 
into  the  Mexican  capital,  the  general-in-chief  decided  to  halt  his 
victorious  army  at  the  very  gates  of  the  city,  and  await  the  action  of 
its  councils.  On  the  morning  of  the  21st  proposals  for  an  armistice 
were  ma'de.  On  the  22d  commissioners  were  appointed  by  the  com- 
manders of  the  armies ;  the  armistice  was  signed  on  the  23d,  and 
ratifications  exchanged  on  the  24th ;  immediately  following  which, 
meetings  were  held  by  Mr.  Trist  and  Mexican  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  treat  of  peace.  These  negotiations  were  actively  con- 
tinued to  the  2d  of  September,  when  the  American  commissioner 
70 


814  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

presented  his  ultimatum  in  respect  to  boundaries,  and  the  negotia- 
tors adjourned  to  meet  again  on  the  6th. 

By  the  terms  of  the  armistice,  it  was  agreed  that  supplies  from 
the  city  or  country  for  the  American  army  should  not  be  obstructed 
by  the  Mexican  authorities,  civil  or  military,  nor  during  its  con- 
tinuance should  any  measures  be  adopted  to  enlarge  or  strengthen 
any  existing  work  or  fortification  within  thirty  leagues  of  the  city 
of  Mexico.  Infractions  of  these  and  other  articles  of  the  armistice 
were  made  by  the  Mexicans,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  military 
defences  of  the  city.  These  infractions  being  brought  to  the  notice 
of  Santa  Anna  by  Gen.  Scott,  the  former  replied  ir>  terms  of  inso- 
lence and  denial.  In  short,  the  commissioners  having  failed  to 
agree,  and  the  terms  of  the  armistice  having  been  repeatedly 
violated  by  the  Mexicans — the  American  general  was  induced  to 
proceed  at  once,  on  the  termination  of  the  armistice,  to  make  pre- 
parations for  an  advance  upon  the  capital. 

On  the  7th  of  September  a  large  body  of  the  enemy  was  discov- 
ered hovering  about  the  Molinos  del  Rey,  within  a  little  more  than 
a  mile  of  Tacubaya,  the  head-quarters  of  Gen.  Scott.  Molinos  del 
Rey,  it  was  understood,  contained  a  cannon-foundry,  with  a  large 
deposite  of  powder.  It  was  also  understood  that  several  church 
bells  had  been  sent  thither  to  be  cast  into  guns.  Considering  the 
importance  of  this  place  to  the  enemy,  Gen.  Scott  determined  to 
attempt  the  destruction  of  the  foundry  and  seizure  of  the  founder. 
A  further  inducement  to  this  movement  was  found  in  the  difficulty 
of  opening  a  communication  between  the  foundry  and  the  capital 
without  first  taking  the  formidable  castle  on  the  heights  of  Chapul- 
tepec,  which  overlooked  both,  and  stood  between. 

The  first  object  being  the  capture  of  Molinos  del  Rey,  this  duty 
was  assigned  to  Gen.  Worth,  who  was  directed  by  the  general-in- 
chief  to  limit  his  operations  to  that  particular  object,  leaving  ari 
attack  upon  the  castle  of  Chapultepec  to  a  future  hour. 

Having  made  such  disposition  of  his  forces  as  the  nature  of  the 
case  seemed  to  require,  Gen.  Worth  put  his  several  columns  in 
motion  at  three  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  8th.  The  early  dawn 
was  the  moment  appointed  for  the  attack,  which  was  announced  to 
the  troops  by  the  opening  of  Huger's  guns  on  Molinos  del  Rey,  upon 
which  they  continued  to  play  actively  until  this  point  of  the  enemy's 
lines  became  sensibly  shaken,  when  an  assaulting  party  of  five  hundred 
picked  men,  commanded  by  Major  Wright,  dashed  gallantly  forward 
to  the  assault.  Unshaken  by  the  galling  fire  of  the  musketry  and 
canister  that  was  showered  upon  them,  on  they  rushed,  driving 


ATTACK    ON    CHAPULTEPEC.  815 

infantry  and  artillerymen  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  enemy's 
field-battery  was  taken,  and  his  own  guns  trailed  upon  his  own 
retreating  masses;  before,  however,  they  could  be  discharged,  per- 
ceiving that  he  had  been  dispossessed  of  this  strong  position  by  com- 
paratively a  handful  of  men,  he  made  a  desperate  effort  to  regain  it. 
Accordingly  his  retiring  forces  rallied,  and  formed  with  this  object. 
Aided  by  the  infantry,  which  covered  the  house-tops,  the  enemy's 
whole  line  opened  upon  the  assaulting  party  a  terrific  fire  of  mus- 
ketry, which  struck  down  eleven  of  the  fourteen  officers  that  com- 
posed the  command;  and  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  in 
proportion,  including,  among  the  officers,  Major  Wright,  the  com- 
mander; Capt.  Mason  and  Lieut.  Foster,  engineers,  all  severely 
wounded.  This  severe  shock  staggered  for  a  moment  that  gallant 
band :  aid,  however,  was  promptly  sent  to  their  support.  Meanwhile, 
Garland's  brigade,  sustained  by  Capt.  Drum's  artillery,  assaulted  the 
enemys  left ;  and  after  an  obstinate  and  severe  contest,  drove  him 
from  his  apparently  impregnable  position  immediately  under  the 
guns  of  the  castle  of  Chapultepec.  Various  movements  now  took 
place.  A  most  spirited  and  deadly  work  was  waged  in  various 
quarters.  A  large  proportion  of  officers  fell;  among  whom  were 
Brevet  Col.  Mclntosh,  Lieut.  Col.  Scott,  and  Maj.  Waite,  the  second 
killed,  and  the  first  and  last  desperately  wounded.  But  at  length 
American  valor  and  perseverance  triumphed,  and  the  victorious 
general  and  his  remaining  troops  returned  to  .their  quarters  at  Tacu- 
baya  with  three  of  the  enemy's  four  guns,  the  fourth  having  been 
spiked,  as  also  with  a  large  quantity  of  small  arms,  with  gun  and 
musket  ammunition,  and  exceeding  eight  hundred  prisoners,  including 
fifty-two  commissioned  officers.  The  enemy's  force  exceeded  four- 
teen thousand  men,  commanded  by  Gen.  Santa  Anna  in  person. 
His  total  loss,  killed  (including  Gens.  Valdaroz  and  Leon),  wounded 
and  prisoners,  amounted  to  three  thousand,  exclusive  of  some  two 
thousand  who  deserted  after  the  rout.  The  American  force  reached 
only  three  thousand  one  hundred  men  of  all  arms.  The  contest 
continued  two  hours',  and  its  severity  was  painfully  attested  by  our 
heavy  loss  of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  privates,  inclu- 
ding in  the  first  class  some  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  service. 
Nine  officers  were  killed  and  forty-nine  wounded ;  seven  hundred 
and  twenty-nine  rank  and  file  were  killed  and  wounded. 

The  victory  of  the  8th  at  the  Molinos  del  Key  was  immediately 
followed  by  reconnoisances  in  reference  to  an  attack  upon  the  capital 
itself— long  the  object  of  our  ambitious  army.  The  city  of  Mexico 
stands  on  a  slight  swell  of  ground,  near  the  centre  of  an  irregular 


816  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

basin,  and  is  girdled  with  a  ditch  in  its  greater  extent — -a  navigable 
canal  of  great  breadth  and  depth — very  difficult  to  bridge  in  the 
presence  of  an  enemy,  and  serving  at  once  for  drainage,  custom- 
house purposes,  and  military  defence ;  leaving  eight  entrances  or 
gates  over  arches — each  of  which  was  defended  by  a  system  of 
strong  works,  that  seemed  to  require  nothing  but  some  men  and  guns 
to  render  them  impregnable. 

Outside,  and  within  the  cross-fires  of  those  gates,  on  the  south, 
other  obstacles  not  less  formidable  existed.  All  the  approaches  to 
the  city  are  over  elevated  causeways,  cut  in  many  places  in  order  to 
oppose  the  American  army,  and  flanked  on  both  sides  with  ditches 
of  unusual  dimensions.  The  numerous  cross-roads  were  flanked 
in  like  manner,  having  bridges  at  the  intersections  which  had  been 
broken  up.  The  meadows  thus  checkered  were  in  many  spots 
under  water,  and  marshy,  owing  to  the  wet  season. 

Such  were  some  of  the  obstacles  to  an  approach  to  the  city. 
Besides  these,  existed  another  most  formidable,  but  which  it  was 
essential  to  remove — the  fortress  of  Chapultepec,  a  natural  and 
isolated  mound  of  great  elevation,  strongly  fortified  at  its  base,  on 
its  acclivities  and  heights.  Besides  a  numerous  garrison,  here  was 
the  military  college  of  the  republic,  with  a  large  number  of  sub- 
lieutenants and  other  students.  The  works  were  within  direct 
gunshot  of  the  village  of  Tacubaya,  and,  until  carried,  the  Americans 
could  not  approach  the  city  on  the  west  (a  southern  approach  was 
deemed  impracticable)  without  making  a  circuit  too  wide  and  too 
hazardous. 

To  a  successful  attack  upon  Chapultepec,  and  an  approach  to  the 
city  by  that  route,  it  was  deemed  essential  that  a  feint  should  be 
made  against  the  southern  part  of  the  city.  This  stratagem  was 
admirably  executed  throughout  the  12th,  and  down  to  the  afternoon 
of  the  13th,  when  it  was  too  late  for  the  enemy  to  recover  from  the 
effects  of  his  delusion. 

On  the  morning  of  the  12th,  the  bombardment  and  cannonade  of 
Chapultepec  was  commenced,  under  command  of  Capt.  Huger. 
Before  night-fall  an  obvious  impression  had  been  made  upon  the 
castle  and  outworks.  During  this  day's  attack  a  large  body  of  the 
enemy  had  remained  outside  towards  the  city,  to  avoid  the  fire  of 
the  Americans,  and  to  be  on  hand  at  its  cessation,  in  order  to  rein- 
force the  garrison  against  an  assault.  On  the  following  morning,  on 
re-opening  the  cannonade,  the  same  force  was  discovered  outside. 

On  the  13th,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  a  signal  was  given  for 
an  attack  by  the  army  upon  the  castle,  which  had  so  long  been  the 


70* 


B5 


818  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

object  of  cannonade  and  bombardment.  A  strong  redoubt,  however, 
was  first  to  be  carried.  The  advance  of  the  men,  led  by  their  brave 
officers,  was  necessarily  slow,  but  unwavering,  over  rocks,  chasms, 
and  mines,  and  under  the  hotest  fire  of  cannon  and  musketry.  The 
redoubt  now  yielded  to  resistless  valor,  and  the  shouts  that  followed 
announced  to  the  castle  the  fate  that  impended.  The  enemy  was 
steadily  driven  from  shelter  to  shelter.  The  retreat  allowed  not 
time  to  fire  a  single  mine  without  the  certainty  of  blowing  up  friend 
and  foe.  Those  at  the  distance,  who  attempted  to  apply  matches  to 
the  long  trains,  were  shot  down  by  the  Americans.  There  was 
death  to  those  below,  as  well  as  to  those  above  ground.  At 
length,  the  ditch  and  wall  of  the  main  work  were  reached ;  the  lad- 
ders arrived ;  and  several  efforts  were  made,  by  both  officers  and 
men,  to  scale  the  walls.  But  many  of  the  gallant  spirits,  who  first 
attempted  it,  fell,  killed  or  wounded.  Col.  Andrews,*whose  regiment 
so  distinguished  itself  and  its  commander  by  this  brilliant  charge,  as 
also  Lieut.  Col.  Johnstone  and  Maj.  Caldwell,  whose  activity  enabled 
them  to  lead  this  assault,  greatly  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
gallantry  and  daring.  Lieut.  Col.  Johnstone  received  three  wounds ; 
but  they  were  all  slight,  and  did  not  at  all  arrest  his  daring  and 
onward  movements.  Capt.  Barnard,  with  distinguished  gallantry, 
having  seized  the  colors  of  his  regiment,  upon  the  fall  of  the  color- 
bearer,  scaled  the  walls  with  them  unfurled,  and  had  the  honor  of 
planting  the  first  American  standard  in  the  work.  Capt.  Biddle, 
always  prompt,  vigilant,  and  daring,  though  so  much  enfeebled  by 
disease  as  to  be  scarcely  able  to  walk,  left  his  sick  bed  on  this  great 
occasion,  and  was  among  the  foremost  to  enter  the  works. 

The  gallant  Col.  Ransom,  of  the  ninth  infantry,  fell  dead  from  a 
shot  in  the  forehead,  while  at  the  head  of  his  command,  waving  his 
sword,  and  leading  his  splendid  regiment  up  the  heights  to  the  sum- 
mit of  Chapultepec.  "  I  had  myself  been  a  witness  to  his  heroic  con- 
duct," says  Gen.  Pillow,  in  his  official  report,  "  until  a  moment  before, 
when  I  was  cut  down  by  his  side.  My  heart  bleeds  with  anguish 
at  the  loss  of  so  gallant  an  officer.  The  command  of  his  regi- 
ment devolved  upon  Maj.  Seymour,  who  faltered  not,  but  with  his 
command  scaled  the  parapet,  entered  the  citadel  sword  in  hand, 
and  himself  struck  the  Mexican  flag  from  the  walls." 

Not  less  distinguished,  and  no  less  glorious,  was  the  conduct  of  the 
fifteenth  regiment  of  infantry,  now  under  command  of  Lieut.  Col. 
Howard.  This  regiment,  which  had  greatly  distinguished  itself  in 
the  action  near  Churubusco,  on  the  20th  ultimo,  where  the  brave 
CoL  Morgan  was  wounded,  now  covered  itself  with  new  honors 

• 


ENTRANCE    INTO    THE    CAPITAL.  819 

and  fresh  laurels,  under  command  of  its  present  veteran  leader, 
assisted  by  his  gallant  Major,  Woods.  Capt.  Chase,  of  this  regi- 
ment, at  a  most  critical  moment  in  the  charge,  when  the  voltigeur 
regiment  had  advanced  partly  up  the  hill,  and  the  enemy  in  strong 
force  had  occupied  the  redoubt,  half  way  up  the  declivity,  and  held 
us  in  check,  under  orders  from  my  adjutant-general,  Capt.  Hooker, 
with  a  firmness  few  but  himself  possessed,  dashed  rapidly  forward 
to  the  right  flank  of  the  work,  calling  upon  his  company  to  follow. 
Lieut.  Beach  quickly  supported  him  with  his  company,  and  the 
enemy  fled  from  the  redan,  pursued  by  the  troops  of  my  command. 
Great  credit  is  due  to  the  officers  and  men  for  their  rapid  move- 
ments at  this  time,  for  the  whole  hill-side  was  mined,  and  had  the. 
enemy  been  allowed  to  fire  their  trains,  great  destruction  must  have 
inevitably  ensued. 

Lieut.  Selden,  of  the  eighth  infantry,  of  Capt.  McKenzie's  com- 
mand, one  of  the  first  to  mount  the  scaling-ladder,  fell  from  its  sum- 
mit, severely  wounded.  Lieut.  Rogers,  fourth  infantry,  and  Lieut 
Smith,  fifth  infantry,  of  the  same  party,  were  both  distinguished  by 
their  heroic  courage  and  daring,  and  were  both  killed  while  nobly 
leading  on  their  men.  Capt.  McKenzie,  selected  to  lead  the  storm- 
ing corps  from  the  first  division,  acted  well  his  part  after  reaching 
the  heights,  and  sustained  the  character  of  the  veteran  division  of 
which  his  command  was  a  part. 

The  fate  of  Chapultepec  was  thus  sealed,  and  access  to  the  city 
opened  to  the  American  army.  There  are  two  routes  from  Chapul- 
tepec ;  one  on  the  right,  entering  the  gate  Belen,  with  the  road  from 
the  south,  via  Piedas;  the  other  obliqueing  to  the  left,  to  intersect  the 
great  western  or  San  Cosme  road  in  a  suburb  outside  of  the  gate 
of  San  Cosme. 

Worth  and  Quitman  were  prompt  in  pursuing  the  retreating 
enemy,  the  former  by  the  San  Cosme  aqueduct,  the  latter  along  that 
of  Belens.  The  latter  of  these  routes  being  considered  far  more  dif- 
ficult and  dangerous,  it  was  the  design  of  the  general-in-chief  that 
Quitman  should  only  manoeuvre  and  threaten  the  Belen  or  south- 
western gate,  while  Worth  should  be  better  Supported  and  the  main 
attack  be  made  at  the  San  Cosme  gate. 

But  the  valor  of  Quitman  and  his  troops  would  not  admit  of 
delay.  Gallant  himself,  and  ably  supported  by  Brig.  Gens.  Shields 
and  Smith  (Shields  badly  wounded  before  Chapultepec,  but  refusing 
to  return),  they  pressed  forward  under  flank  and  direct  fires,  carried 
an  intermediate  battery  of  ten  guns,  and  then  the  gate,  before  two 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  but  not  without  proportionate  loss,  increased 


S20  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

by  the  steady  maintenance  of  that  position.  Quitman  now  entered 
the  city,  when,  adding  several  new  defences  to  the  position  he  had 
won,  and  sheltering  his  corps  as  well  as  he  was  able,  he  awaited  the 
return  of  daylight  under  the  guns  of  the  citadel  not  to  be  subdued. 

During  the  movements  of  Quitman,  Gen.  Worth  was  industriously 
employed  in  fighting  his  way  to  the  San  Cosme,  or  Custom-hpuse 
gate.  By  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  he  had  carried  two  batteries 
in  the  suburb;  and  here,  by  direction  of  the  general-in-chief,  he 
posted  guards  and  sentinels,  and  placed  his  troops  under  shelter  for 
the  night.  There  was  but  one  obstacle,  the  San  Cosme  gate, 
between  him  and  the  great  square,  in  front  of  the  cathedral  and 
palace,  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  that  barrier,  it  was  known,  could 
not,  by  daylight,  stand  our  large  guns  thirty  minutes. 

Such  was  the  position  of  things  on  the  night  of  the  13th.  The 
weary  army  sunk  to  rest,  if  rest  could  be  found,  in  expectation  of 
stirring  scenes  on  the  coming  morning,  and  with  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing an  object  long  sought  for — possession  of  the  city  which  em- 
bosomed the  celebrated  "Halls  of  the  Montezumas." 

But  at  four  o'clock,  on  the  14th,  a  deputation  from  the  city  coun- 
cil waited  upon  the  general-in-chief  with  the  annunciation  that  the 
federal  government  and  the  army  of  Mexico,  having  abandoned  the 
city,  they  had  come  to  demand  terms  of  capitulation  in  favor  of  the 
church,  the  citizens,  and  the  municipal  authorities.  Such  demands 
were,  however,  promptly  met  and  denied.  The  city,  it  was  claimed 
by  Gen.  Scott,  was,  in  effect,  in  the  power  of  the  Americans,  and 
they  would  come  under  no  terms  not  self-imposed. 

Thus  terminated  the  interview ;  at  the  close  of  which,  Gen.  Scott 
gave  orders  to  Gens.  Worth  and  Quitman  to  advance  slowly  and 
cautiously,  to  guard  against  treachery,  towards  the  heart  of  the 
city,  and  to  occupy  its  strong  and  more  commanding  points.  Gen. 
Quitman  proceeded  to  the  great  plaza  or  square,  where  he  planted 
guards,  and  hoisted  the  colors  of  the  United  States  on  the  national 
palace — containing  the  halls  of  the  congress  and  executive  depart- 
ments of  federal  Mexico.  "In  this  grateful  service,"  says  Gen. 
Scott,  "  Quitman  might  have  been  anticipated  by  Worth,  but  for  my 
express  orders,  halting  the  latter  at  the  head  of  the  Alamedas  or 
Park,  within  three  squares  of  that  goal  of  general  ambition."  "  The 
capital,"  he  adds,  "was  not  taken  by  one  or  two  corps,  but  by  the 
talent,  the  science,  the  gallantry,  the  patriotism  of  the  entire  army. 
In  the  glorious  contest,  all  had  contributed — early  and  powerfully — 
the  killed,  the  wounded,  and  the  fit  for  duty — at  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro 
Gordo,  Contreras,  San  Antonio,  Churubusco,  (three  battles)  the 


69* 


822  THE    UNITEL-    STATES. 

Molinos  del  Rey,  and  Chapultepec — as  much  as  those  who  fought  at 
the  gates  of  Belen  and  San  Cosme." 

No  sooner  had  the  victorious  army  entered,  and  were  in  the  act 
of  occupying  the  city,  when  a  fire  was  opened  upon  them  from  the 
flat  roofs  of  the  houses,  from  windows,  and  corners  of  the  streets, 
by  some  two  thousand  convicts,  liberated  the  night  before  by  the 
flying  government,  joined  by,  perhaps,  as  many  Mexican  soldiers, 
who  had  disbanded  themselves  and  thrown  off  their  uniforms.  This 
unlawful  war  lasted  more  than  twenty-four  hours,  during  which 
several  officers  and  many  soldiers  were  killed,  nor  could  it  be  pre- 
vented by  the  municipal  authorities  of  the  city. 

Thus  fell,  under  the  power  of  the  American  arms,  a  city  cele- 
brated from  the  very  discovery  of  the  country  for  its  wealth  and 
magnificence — for  its  public  squares  and  public  palaces — its  churches, 
its  palaces,  and  its  other  beautiful  and  extensive  structures — and 
containing  a  population  variously  estimated  from  one  hundred  and 
forty  thousand  to  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants ;  and  at  this 
time  defended,  at  vast  expense,  by  every  possible  fortification,  and 
by  the  combined  wisdom  and  scientific  skill  of  their  most  accom- 
plished generals,  aided  by  an  army  of  thousands  upon  thousands. 

Such  a  series  of  successful  enterprises,  accomplished  by  so  few 
men,  and  at  such  a  distance  from  home,  in  an  enemy's  country,  and 
that  enemy  fighting  for  their  altars  and  their  firesides,  is  scarcely  to 
be  paralleled.  Including  the  garrison  of  Jalapa,  and  two  thousand 
four  hundred  and  twenty-nine  men  brought  up  by  Gen.  Pierce  August 
4th,  the  entire  force  which  left  Puebla,  August  7th — 10th,  and  which 
constituted  Gen.  Scott's  entire  force,  amounted  only  to  ten  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  thirty-eight,  rank  and  file. 

At  Contreras,  Churubusco,  &c.,  August  20th,  the  number  of  men 
engaged  was  eight  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety-seven.  At  the 
Molinos  del  Rey,  September  8th,  three  thousand  two  hundred  and 
fifty-one.  At  the  capture  of  the  city  itself,  the  effective  force  did  not 
exceed  six  thousand.  The  grand  total  loss  of  the  Americans  during 
their  several  engagements  after  entering  the  basin  of  Mexico  is 
estimated  at  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  three,  including  three 
hundred  and  eighty-three  officers.  Of  the  original  force  of  the 
Mexicans,  estimated  at  thirty-two  thousand,  more  than  seven  thou- 
sand were  killed  or  wounded ;  three  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
thirty  were  made  prisoners,  one-seventh  officers,  including  thirteen 
generals,  of  whom  three  had  been  presidents  of  the  republic. 
More  than  twenty  colors  and  standards  were  taken;  seventy-five 
pieces  of  ordnance,  besides  fifty-seven  wall  pieces,  twenty  thou- 


SANTA    ANNA    SUPERSEDED. 

sand  small   arms,  and   an   immense  quanlity  of  shot,  shells,  and* 
powder. 

With  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  the  power  and  influence  of  Santa 
Anna  seemed  to  have  ended.  If  his  patriotism  was  not  impugned, 
his  wisdom  and  military  tact  were  extensively  questioned.  He 
retired  from  the  city  a  fugitive ;  his  army  was,  in  effect,  disbanded ; 
his  officers  and  troops  scattered  in  every  direction.  The  supreme 
government  had  been  filled  by  Santa  Anna,  on  the  16th  of  September, 
the  date  of  his  resignation  of  the  presidency,  by  the  appointment  of 
Gen.  Pena  Y.  Pena,  as  provisional  president,  who,  on  the  13th  of 
October,  issued  his  proclamation,  assembling  the  congress  of  the 
nation  at  Querataro,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles  north  of 
Mexico.  This  summons  was  followed,  on  the  20th  of  October,  by 
an  address  from  Senor  Rosa,  Secretary  of  State,  convoking,  in  the 
name  of  the  president,  the  governors  of  the  several  states  to  meet 
him  at  Querataro  on  the  10th  of  November,  to  consult  with  the 
president  and  his  cabinet  on  subjects  of  the  highest  importance. 

Allusion  has  already  been,  made  to  the  dissatisfaction  felt  with 
regard  to  the  manner  with  which  Santa  Anna  had  conducted  the 
war.  That  dissatisfaction  extended  to  Gen.  Pena  Y.  Pena,  the  pro- 
viskmal  president  of  the  republic,  who,  through  Rosa,  now  de- 
prived Santa  Anna  of  his  command,  and  required  him  to  deliver  it 
up  to  Don  Manuel  Rincon,  and  thence  to  wait,  at  some  convenient 
place,  the  formation  of  a  council  of  war,  to  sit  in  judgment  upon 
him,  for  the  loss  of  the  capital  of  the  republic.  On  the  16th  of 
October,  Santa  Anna  published  a  farewell  address  to  the  army, 
dated  at  his  head-quarters  at  Huamantla,  in  which,  after  alluding  to 
the  order  of  the  president  to  transfer  his  command,  in  conclusion  he 
said:  "I  depart  from  you  and  the  theatre  of  the  war,  perhaps,  to 
sacrifice  myself  to  the  vengeance  of  my  enemies,  or  to  effect  an 
inglorious  peace,  which  I  did  not  wish  to  grant,  because  it  was 
repugnant  to  my  conscience." 

This  was  followed  by  a  second  address,  purporting  to  be  a  mani- 
festo against  the  government,  and  which  was  dated  at  Tebuscan, 
October  22d.  In  this,  he  uttered  loud  complaints  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  all  who  had  combined  to  deprive  him  of  his  command, 
and  of  the  honor  he  claimed  as  due  to  him.  The  charge  of  a  want 
of  patriotism  he  repelled  with  indignation,  challenging  his  enemies 
to  produce  their  proofs  of  its  truth,  if  proofs  they  had,  and  conjuring 
Generals  Scott  and  Taylor,  and  their  armies,  to  declare,  whether,  as 
a  Mexican  general,  he  had  not  fulfilled  all  his  duties  to  his  country. 

To  a  complete  view  of  the  operations  of  the  army  in  Mexico,  it 


824  THE    UNITED    STATES. 

,  is  necessary  to  bring  16  the  notice  of  the  reader,  transactions  in 
other  quarters. 

On  retiring  from  Mexico,  Santa  Anna,  gathering  a  small  force, 
proceeded  to  the  neighborhood  of  Puebla.  This  city  had  been 
placed  in  command  of  Childs,  on  the  march  of  the  American  army 
towards  Mexico,  with  a  force  of  about  four  hundred  men,  while  the 
hospitals  at  that  place  were  filled  with  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
sick.  Finding  it  necessary  for  the  comfort  of  the  sick  to  remove 
them  within  the  protection  of  San  Jose,  Col.  Childs  was  here  at 
length  besieged  by  a  Mexican  force  for  the  space  of  twenty-eight 
days  and  nights  from  the  14th  of  September.  During  this  time  the 
enemy  augmented  in  numbers  daily.  Supplies  were  cut  off,  and 
even  an  attempt  was  made  to  deprive  the  garrison  and  the  sick  of 
water.  On  the  night  of  the  22d,  as  above  stated,  Santa  Anna  made 
his  appearance,  which  was  signalized  by  a  general  ringing  of  the 
bells,  and  a  discharge  of  shell  and  round-shot  from  Soretto  into  the 
heart  of  the  city.  On  the  25th  of  September,  Santa  Anna  sent  in 
a  demand  for  the  surrender  of  the  place.  On  the  30th  he  had  estab- 
lished his  battery,  bearing  on  San  Jose,  which  opened  with  great 
spirit.  ,  This  movement,  however,  had  been  anticipated,  as  were 
also  various  other  movements  during  the  siege.  At  length,  however, 
assistance  came  to  the  relief  of  the  besieged  general  and  his  worn- 
out  but  still  spirited  and  determined  troops.  With  a  competent  force, 
Gen.  Lane  reached  Puebla  on  the  13th  of  October,  at  one  o'clock. 
He  immediately  entered  the  city,  his  troops  moving  up  towards  the 
main  plaza,  and  driving  the  scattered  forces  of  the  enemy  before  him, 
and  completely  clearing  the  streets.  Thus  was  a  brave  officer  and 
his  men  .relieved,  after  a  long  and  serious  siege  of  nearly  thirty  days, 
and  thirty  nights.  "Never,"  says  Col.  Childs,  in  his  official  report, 
"  did  troops  endure  more  fatigue,  by  watching  night  after  night,  for 
more  than  thirty  successive  nights,  nor  exhibit  more  patience,  spirit, 
and  gallantry.  Not  a  post  of  danger  could  present  itself,  but  the 
gallant  fellows  were  ready  to  fill  it — not  a  sentinel  could  be  shot,  but 
another  was  anxious  and  ready  to  take  his  place:  officers  and  sol- 
diers vied  with  each  other  to  be  honored  martyrs  in  their  country's 
cause. 

Since  the  capture  of  Mexico,  two  other  engagements  have  taken 
place  between  an  American  and  Mexican  force — the  one  at  Hua- 
mantla  on  the  9th  of  October,  and  the  other  at  Atlixco  on  the  19th. 
In  the  action  of  the  9th,  at  Huamantla,  Gen.  Lane's  force  consisted 
of  Col.  Wynkoop's  battalion,  (from  Perote,)  Col.  Gorman's  regiment 
of  Indiana  volunteers,  Capt.  Heintzleman's  battalion  of  six  com- 


BATTLE    AT    HUAMAXTLA.  825 

panics,  Maj.  Lally's  regiment  of  four  companies  of  mounted  men, 
under  command  of  Capt.  Samuel  H.  Walker,  mounted  riflemen,  and 
five  pieces  ,of  artillery,  under  command  of  Capt.  George  Taylor, 
third  artillery,  assisted  by  Lieut.  Field,  artillery. 

The  Mexican  force  was  estimated  at  four  thousand,  a  large  portion 
of  which  were  lancers,  under  the  immediate  command  of  Santa 
Anna.  Although  fatigued  by  a  long  march,  the  American  troops 
entered  the  action  with  great  spirit  and  bravery.  Among  the  dis- 
tinguished officers  taken  prisoners,  were  Col.  La  Vega,  and  Maj. 
Iturbide,  son  of  the  former  chief  of  the  republic.  To  no  one, 
among  the  gallant  men,  who  took  part  in  the  action,  was  the  com- 
manding general  more  indebted  for  his  decided  victory  than  to  Capt. 
Samuel  H.  Walker,  of  the  mounted  riflemen.  The  commanding 
general  thus  speaks  of  him  : 

"On  arriving  near  the  city,  about  one  o'clock  P.  M.,  Capt.  Walker, 
commanding  the  advance  guard,  (of  horsemen,)  was  ordered  to 
move  forward  ahead  of  the  column,  (but  within  supporting  distance,) 
to  the  entrance  of  the  city,  and  if  the  enemy  were  in  force,  to  wait 
the  arrival  of  the  infantry  before  entering.  When  within  about 
three  miles,  parties  of  horsemen  being  seen  making  their  way 
through  the  fields  towards  the  city,  Capt.  Walker  commanded  a 
gallop.  Owing  to  the  thick  maguay  bushes  lining  the  sides  of  the 
road,  it  was  impossible  to  distinguish  his  further  movements.  But 
a  short  time  had  elapsed  when  firing  was  heard  from  the  city.  The 
firing  continuing,  the  column  was  pressed  forward  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  At  this  time  a  body  of  about  two  thousand  lancers  was 
seen  hurrying  over  the  hills  towards  the  city.  I  directed  Col.  Gor- 
man, with  his  regiment,  to  advance  towards  and  enter  the  west  side 
of  the  city,  while  Col.  Wynkoop's  battalion,  with  the  artillery,  moved 
towards  the  east  side,  Capt.  Heintzleman's  moving  on  his  right,  and 
Maj.  Lally's  constituting  the  reserve. 

"  Upon  arriving  at  the  entrance  to  the  city,  Captain  Walker,  dis- 
covering the  main  body  of  the  enemy  in  the  plaza,  (about  five 
hundred  in  number,)  ordered  a  charge.  A  hand-to-hand  conflict 
took  place  between  the  forces ;  but  so  resolute  was  the  charge,  that 
the  enemy  were  obliged  to  give  way,  being  driven  from  their  guns. 
They  were  pursued  by  our  dragoons  for  some  distance,  but  the 
'  pursuit  was  checked  by  the  arrival  of  their  reinforcements.  Col. 
Gorman's  regiment,  on  arriving  at  the  entrarice  to  the  city  at  about 
the  same  time  as  the  reinforcements  of  the  enemy,  opened  a  well- 
directed  fire,  which  succeeded  in  routing  them.  With  the  left  wing 
of  his  regiment  he  proceeded  in  person  towards  the  upper  part  of 
71  c5 


826 


THE    UNITED    STATES. 


the  town,  where  the  enemy  still  were,  and  succeeded  in  dispersing 
them.  Col.  Wynkoop's  command,  with  the  batteries,  assumed  their 
position;  but  before  they  were  within  range,  the  enemy  fled  in  haste. 
The  same  occurred  with  Capt.  Heintzleman's  command.  The 
enemy  entering  the  town  becoming  somewhat  scattered,  Maj.  Lally, 
with  his  regiment,  proceeded  across  the  fields  to  cut  off  his  rear 
and  intercept  his  retreat.  This  movement  not  being  perceived,  I 
ordered  him  to  advance  towards  the  town;  thus  depriving  him, 
unintentionally  of  an  opportunity  of  doing  good  service.  Captain 
Walker's  force  had  been  engaged  some  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
before  the  infantry  arrived  to  his  support.  He  succeeded  in  cap- 
turing two  pieces  of  artillery  from  the  enemy,  but  was  not  able  to 
use  them,  owing  to  the  want  of  priming-tubes,  although  every  effort 
was  made." 


Battle  of  Huamantla — Death  of  Captain  Walker. 

The  victory,  however,  was  not  achieved  without  the  loss  of  this 
distinguished  officer.  He  had  routed  the  enemy  in  the  plaza  at 
the  very  moment  he  fell  mortally  wounded.  His  loss  was  deeply 
deplored,  and  the  more  so  as  he  had  contributed  so  essentially  to 
the  victory  achieved.  The  total  loss  on  the  American  side  was 
thirteen  killed  and  eleven  wounded.  One  six-pounder  brass 
gun  and  one  mountain  howitzer,  both  mounted,  were  captured, 
together  with  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition  and'  several  waggons. 
The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  about  one  hundred  and  fifty. 


VICTORY    OF    ATLIXCO.  827 

In  tne  action  of  the  19th,  at  Atlixco,  ten  leagues  from  Perote, 
Gen.  Lane's  force  consisted  of  the  fourth  Ohio  and  fourth  Indiana  regi- 
ments, Major  Lally's  and  Captain  Heintzleman's  battalions,  Col. 
Wynkoop's  battalion  of  four  companies,  first  Pennsylvania  volunteers, 
Captain  Taylor's  and  Lieut.  Pratt's  batteries  of  light  artillery,  and 
a  squadron  of  dragoons,  commanded  by  Capt.  Ford,  third  dragoons. 
About  three  leagues  from  the  city,  the  advance  guard  of  the  enemy 
was  first  discovered.  These  on  the  arrival  of  the  cavalry  were 
pursued  for  a  mile  and  a  half.  On  arriving  at  a  small  hill,  however, 
they  made  a  stand,  and  fought  severely  until  the  American  infantry 
appeared,  when  they  took  to  flight.  The  dragoons  were  again 
ordered  to  follow.  After  a  running  fight  of  nearly  four  miles,  and 
when  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of  the  city,  the  whole  body  of  the 
enemy,  under  command  of  Gen.  Rea,  was  discovered  on  a  side  hill, 
covered  with  chapparal,  forming  hedges,  behind  which  they  had  taken 
post.  Here  a  bloody  conflict  ensued.  During  its  continuance  the 
infantry  appeared,  upon  which  the  enemy  again  retreated.  The 
column  now  pressed  on,  but  night  set  in  ere  they  could  reach  the 
city.  But,  favored  by  a  fine  moon-light,  the  artillery,  which  had 
come  up,  was  posted  on  a  hill  near  to  the  town,  and  overlooking  it, 
and  open  to  its  fire.  From  this  point  an  effective  fire  was  directed 
upon  the  city.  Every  gun  was  served  with  the  utmost  rapidity; 
and  the  crash  of  the  walls  and  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  when  struck 
by  tne  shot  and  shell,  was  mingled  with  the  roar  of  the  artillery. 
After  firing  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  the  firing  from  the  town 
having  ceased,  the  American  troops  entered,  and  Gen.  Lane  was 
now  waited  upon  by  the  ayuntamiento,  desiring  that  their  town 
might  be  spared.  The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  two  hundred  and 
nineteen  killed  and  three  hundred  wounded.  But  one  American 
was  killed  and  but  one  wounded.  The  victory  here  was  the 
more  important  as  Atlixco  had  for  some  time  been  the  head-quar- 
ters of  guerillas  in  that  section  of  country.  This  victory  achieved, 
Gen.  Lane  with  his  command  returned  to  Puebla. 


APPENDIX 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ABORIGINES  OF  AMERICA. — Early  notions  respecting  the  Americans. — 
Speculations  concerning  their  origin. — Intercourse  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
north-eastern  parts  of  Asia  ivith  America. — Similarity  of  the  customs  of  the 
Indians  with  those  of  many  tribes  in  the  old  world. — General  physiognomy  of 
the  North  American  Indians. —  Their  mental  and  intellectual  qualities. — State 
of  government  and  general  knowledge  among  them. — Description  of  particular 
tribes. —  The  Eskimaux. — Indians  of  the  United  States,  their  number  and  dis- 
tribution.— Manners,  mode  of  life  and  religious  notions  of  the  Indians. —  The 
Mandans. — The  Sioux. — The  Camanchees. —  The  Caribs. — The  Calif ornians. — 
American  languages. — Antiquities  of  the  North  American  Indians. 


THE  early  narratives  of  the  discoveries  in  the  western  conti- 
nent contain  the  most  marvellous  tales  respecting  the  inhabitants. 
America,  according  to  many  of  these  accounts,  was  peopled  with 
pigmies,  giants,  and  men  with  heads  beneath  their  shoulders.  A 
tribe  of  negroes  was  believed  to  exist  in  the  south,  while  the 
northern  regions  were  supposed  to  contain  inhabitants  perfectly 
white.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  striking  than  the  uniform 
appearance  of  the  aboriginal  population. 

The  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  American  Indians,  has  em- 
ployed the  researches  and  speculations  of  ingenious  men,  eve, 
since  the  discovery  of  the  continent.  Many  fanciful  theories 
A  1 


2  ABORIGINES   OF  AMERICA. 

have  been  invented  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  America  was 
peopled ;  but  the  most  reasonable  supposition  seems  to  be  that  the 
western  continent  received  its  first  population  from  Asia.  The 
map  of  the  globe  will  show  us  that  immediately  within  the  arctic 
circle,  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  old  continent  is  separated  from 
America  by  a  strait  less  than  forty  miles  in  width,  and  this 
strait  is  solidly  frozen  during  winter.  Kamtschatka,  the  ex- 
tremity of  Asia,  situated  between  the  fortieth  and  fiftieth  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  is  peopled  by  natives  who  are  thoroughly  accus- 
tomed to  endure  all  the  rigors  of  this  climate,  and  is  provided 
with  many  animals  equally  capable  of  existing  through  all  its 
inclemencies.  Under  such  circumstances,  we  can  see  no  difficulty 
in  concluding  that,  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  both  men 
and  animals  have  passed  to  America,  and  subsequently  been 
multiplied  over  the  whole  continent.  In  respect  to  human  beings, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  insist  that  they  passed  to  the- American 
shore  during  winter,  since  the  distance  is  not  too  great  for  us  to 
believe,  that  even  the  rudest  navigators,  when  driven  by  stress  of 
weather  from  their  own  coast,  as  often  happens  to  the  Eskimaux, 


Eskimaux, 

could,  with  little  difficulty,  have  reached  this  continent.  The 
Aleutian  islands,  which  are  very  numerous,  and  form  almost  a 
continuous  chain,  beginning  with  Behring's  Island,  and  extending 
from  a  point  opposite  to  Kamtschatka,  in  about  the  fifty-fifth 
degree  of  latitude,  may  have  afforded  a  much  easier  and  more 
certain  approach.  These  islands  are  in  the  same  parallel  of  lati- 
tude with  the  greater  part  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  Labrador,  where 
even  Europeans  are  able  to  endure  the  climate  during  the  severest 


ABORIGINES   OF  AMERICA.  3 

seasons.  There  is,  in  fact,  positive  proof,  that  the  reindeer  cross 
over  in  vast  herds  on  the  ice,  subsisting  on  the  moss  found  on 
these  islands  during  their  passage. 

An  objection  has  been  made  to  this  hypothesis,  grounded  on 
the  fact  of  the  striking  difference  between  the  Eskimaux  and  the 
common  Indian,  seeming  to  prove  that  they  were  derived  from 
different  races.  But  the  Eskimaux  bear  a  manifest  resemblance 
to  the  Kamtschadale,  Tunguse,  and  other  natives  of  the  northeast 
of  Asia,  notwithstanding  that  they  differ  in  many  respects  from 
other  inhabitants  of  the  new  world ;  there  can,  therefore,  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  that  they  are  descended  from  the  same  parent 
stock.  The  copper-colored  natives  of  America,  who  are  the  most 
numerous  of  the  aborigines,  approach  more  closely  to  the  Asiatic 
Tartars  in  color  and  stature.  Our  belief  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of 
the  Americans  is  strengthened  by  the  similarity  which  many  of 
their  customs  bear  to  those  of  many  wild  tribes  of  the  ancient 
continent.  The  practice  of  scalping  was  common  among  the 
Scythians.  Herodotus  informs  us  that  they  carried  about  with 
them  at  all  times  this  savage  mark  of  triumph.  The  ferocity  of 
the  Scythians  to  their  prisoners,  extended  to  the  remotest  part  of 
Asia.  The  natives  of  Kamtschatka,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery 
by  the  Russians,  put  their  prisoners  to  death  with  the  most  linger- 
ing tortures.  The  Scythians  were  believed  by  the  neighboring 
nations,  annually  to  transform  themselves  into  wild  beasts,  and 
again  to  resume  the  human  shape.  The  true  account  of  this 
metamorphosis  may  be  found  in  a  practice  very  common  among 
the  American  Indians.  They  disguise  themselves  in  dresses 


Indian  hunter,  with  a  deer's  hide  on. 

made  of  the  skins  of  beasts,  and  wear  the  heads  fitted  to  their 
own;  these  habits  they  use  in  hunting,  to  deceive  their  game. 
Ignorance  and  superstition,  among  barbarous  people,  would  natu- 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 


rally  ascribe  to  a  supernatural  metamorphosis  these  temporary 
expedients  to  outwit  the  brute  creation. 

The  Indians  of  North  America  are  marked  by  considerable 
differences  in  stature,  color  and  physiognomy.  Their  average 
height  corresponds  with  that  of  Europeans,  though  many  indi- 
viduals may  be  found,  in  various  tribes,  far  exceeding  the  ordinary 
height.  Their  color  varies,  from  a  cinnamon-brown  to  a  deep 
copper-color ;  and  some  have  been  found  of  an  olive-yellow  tinge. 
They  almost  universally  have  black,  straight  and  stiff  hair, 


Chief  of  the  Blackfoot  nation. 

though  it  frequently  appears  coarser  from  their  mode  of  dressing 
it,  than  it  would  in  its  natural  state.  The  features  of  the  face  are 
all  large  and  strongly  marked,  except  the  eyes,  which  are  gener- 
ally deep-seated,  or  sunk  in  large  sockets,  and  placed  nearly  in  a 
horizontal  line.  In  this  respect,  and  in  general  beauty  of  person, 
they  more  nearly  resemble  the  European  than  any  other  variety 
of  the  human  race.  The  forehead  is  commonly  rather  low,  some- 
what compressed  at  the  sides,  and  slightly  retreating  from  the 
perpendicular.  The  facial  angle  is  about  eighty  degrees.  The 
nose  is  generally  prominent,  and  sometimes  arched.  The  cheek- 
bones are  high  and  widely  separated ;  the  angle  -of  the  jaw  is 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA.  5 

broad,  and  the  chin  square.  These  latter  marks  give  a  peculiar 
fulness  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  and  occasion  much  of  tip 
remarkable  expression  of  the  Indian  countenance.  They  wer*j 
formerly  supposed  to  be  destitute  of  a  beard,  but  this  is  erroneouv; 
they  eradicate  the  hair  from  the  face  wijh  the  greatest  care.  T!>e 
hair  of  the  head  is  also,  in  a  great  part,  removed ;  a  small  lock 
being  usually  left  on  the  centre  or  crown,  which  is  commonly 
decorated  with  feathers,  porcupine  quills  and  other  ornaments. 

It  is  almost  a  universal  habit  with  them  to  paint  their  bodies, 
either  on  occasions  of  ceremony,  or  preparatory  to  battle;  hence, 
vermilion  has  always  been  a  substance  of  great  value  to  them. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances,  where  this  substance  is  not  to  he 
obtained,  they  employ  various  colored  clays,  charcoal,  &c.,  which 
are  smeared  over  the  skin  in  fantastic  figures. 


Western  Prairie. 

In  his  native  wilds,  free  from  the  debilitating  vices  and  corrup- 
tions of  civilization,  the  North  American  Indian  is  brave,  hospita- 
ble, honest  and  confiding;  for  him  danger  has  no  terrors,  and  his 
house  is  ever  open  to  the  stranger.  Taught  to  regard  glory  as  the 
highest  reward  of  his  actions,  'he  becomes  a  stoic  under  suffering, 
and  so  far  subjugates  his  feelings  as  to  stifle  the  emotions  of  his 
soul,  allowing  no  outward  sign  of  their  workings  to  be  perceived. 
His  friendships  are  steadfast,  and  -his  promises  sacredly  kept; 
his  anger  is  dreadful ;  his  revenge,  though  often  long  cherished 
in  secret,  is  as  horrible  and  effective  as  it  is  certain.  Neces- 
sity and  pride  teach  him  patience;  habitual  exercise  makes  him 
vigilant  and  skilful.  His  youth  is  principally  spent  in  listening 
to  the  recital  of  his  ancestors'  deeds  of  renown,  and  his  manhood 
is  passed  in  endeavoring  to  leave  for  his  children  an  induce- 
ment to  follow  his  example.  In  common  circumstances,  the 
Indian  is  grave,  dignified  and  taciturn ;  but  in  the  assembly  of  his 
nation,  or  in  a  council  with  the  whites,  he  frequently  becomes 
fluent,  impassioned,  eloquent  and  sublime.  With  few  words  and 
Al 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


no  artificial  aid,  drawing  his  images  exclusively  from  surrounding 
objects,  and  yielding  to  his  own  ardent  impulses,  he  rouses  his 
friends  to  enthusiasm,  or  strikes  dread  into  his  enemies,  as  he 
depicts,  with  a  few  rapid  touches,  the  terrors  of  his  vengeance,  or 
the  horrible  carnage  of  his  battles. 


Indian  Council. 

The  stern  impassiveness  of  the  Indian  is  one  of  his  strongest 
characteristics.  When  suffering  from  hunger,  he  utters  no  com- 
plaint ;  when  long  absent  from  home,  he  expresses  no  emotion  at 
his  return.  "  1  am  come,"  is  his  simple  salutation.  "  It  is  well," 
is  the  reply.  When  refreshed  by  eating  and  smoking,  he  relates 
the  story  of  his  enterprise  to  his  assembled  friends,  who  listen  in 
respectful  silence,  or  only  testify  their  interest  in  his  narrative  by 
a  single  ejaculation.  The  Indians  almost  universally  revere  the 
aged,  and  are  exceedingly  indulgent  to  their  offspring,  whom  they 
rarely  chastise,  except  by  casting  cold  water  on  them.  They  are 
not  so  kind  to  their  women,  who  are  generally  treated  more  as 
domestic  animals  than  as  companions,  and  are  seldom  exempted 
from  severe  toils,  even  when  about  to  give  birth  to  their  children. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  women  appear  contented  with  their 
situation,  and  not  unfrequently  exhibit  excellent  traits  of  charac- 
ter. At  times,  their  jealousy  or  other  depressing  passions  lead 
them  to  the  commission  of  suicide,  and  in  some  tribes  this  pre- 
vails to  a  considerable  extent.  Indian  habits  of  thinking  vary 
with  their  modes  of  education,  and  differ  much  in  different  na- 
tions. The  want  of  chastity,  before  marriage,  is  not  universally 
considered  a  loss  of  character;  neither  is  incontinence  in  the 
female,  after  marriage,  regarded  as  a  crime,  if  the  husband  gives 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


his  consent.  Yet  the  same  people  will  treat  as  infamous,  and 
even  put  to  an  ignominious  death,  a  woman  who  receives  the 
addresses  of  another  man  without  the  permission  of  her  husband. 
The  number  of  wives  taken  by  the  men  is  most  commonly  limited 
only  by  their  ability  to  maintain  them,  as  almost  all  the  Indians 
practise  polygamy.  Their  wandering  modes  of  life  and  precari- 
ous subsistence  render  the  increase  of  population  among  them  far 
inferior  to  what  it  is  among  the  whites. 


Knisteneaxx  woman. 

The  government  to  which  they  submit  is  that  exercised  by  their 
chiefs,  who  are,  with  very  few  exceptions,  chosen  in  consequence 
of  their  superior  courage,  physical  strength,  or  great  experience 
and  wisdom.  The  deference  paid  to  them  is  not  at  all  to  be  com- 
pared with  that  manifested  by  Europeans  to  their  rulers;  it  is  a 
respect  for  high  qualities  and  reputation,  but  confers  no  other 
privileges  than  that  of  leading  them  to  battle,  or  directing  the 
movements  of  their  camp;  it  does  not  entitle  the  chief  to  interfere 
with  the  rights  of  others  of  his  tribe,  nor  can  his  will  be  carried 
into  effect  unless  it  be  supported  by  the  general  opinion  of  his 
people.  The  authority  of  the  chiefs  of  the  ancient  German  tribes, 
according  to  the  relation  of  Tacitus,  was  precisely  the  same.  The 
most  general  and  enduring  passion  among  the  Indians,  is  that  for 
military  glory.  The  earliest  language  the  young  savage  learns, 
is  the  warrior's  praise ;  the  first  actions  he  is  taught  to  perform, 


6  ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 

have  for  their  object  the  eventual  attainment  of  this  distinction, 
and  every  thought  is  bent  towards  the  achievement  of  heroic  deeds. 
Hence  death  is  despised,  suffering  endured,  and  danger  courted. 
The  song  of  war  is  more  musical  to  his  ear  than  the  voice  of 
love;  and  the  yells  of  the  returning  warrior  thrill  his  bosom  with 
pleasing  anticipations  of  the  time  when  he  shall  leave  blood  and 
ashes  where  the  dwelling  of  his  enemy  stood,  and  hear  the  tri- 
umphant shouts  of  his  kinsman  responsive  to  his  own  returning 
war-cry. 


Movable  wigwams  of  the  Kaskaskias. 

The  knowledge  of  the  Indians  is  very  limited ;  their  talents  are 
most  exhibited  by  ther  skill  in  hunting,  and  the  shrewdness  of 
their  observation,  by  which  they  can  detect  the  footsteps  of  game 
or  of  their  enemies.  Their  acquaintance  with  the  mechanic  arts 
is  small ;  they  construct  huts  or  lodges,  with  skins,  bark,  or  earth, 
sustained  by  rude  poles.  They  make  canoes  of  birch-bark,  shape 
bowls  out  of  wood,  with  vest  labor,  by  the  aid  of  sharp  flints  and 
other  stones ;  make  a  rude  and  sun-dried  pottery ;  fashion  to- 
bacco-pipes of  clay  or  stone:  dress  the  skins  of  animals  by  rub- 
bing them  when  moistened  with  brains,  till  they  are  pliable;  and 
from  these  skins  they  manufacture  moccasins,  pouches,  &c.,  va- 
riously ornamented  with  porcupine  quills,  which  they  know  how 
to  dye  several  brilliant  colors. 

Their  knowledge  of  medicines  and  surgery  is  exceedingly  rude 
and  imperfect,  and  consists  in  a  few  plain  remedies  and  a  great 
deal  of  juggling  mummery.  They  cannot  be  said  to  have  any 
acquaintance  with  astronomy,  if  we  except  the  ability  which 
some  of  them  possess  to  guide  their  course  by  the  polar  star. 
Their  ideas  of  the  Deity  are  very  crude  and  indistinct,  though 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA.  9 

they  all  seem  to  possess  some  notion  of  a  future  state,  as  well  as 
of  a  Great  Spirit  and  Director  of  the  universe.  Many  tribes  have 
some  belief  in  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  a  future  life ;  but 
their  ideas  on  this  subject  are  necessaiily  founded  on  their  appre- 
ciation of  what  is  at  present  agreeable  or  disagreeable  to  them- 
selves. They  believe  in  bad  as  well  as  good  spirits,  and  are  as 
strongly  incited  to  worship  the  one  from  fear,  as  to  adore  the  other 
from  respect  and  love. 


Indians  hunting  buffaloes. 

Their  modes  of  living  vary  throughout  the  regions  they  inhabit. 
Those  who  reside  where  game  is  plenty,  live  entirely  by  hunting; 
others,  in  the  neighborhood  of  lakes  and  rivers,  live  by  fighting; 
many  tribes  raise  maize  and  tobacco.  The  Indians  who  frequent 
the  prairies  and  level  tracts,  in  general  are  fond  of  horses,  and 
are  excellent  horsemen;  while  those  who  roam  the  forests  are 
more  remarkable  for  the  speed  and  sagacity  with  which  they 
travel  on  foot. 


Eskimaux  hut. 


10  ABORIGINES   OF    AMERICA. 

The  Eskimaux  who  inhabit  the  most  northern  parts  of  the 
continent,  differ  considerably  from  all  the  other  aborigines  of 
America.  They  are  far  inferior  in  stature,  and  their  features  are 
extremely  harsh  and  disagreeable  to  Europeans.  Their  cheek- 
bones are  very  prominent,  their  cheeks  tumid  and  somewhat 
globose,  their  noses  small,  flat  or  sunken,  and  their  whole  phy- 
siognomy resembles  considerably  that  of  the  most  ill-favored 
Tartar  tribes.  The  Eskimaux  character  varies  from  Prince  Wil- 
liam's Sound,  where  they  are  of,  the  largest  size,  as  they  extend 
to  the  more  northern  regions,  to  the  coast  of  the  Icy  Sea,  Hud- 
son's Bay,  Greenland  and  Labrador,  they  become  dwarfish  in 
comparison  with  the  Europeans,  and  have  heretofore  given  rise  to 
stories  of  a  race  of  pigmies  inhabiting  those  regions. 

The  number  of  Indians  inhabiting  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  at  the  period  of  the  first  settlement, 


has  been  estimated  at  somewhat  below  two  hundred  thousand. 
These  people  spoke  a  vast  variety  of  dialects ;  yet  the  number  of 
languages  radically  distinct,  was  only  eight.  These  eight  races 
were  the  Algonquin,  the  Sioux  or  Dahcotah,  the  Wyandot  or  Huron - 
Iroquois,  the  Catawba,  the  Cherokee,  the  Uchee,  the  Natchez,  and 
the  Mobilian.  The  Algonquin  race  were  the  most  numerous,  and 
extended  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  Carolina.  This  race 
comprised  numerous  tribes.  1.  The  Micmacs,  who  inhabited 
Nova  Scotia,  and  often  invaded  Maine,  but  do  riot  appear  to  have 
become  permanently  domiciliated  there.  2.  The  Etchemins,  or 
Canoe-men,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Maine.  3.  The  Abenakis,  on 
the  Penobscot  and  Androscoggin.  4.  The  Sokokis  on  the  Saco. 
5.  The  Pennacooks  or  Pawtuckets,  in  New  Hampshire,  and  the 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA.  H 

county  of  Essex,  in  Massachusetts.  6.  The  Massachusetts,  who, 
at  the  period  of  ihe  discovery,  had  but  a  few  scanty  settlements 
in  the  state  to  which  they  gave  their  name,  but  had  formerly  been 
very  numerous.  7:  The  Pokanokets,  who  dwelt  about  Mount 
Hope,  in  Rhode  Island,  in  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard  and  on 
Cape  Cod.  8.  The  Narragansetts,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  a  part  of  Long  Island ;  these  were  the  most 
civilized  of  all  the  northern  tribes.  9.  The  Pequods,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Connecticut  and  on  Long  Island.  10.  The  Mo- 
hegans,  between  the  Connecticut  and  the  Hudson.  11.  The 
Manhattans,  whose  settlements  were  mixed  with  the  Mohegans. 
12.  The  Lenni  Lennape,  subdivided  into  the  Minsi  and  Dela- 
wares,  inhabiting  New  Jersey,  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  and 
the  Schuylkill.  13.  The  Nanticokes,  between  the  Delaware  and 
the  Chesapeake.  14.  The  Accomacs,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
Virginia.  15.  The  Pamlicoes,  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  Caro- 
lina. 16.  The  Shawnees,  in  Kentucky.  17.  The  Miamis,  on 
the  Scioto,  the  Wabash  and  Lake  Michigan.  18.  The  Illinois, 
between  the  Wabash,  the  'Ohio  and  the  Mississippi.  19.  The 
Potawatomies  on  Green  Bay.  20.  The  Chippeways  or  Ojibways, 


Chippemay  Village. 

in  the  country  south  of  Lake  Superior.  21.  The  Menomonies, 
near  Green  Bay.  22.  The  Sacs,  between  Lake  Michigan  and  the 
Mississippi.  23.  The  Foxes,  in  the  same  neighborhood.  24. 
The  Kickapoos,  in  the  north  of  Illinois.  Such  were  the  diver- 
sities of  the  great  Algonquin  nation,  which  possessed  more  than 
half  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  Sioux  nation  inhabited  the  northern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  waged  a  hereditary  war  with  the  Chippeways.  Their 
numbers  appear  to  be  greater  at  present  than  formerly. 


12 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


The  Wyandots  were  very  numerous  and  powerful  at  the  time 
of  the  discovery;  they  appear  to  have  come  originally  from 
Canada;  they  dwelt  about  Mackinaw,  Detroit,  and  along  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie  and  Ontario,  occupying  a  great  por- 
tion of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  Mohawks,  Oneidas, 
Onondagas,  Cayugas  and  Senecas,  were  comprised  in  this  nation. 
In  the  south,  were  the  Chowan,  Meherrin,  Nottaway  and  Tus- 
carora  tribes  in  Carolina.  The  Wyandot  tribes  of  the  north, 
were  of  great  political  importance ;  they  effected  many  conquests, 
and  for  a  long  time  held  the  balance  of  power  between  the 
French  and  English  settlers. 

The  Catawba  nation  occupied  the  interior  of  North  and  South 
Carolina.  They  were  the  hereditary  enemies  of  the  Wyandots, 
and  do  not  appear  ever  to  have  been  a  powerful  nation;  they  are 
now  nearly  extinct. 

The  Cherokee  nation  inhabited  the  elevated  regions  of  Caro- 
lina, Georgia  and  Alabama,  and  the  upper  valley  of  the  Tennes- 
see. They  have  now  emigrated  beyond  the  Mississippi. 

The  Uchee  nation  dwelt  southeast  of  the  Cherokees.  The 
Natchez  inhabited  the  country  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Both  these  nations  are  now  merged  in  the  Creek  confed- 
eracy. 


Palmetto  Glade — Florida. 

The  Mobilian  nation  inhabited  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  This  nation  includes  various  tribes, 
several  of  which  remain  undiminished  in  numbers  to  the  present 
day.  The  Yamassees  and  Creeks  dwelt  in  Georgia,  the  Semi- 
noles  in  Florida,  the  Choctaws  between  the  Alabama  and  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Chickasaws  to  the  north  of  the  Natchez. 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 


13 


Many  of  these  nations  remain  in  Florida ;  others  have  emigrated 
to  the  west. 

From  the  above  account  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  that 
portion  of  the  continent  with  which  we  are  the  best  acquainted, 
the  reader  may  gather  some  notion  of  the  great  variety  of  the 
tribes  which  still  occupy  the  forests,  the  prairies,  the  plains  and 
the  deserts  of  North  and  South  America.  The  names  would  form 
an  extensive  catalogue,  and  we  shall  confine  our  descriptions  to 
such  of  them  as  attract  especial  notice. 

Anything  mystical  or  marvellous  among  the  Indians  of  the 
west,  is  called  a  medicine,  and  a  person  supposed  to  be  a  conjurer, 
is  styled  a  medicine-man.  The  fur-traders  were  formerly  almost 
all  French,  and  their  word  medecin,  or  doctor,  became  adopted  by 
the  Indians,  to  signify  anything  marvellous  or  unaccountable, 
among  which,  of  course,  is  the  practice  of  physic  with  the  natives. 
The  Indian  country  is  full  of  doctors,  all  pretending  to  be  skilled 
in  magic,  and  to  deal  in  mysteries  and  charms,  which  are  their 
main  helps  in  curing  disorders.  The  Indians  have  their  "medi- 


Indian  Robe. 


cine-bags"  which  are  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  birds  or 
reptilesjltiid  ornamented  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  -  These  bags 
are  generally  attached  to  some  part  of  the  clothing,  or  carried  in 
the  hand.  They  are  often  decorated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 


B 


14 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 


exceedingly  ornamental,  and  are  always  stuffed  with  grass,  moss, 
or  something  similar ;  they  are  religiously  closed  and  sealed  up, 
and  are  seldom  or  never  opened.  The  medicine-bag  is  a  sort  of 
amulet,  on  which  the  Indian  relies  for  protection,  and  to  which  he 
pays  homage.  Feasts  are  often  made,  and  dogs  and  horses  sacri- 
ficed, to  a  man's  medicine,  and  weeks  of  fasting  and  penance 
suffered,  to  appease  this  mysterious  object,  when  he  imagines  it  is 
offended  with  him.  The  medicine-bag  has  fallen  into  disrepute 
along  the  frontier,  where  the  white  men  have  depreciated  it  by 
their  ridicule ;  but  in  the  distant  west  it  is  in  full  reputation. 

A  boy  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  is  said  to  be  c  making  his 
medicine,'  when  he  wanders  away  from  his  father's  lodge,  and 
absents  himself  for  four  or  five  days ;  during  which  time  he  lies 
on  the  ground  in  some  secluded  spot,  crying  to  the  Great  Spirit, 
and  fasting  both  day  and  night.  In  this  state,  when  he  falls 
asleep,  the  first  animal,  bird  or  reptile,  of  which  he  dreams,  he 
believes  the  Great  Spirit  has  designated  for  his  mysterious  protec- 
tor through  life.  He  then  returns  home  and  relates  his  success, 


Knistenauz,  n-ith  his  lance  and  medicine-bag. 

and  after  eating  and  drinking,  he  sallies  forth,  with  weapons  or 
traps,  in  quest  of  the  animal  of  which  he  has  dreamed.  The 
skin  of  this  animal  is  made  into  his  medicine-bag,  and  carried  by 
him  through  life.  After  death  it  is  laid  in  his  grave. 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 


15 


The  value  of  the  medicine-bag  to  the  Indian  is  beyond  all 
price ;  to  sell  or  give  it  away  would  expose  him  to  such  signal 
disgrace  with  his  tribe  that  he  could  never  recover  his  standing 
among  them.  His  superstition,  moreover,  is  an  effectual  guard 
against  any  such  sacrilegious  act.  If  he  loses  his  medicine-bag 
in  battle,  though  fighting  ever  so  bravely,  he  suffers  a  deep  dis- 
grace ;  his  enemy  carries  it  off  as  a  trophy,  and  the  loser  bears  the 
degrading  appellation  of  a  "  man  of  no  medicine,"  until  he  can 
replace  it  by  rushing  into  battle  and  capturing  one  from  an  enemy 
whom  he  slays  with  his  own  hand.  This  reinstates  him  in  his  rank, 
and  even  elevates  him  higher  than  before;  for  the  captured  article 
is  considered  of  superior  power,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  "medi- 
cine honorable." 


Mandan  cemetery. 

The  Mandans  never  bury  their  dead,  but  place  the  corpses  on 
a  slight  scaffolding,  just  above  the  reach  of  human  hands,  and  out 
of  the  way  of  wolves  and  dogs.  There  they  are  left  to  moulder  and 
decay.  This  aerial  cemetery  is  commonly  in  the  neighborhood 
of  one-  of  their  villages,  and  often  contains  some  hundreds  of 
corpses.  When  a  Mandan  dies,  and  the  customary  honors  and 
condolences  have  been  paid  to  his  remains,  the  body  is  dressed  in 
his  best  attire,  painted,  oiled,  and  equipped  with  bow  and  quiver, 
shield,  pipe  and  tobacco,  knife,  flint  and  steel,  and  provisions  for 
a  few  days'  journey.  A  fresh  buffalo's  skin,  just  stripped  from  the 
animal's  back,  is  then  wrapped  round  the  body,  and  tightly  bound 
with  thongs  of  raw  hide  from  head  to  foot.  Other  robes  of  skin 
are  then  soaked  in  water  till  they  are  quite  soft,  and  thece  are 


16 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


aiso  bandaged  tightly  round  the  body,  so  as  totally  to  exclude  the 
air.  The  scaffold  is  then  erected  for  it,  constructed  of  four  upright 
posts :  on  the  tops  of  these  are  laid  small  poles  and  willow-rods, 
forming  a  support  just  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  body,  which 
is  laid  upon  its  back,  with  the  feet  to  the  rising  sun.  Fathers, 
mothers,  wives  and  children  may  be  seen,  prostrated  on  the 
ground,  under  these  scaffolds,  howling  piteous  cries,  tearing  their 
hair,  cutting  their  flesh  with  knives,  to  appease  the  spirits  of  the 


Mandan  chief. 

dead.  When  the  scaffolds  decay  and  fall  to  the  ground,  the 
nearest  relations  bury  the  bones,  reserving  the  skulls,  which  are 
perfectly  bleached.  The  skulls  they  place  in  circles  of  a  hundred 
or  more,  on  the  prairie,  with  the  faces  all  looking  inward.  In  the 
centre  of  the  ring  is  a  little  mound,  on  which  are  placed  two  buf- 
falo skulls,  a  male  and  a  female.  In  the  centre  of  the  mound 
stands  a  medicine-pole,  sustaining  many  curious  articles  of 
mystery  and  superstition. 

The  Indian  children  are  carried  on  the  backs  of  their  mothers. 
The  child  in  earliest  infancy  has  its  back  lashed  to  a  straight 
board,  with  the  feet  resting  on  a  broad  hoop.  These  cradles,  if 
they  may  be  so  called,  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  fashions, 


ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA. 


17 


and   among  some  tribes  are  highly  and   tastefully  ornamented. 
The  Sioux  cradles  are  carried  on  the  backs  of  the  women,  and 


Sioux  cradle. 


sustained  by  a  band  passing  round  the  forehead.    This  band  is 
covered  with  a  beautiful  embroidery  of  porcupine  quills,  with 


Camanchee  nigmam. 

figures  of  horses,  men,  &c.     A  broad  hoop,  of  elastic  wood,  passes 
around  in  front  of  the  child's  face,  to  protect  it  from  a  fall,  from 
Bl  2 


18  «  ABORIGINES   OP  AMERICA. 

the  front  of  which  is  suspended  a  little  toy,  of  exquisite  embroi- 
dery, for  the  child  to  handle  as  a  plaything.  All  the  other  orna- 
ments are  of  the  brightest  colors. 

The  Camanches  are  a  powerful  nation,  occupying  the  territory 
on  the  shores  of  the  Red  River.  They  excel  all  the  other  Indian 
tribes  in  horsemanship.  A  Camanchee,  on  his  feet,  appears  out  of 
his  element,  and  almost  as  awkward  as  a  monkey  on  the  ground, 
without  a  limb  or  branch  to  hold  upon;  but  the  moment  he  mounts 
his  horse,  he  seems  metamorphosed,  and  flies  away  like  a  different 
being.  Their  numbers  amount  to  thirty  or  forty  thousand,  and 
they  are  tolerably  well  skilled  in  agriculture.  Their  wigwams 
are  made  sometimes  of  skins  and  sometimes  of  prairie  grass. 
Many  of  their  villages  contain  five  or  six  hundred  dwellings. 


When  Columbus  first  arrived  at  Hispaniola,  he  received  intelli- 
gence of  a  barbarous  and  warlike  people,  called  Carribals,  Cani- 
bales,  or  Caribs,  who  made  depredations  on  that  and  the  neighbor- 
ing island.  Columbus  found  this  warlike  race  upon  the  wind- 
ward islands,  and  they  remained  there  in  considerable  numbers 
till  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century.  The  great  difference  in 
language  and  character  between  these  savages  and  the  quiet  and 
inoffensive  natives  of  Cuba,  Hispaniola,  Jamaica  and  Puerto 
Rico,  causes  us  to  believe  that  their  origin  was  different.  Various 
tribes,  closely  akin  to  the  Caribs,  if  not  identical  with  them,  were 
scattered  over  the  northern  part  of  South  America,  extending  from 
the  Orinoco  to  Essequibo,  and  throughout  the  province  of  Surinam 
to  Brazil.  Some  of  them  still  exist  in  a  state  of  independence. 
The  Caribs  were  among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  native  Ameri- 
cans. Restless,  enterprising  and  ardent,  they  seem  to  have  con- 
sidered war  as  the  chief  end  of  their  creation,  and  the  rest  of  the 


ABORIGINES   OP   AMERICA.  19 

human  race  as  their  natural  prey.  They  devoured,  without 
remorse,  the  bodies  of  their  prisoners.  This  horrid  custom,  is  so 
repugnant  to  every  human  feeling,  that,  for  a  long  series^of  years, 
until  the  discovery  of  similar  practices  among  the  islanders  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  most  judicious  European  writers  holdly  im- 
peached the  veracity  of  the  old  navigators  upon  this  point.  But 
the  fact  of  their  cannibalism  rests  on  irrefragable  proof.  Among 
themselves,  however,  the  Caribs  were  peaceable,  faithful,,  friendly 
and  affectionate.  They  considered  all  strangers,  indeed,  as 
enemies ;  and  of  their  European  visitors  they  formed  a  right  esti- 
mation. 


Carib  house. 

The  Caribs  were  not  so  tall  as  the  generality  of  Europeans,  but 
their  frame  was  robust  and  muscular;  their  limbs  flexile  and 
active,  and  there  was  a  penetrating  quickness  and  a  wildness  in 
their  eyes,  that  seemed  an  emanation  from  a  fierce  and  martial 
spirit.  They  painted  their  faces  and  bodies  with  arnotto  so 
extravagantly  that  their  natural  complexion,  which  was  nearly 
that  of  Spanish  olive,  was  not  easily  to  be  distinguished  under  the 
surface  of  crimson.  They  disfigured  their  cheeks  with  deep 
incisions  and  hideous  scars,  which  they  stained  black ;  and  they 
painted  white  and  black  circles  round  their  eyes.  Some  of  them 
perforated  the  cartilage  that  divides  the  nostrils,  and  inserted  a 
fish-bone,  a  parrot's  feather,  or  a  fragment  of  a  tortoise-shell ;  and 
they  strung  together  the  teeth  of  such  of  their  enemies  as  they  had 
slain  in  battle,  and  wore  them  on  their  legs  and  arms.  One 
method  of  making  their  boys  skilful,  even  in  infancy,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  the  bow,  was  to  suspend  their  food  on  the  branch  of  a  tree, 
compelling  the  hardy  urchins  to  hit  it  with  their  arrows  before 
they  could  obtain  permission  to  eat.  As  soon  as  a  male  child 
was  bora,  he  was  sprinkled  with  a  few  drops  of  his  father's  blood; 


20  ABORIGINES   OP   AMERICA. 

and  the  period  of  attaining  the  first  year  of  his  manhood  was 
solemnized  by  a  scene  of  ferocious  festivity  and  unnatural  cruelty. 
No  other  race  of  men  has  heen  found  with  a  forehead  so  low  as 
that  of  the  Caribs ;  and  in  order  to  exaggerate  a  character  which 
they  deemed  beautiful,  they  had  recourse  to  artificial  means  of 
flattening  this  region  when  the  bones  are  soft  and  capable  of  yield- 
ing to  artificial  pressure.  'On  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  skull  was 
confined  between  two  small  pieces  of  wood,  which,  applied  before 
and  behind,  and  firmly  bound  together  on  each  side,  altered  the 
growth  of  the  skull  bone.  This  uncouth  and  frightful  custom 
continued  to  be  followed  by  the  wretched  remnant  of  Caribs,  that, 
till  a  recent  period,  inhabited  the  island  of  St.  Vincent. 


Cruelties  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  natives  of  Cuba,  Hispaniola,  Jamaica,  Puerto  Rico,  and 
the  Bahamas,  who  were  so  quickly  extirpated  by  their  remorse- 
less conquerors,  appear  to  have  been  the  gentlest  and  most  simple, 
amiable  and  benevolent  of  the  human  race.  Three  or  four  mil- 
lions of  them  peopled  these  islands  at  the  period  of  their  discovery; 
and  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time  the  whole  nation  had 
disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  They  were  taller,  but  less 
robust  than  the  Caribs.  Their  color  was  a  clear  brown,  not 
deeper,  in  general,  according  to  Columbus,  than  that  of  a  sun- 
burnt Spanish  peasant.  Like  the  Caribs,  they  altered  the  natural 
configuration  of  the  head  in  infancy,  but  after  a  different  fashion ; 
and  by  this  practice,  Herrera  informs  us,  the  crown  was  so 
strengthened,  that  a  Spanish  broad-sword,  instead  of  cleaving  the 
skull  at  a  stroke,  would  frequently  break  short  upon  it.  Their 
features  were  hard  and  unintellectual,  but  their  eyes  beamed  with 
good  nature,  and  there  was  something  pleasing  and  inviting  in 
their  countenances,  which  proclaimed  a  frank  and  gentle  disposi- 
tion. "  It  was  an  honest  face,"  says  Peter  Martyr,  "coarse,  but 
not  gloomy,  for  it  was  enlivened  by  confidence  and  softened  by 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA.  21 

compassion.  Another  striking  peculiarity,  which  distinguishes 
these  people  from  all  the  other  American  races,  was  their  remarK- 
able  attachment  to  the  female  sex.  An  insensibility,  or  a  contemp- 
tuous disregard  towards  women,  is  a  strong  trait  in  the  character 
of  most  of  the  continental  aborigines ;  but  with  these  islanders,  a 
fondness  for  the  sex  was  a  prominent  characteristic.  Love,  with 
them,  was  not  merely  a  transient  and  youthful  ardor,  but  the 
source  of  all  their  pleasures,  and  the  chief  business  of  life ;  for  not 
being,  like  the  Caribs  and  other  martial  and  restless  tribes,  op- 
pressed by  the  weight  of  perpetual  solicitude,  and  tormented  by 
an  unquenchable  thirst  of  revenge,  they  gave  full  indulgence 
to  the  instincts  of  nature,  while  the  influence  of  the  climate  height- 
ened the  sensibility  of  the  passions. 


Natives  of  the  West  India  Islands.  '  + 

I 

These  islanders  were  indolent,  as  their  genial  climate  and  pro- 
lific soil  enabled  them  to  satisfy  their  few  simple  wants  without 
much  labor.  In  muscular  strength  they  were  consequently  defi- 
cient; but  their  limbs  were  pliant,  and  their  movements  displayed 
gracefulness  and  ease.  Their  agility  was  eminently  conspicuous 
in  their  dances,  in  which  they  excelled  and  delighted,  devoting 
the  cool  hours  of  the  night  to  this  amusement.  It  was  their  custom 
to  dance  from  evening  to  the  dawn ;  and  although  fifty  thousand 
men  and  women  were  frequently  assembled  on  these  occasions, 
they  seemed  actuated  by  one  common  impulse,  keeping  time,  by 
responsive  motions  of  their  hands,  feet  and  bodies,  with  an  exact- 
ness that  struck  the  Spaniards  with  amazement. 

The  Californians  were  long  fam6us  for  the  fantastic  ornaments 
of  their  dress.  Sir  Francis  Drake  mistook  the  common  head-dress 


22  ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 

of  some  of  these  people^  for  a  diadem,  which  it  much  resembles, 
and  considered  the  gift  of  one  of  these,  made  to  him  by  one  of  the 
chiefs,  as  the  abdication  of  the  crown  of  California  to  Queen 
Elizabeth.  These  natives  have  made  little  progress  toward  civili- 
zation, although  the  Spaniards  have  long  been  established  in  the 
country.  They  have  none  of  that  boldness  and  independence  of 
character,  and  very  little  of  that  activity,  industry  and  perseve- 
rance, which  distinguish  the  Indians  nearer  the  pole.  They 
almost  entirely  neglect  tillage,  living  by  the  chase  and  on  the 
spontaneous  productions  of  the  soil.  A  few,  however,  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  Spanish  settlements,  possess  some  cattle 
and  horses.  Their  habitations  are  wretched  wigwams,  built  of 
rushes,  and  resembling  bee-hives.  They  hunt  animals  by  dis- 
guising themselves  in  skins,  like  the  Indians  of  the  north.  La 
Perouse  saw  a  Californian,  with  a  stag's  head  fixed  to  his  own, 
walk  on  all- fours,  as  if  he  were  browsing  the  grass ;  he  played  his 
pantomime  to  such  perfection  that  the  hunters  would  have  fired 
at  him,  had  they  not  been  forewarned.  By  this  disguise  they  get 
within  two  or  three  yards  of  the  deer,  and  discharge  arrows  from 
their  concealed  bow,  without  rising  erect.  Great  numbers  of  the 
Californians  are  nominally  Christians,  but  they  know  little  more 
of  Christianity  than  the  names  of  a  few  Catholic  saints. 

The  languages  of  the  native  Americans  have  aiforded  a  very 
interesting  subject  for  the  researches  of  philologists.  From  the 
territory  of  the  Eskimaux  to  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  and  again 
from  this  torrid  region  to  the  frozen  climate  of  the  Straits  of  the 
Magellan,  the  mother  tongues,  entirely  different  with  regard  to 
their  roots,  possess  the  same  general  physiognomy.  Striking 
analogies  of  grammatical  construction  are  observable  throughout. 
Idioms,  the  roots  of  which  do  not  resemble  each  other  more  than 
the  roots  of  the  Sclavonian  and  the  Biscayan,  have  those  resem- 
blances of  internal  mechanism  which  are  found  in  the  Sanscrit,  the 
Persian,  the  Greek  and  the  German.  Almost  everywhere  in  the 
new  world,  we  recognise  a  multiplicity  of  forms  and  tenses  in  the 
verb,  an  artificial  industry  to  indicate  beforehand,  either  by 
inflexion  of  the  personal  pronouns  which  form  the  terminations  of 
the  verb,  or  by  an  intercalated  suffix,  the  nature  and  relation  of  its 
object  and  subject,  and  to  distinguish  whether  the  object  be  ani- 
mate or  inanimate,  masculine  or  feminine,  simple  or  complex. 
Some  of  the  American  languages  have  an  enormous  complication 
of  tenses,  two  presents,  four  preterits,  arid  three  futures.  This 
multiplicity  is  a  characteristic," in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  of  all, 
even  the  rudest,  of  the  American  tongues.  They  are,  according 
to  Humboldt,  like  complicated  machines,  the  wheels  of  which  are 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA.  23 

exposed.  The  artifice  is  visible ;  the  industrious  mechanism  of 
their  construction  strikes  the  observation  at  once.  We  seem  to 
be  present  at  their  formation,  and  we  should  state  them  to  be  of 
\rery  recent  origin,  if  we  did  not  recollect  that  the  human  mind 
follows  imperturbably  an  impulse  once  given;  that  nations  en- 
large, improve  and  repair  the  grammatical  edifice  of  their  lan- 
guage, according  to  a  plan  already  determined. 

There  is  no  proof  that  the  existence  of  man  is  much  more 
recent  in  America  than  in  the  Old  World.  Within  the  tropics,  the 
strength  of  vegetation,  the  breadth  of  rivers  and  partial  inunda- 
tions, have  presented  powerful  obstacles  to  the  migration  of  tribes 
of  men.  The  extensive  countries  of  the  north  of  Asia  are  as 
thinly  peopled  as  were  the  savannas  of  New  Mexico  at  the  period 
of  their  discovery;  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
countries  first  peopled  are  those  which  offer  the  greatest  masses 
of  inhabitants.  History,  in  carrying  us  back  to  the  earliest 
epochs,  instructs  us  that  almost  every  part  of  the  globe  is  occu- 
pied by  men  who  think  themselves  aborigines  because  they  are 
ignorant  of  their  origin. 

It  is  a  somewhat  ancient  opinion  that  the  Americans  were  of 
Jewish  descent.  A  more  absurd  notion  never  was  entertained ; 
yet  it  has  been  thought  that  proofs  could  be  detected  in  the  abo- 
riginal languages.  Hebrew  scholars  have  imagined  that  they  saw 
striking  analogies  between  the  dialects  of  the  new  world  and  the 
Semitic  tongues.  Credulous  travellers  among  the  Choctaws  and 
Chickasaws,  have  heard  the  Hallelujah  of  the  Hebrews  sung  by 
the  tawny  natives.  Monuments  of  many  of  these  languages  yet 
remain.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  the  Massachusetts  tongue,  by  Eliot.  The  Peruvian  language 
can  boast  of  a  poetical  work,  in  which  the  Idyls  of  Theocritus  are 
imitated  with  perfect  grace  and  simplicity. 

The  antiquities  of  the  northern  American  tribes  consist  of  se- 
pulchral mounds,  either  the  general  cemetery  of  a  village  or  tribe, 
or  the  funeral  monuments  of  a  battle-field,  or  the  result  of  a  cus- 
tom prevalent  among  some  of  the  tribes,  of  collecting,  at  stated 
intervals,  the  bones  of  the  dead,  and  interring  them  in  a  common 
repository.  The  bricks  discovered  in  these  mounds  appear  to 
have  been  formed  after  the  modern  me*'.iod,  and  are  well  burnt. 
Many  metallic  remains  have  been  discovered  in  them,  mostly  of 
copper.  In  a  mound  at  Marietta  was  found  a  cup  of  massy 
silver,  finely  gilt  on  the  inside.  The  mounds  also  abound  in 
tools  and  articles  of  pottery.  In  the  caves  of  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  have  been  found  mummies,  in  a  high  state  of  preserva- 


24  ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 

tion,  clothed  in  skins  and  clot  of  various  textures,  inlaid  witn 
feathers. 

The  most  remarkable,  however,  of  the  northern  antiquities,  are 
the  mural  remains,  or  ancient  fortifications,  which  abound  through- 
out the  Western  States.  Some  of  these  contain  many  acres  of 
land,  comprising  walls,  ditches,  mounds,  causeways,  towers,  gate- 
ways, terraces,  pyramids,  &c.  Yestiges  of  whole  towns  are  dis- 
cernible in  many  places,  with  streets  and  squares  laid  out  in 
perfect  regularity.  In  the  state  of  Missouri,  are  the  remains  of  a 
building,  of  rough  stone,  fifty-six  feet  long  and  twenty-two  broad, 
with  a  stone  roof.  In  the  same  neighborhood  are  the  ruins  of 
another  building.  On  the  south  side  of  the  river  Missouri  is  an  en- 
closure, including  an  area  of  about  five  hundred  acres ;  it  consists 
of  walls  fifteen  feet  high  and  seventy  or  one  hundred  feet  wide  at 
the  base.  To  this  enclosure  are  attached  a  redoubt  and  a  citadel, 
with  gateways,  hornworks  and  curtains,  much  resembling  the 
structure  of  European  engineers.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
antiquity  of  these  ruins,  as  they  are  overgrown  with  large  cotton 
trees  in  full  growth. 

At  Cincinnati  was  a  mound,  six  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long 
and  sixty  feet  broad,  on  which  were  stumps  of  old  oaks  seven  feet 
in  diameter;  this  mound  contained  articles  of  jasper,  crystal,  coal, 
carved  bones,  beads,  lead,  copper,  mica,  marine  shells  and  do- 
mestic utensils,  with  human  bones.  In  Ohio,  is  a  conical  stone 
tumulus,  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high. 
Another,  in  the  same  state,  was  ninety  feet  high,  and  contained  an 
immense  number  of  human  skeletons,  of  every  size  and  age,  all 
laid  horizontally,  with  their  heads  toward  the  centre.  Stone  axes, 
knives,  and  various  ornaments,  were  deposited  near  the  head  of 
each  individual. 

These  structures  of  the  northern  aborigines  extend  over  a  \vide 
territory,  and  may  be  traced  from  the  state  of  New  York,  along 
the  western  line  of  the  Alleganies,  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Florida.  In  the  west,  they  exist  in  great  numbers  on  the  shores 
of  all  the  western  waters,  reaching  to  the  north  as  far  as  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi;  southerly,  they  extend  nearly  to 
Mexico.  They  are  undoubtedly  of  high  antiquity,  most  proba- 
bly the  ruins 'of  temples  and  cities,  some  of  the  most  massive 
and  durable  construction,  and  all  indicating  the  existence  of  a 
population  permanently  established.  Most  of  them  are  covered 
with  forests,  and  there  is  every  appearance  that  several  genera- 
tions of  trees  have  sprung  up  on  them  and  disappeared,  since 
they  were  deserted. 


CHAPTER    II. 

Antiquities  of  Mexico. —  Uxmal. — Palenque. — Tezcuco. —  Chi-chen. —  Cholula.— 
Xochicalco. — Papantla. — Zayi. — Mexican  hieroglyphics. — Manuscripts. — South 
American  Indians. — The  Otomaques. — The  Peruvian  Indians. — Antiquities  of 
Peru. — Palaces  of  the  Incas. — Latacunga. —  Canar. — The  Araucanians. — The 
Abipones. — The  Patagonians. —  The  Fuegians. — Conclusion. 


Ancient  Mexican  musicians. 

IN  a  former  part  of  this  work,  we  have  described  the  magnifi- 
cence and  extent  of  the  architectural  structures  of  the  Mexicans. 
The  country  still  contains  many  interesting  remains  of  the  cities, 
fortifications  and  temples  of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  although 
the  Vandal  spirit  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  displayed  itself  in 
attempts  to  obliterate  everything  in  *' .<;  nature  of  a  national 
monument.  The  great  city  of  Mexico,  formerly  the  wonder  of 
the  western  world,  can  hardly,  at  the  present  day,  boast  of  a 
single  stone  of  the  age  of  Montezuma.  The  most  important  an- 
tiquities are  at  Uxmal  and  Palenque ;  and  here  we  find  vestiges 
that  indicate  a  near  approach  to  civilization,  as  far  as  the  me- 
chanic arts  are  concerned.  The  ruins  at  Uxmal  stand  on  a 
plain  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  When  first  discovered,  they 
were  covered  with  a  thick  forest.  The  most  remarkable  edifices 
lie  in  a  group,  and  consist  of  pyramids  coated  with  stone,  and 
quadrangular  stone  edifices  and  terraces.  One  of  these  pyramids 
is  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  height,  supporting  a  temple  on 
the  summit.  On  one  of  the  facades  of  the  temple  are  four  human 
C 


26 


MEXICAN   ANTIQUITIES. 


figures,  similar  to  caryatides,  cut  in  stone,  with  great  exactness 
and  elegance.  Their  hands  are  crossed  upon  the  breast,  the  head 
is  enveloped  in  something  like  a  casque;  about  the  neck  is  a 


Uxmal  by  moonlight. 

garment  of  the  skin  of  an  alligator,  with  a  border  beautifully- 
worked  ;  over  each  body  is  sculptured  a  death's  head  with  bones. 
All  the  sculptures  are  brilliantly  colored. 

At  Palenque,  are  the  ruins  of  a  city  of  great  extent,  but  so 
completely  overgrown  with  a  thick  forest,  that  few  of  the  build- 
ings have  been  explored.  The  principal  structure  appears  .to 
have  been  a  royal  palace,  and  its  architecture  is  on  a  scale  of 
great  magnitude.  It  stands  upon  an  artificial  elevation,  of  sixty 
feet  in  height,  and  beneath  it  is  an  aqueduct  of  stone,  constructed 
with  the  greatest  solidity.  The  four  sides  have  corridors,  or  por- 
ticoes, the  roofs  of  whic.  are  supported  by  square  pillars ;  these 
are  crowned  with  square  blocks  of  stone,  stretching  from  col- 
umn to  column,  and  covered  with  designs  in  stucco  work  The 
chambers  are  ornamented  with  ornaments  in  stucco,  representing 
grotesque  figures.  The  sculptures  are  executed  very  skilfully. 
Within  an  open  court,  in  the  middle  of  the  whole  building,  stands 
a  pyramidal  tower,  of  four  stories,  fifty  feet  in  height.  More  than 
a  dozen  other  buildings  already  explored,  exhibit  the  same  species 
of  architecture  and  sculpture.  The  human  figures  represented 
here,  are  all  remarkable  for  the  great  size  of  the  nose,  and  a  pro- 
trusion of  the  under  lip;  they  are  also  beardless.  Some  of  the 
sculptures  represent  human  sacrifices,  hieroglyphical  symbols,  and 
men  dancing,  with  palm-leaves  in  their  hands.  One  figure,  sup- 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


27 


posed  to  be  a  deity,  is  sitting  in  Hindoo  style,  on  a  throne,  orna- 
mented on  each  side  with  the  head  and  claws  of  an  animal ; 
another,  seated  cross-legged  upon  a  two-headed  monster,  is  receiv- 
ing an  offering  from  a  man, in  a  Kneeling  attitude.  In  all  these 
representations,  every  appearance  of  martial  weapons  appears  to 
be  wanting.  Some  of  the  windows  are  in  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross;  and  on  the  wall  of  one  of  the  apartments  is  a  tablet  of 
sculptured  stone,  exhibiting  the  figure  of  a  large  and  richly  orna- 
mented cross,  placed  upon  an  altar  or  pedestal.  A  priest  stands 
on  one  side,  in  the  attitude  of  adjuration,  and  on  the  other  side,  is 
another  priest  presenting  some  offering.  On  the  top  of  the  cross 
is  seated  a  sacred  bird,  which  has  two  strings  of  beads  around  its 
neck.  These  sculptures  are  accompanied  with  hieroglyphics, 
which  no  one  yet  has  been  able  to  decipher. 


Ruins  of  a  temple  at  Cki-chen. 

At  Tezcuco,  Merida.  Xochicalco,  Chi-chen,  Zayi,  Zacatecas, 
and  numerous  other  places,  are  ruins  of  great  extent,  which  ex- 
hibit striking  proofs  of  the  proficiency  of  the  aboriginal  Ameri- 
cans in  the  science  of  architecture.  At  Copan,  in  Guatimala,  are 
the  walls  and  other  remains  of  a  great  city,  which  extend  along 
the  river  for  two  miles.  Here  are  some  remarkable  monuments, 
in  the  shape  of  obelisks  and  columns,  covered  with  fantastic 
sculptures.  Everything  shows  that  Mexico  and  Guatimala,  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  were  covered  with  flourishing  cities,  con- 
taining magnificent  palaces  and  other  public  buildings.  The 
inhabitants  appear  to  have  been  a  polished  and  cultivated  people ; 
the  arts  were  in  a  high  state  of  advancement. 


28 


MEXICAN   ANTIQUITIES. 


The  pyramids  in  this  country  are  also  numerous.  The  largest 
is  that  of  Cholula,  which  measures  fourteen  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  feet  in  length,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  feet  in 
height.  It  is  built,  of  alternate  layers  of  clay  and  sun-burnt 
bricks,  and  is  divided  into  four  stories  or  stages,  and  ranged 


Pyramid  at  Cholula. 

exactly  in  the  direction  of  the  cardinal  points.  The  ascent  to  the 
summit  is  by  steps.  In  the  interior  has  been  discovered  a  vault, 
with  stone  walls,  roofed  with  beams  of  Cyprus  wood,  containing 
skeletons,  idols,  &c.  This  large  pyramid  is  surrounded  by  sey- 
eral  smaller  ones. 

At  Xochicalco,  is  a  pyramid,  which  seems  to  have  been  formed 
by  cutting  a  hill  into  an  artificial  shape.  It  is  nearly  three  miles 
in  circuit,  from  three  to  four  hundred  feet  high,  and  encompassed 
by  a  ditch.  It  is  divided  into  four  terraces,  and  the  intermediate 
slopes  are  covered  with  platforms,  bastions,  pyramidal  and  rec- 
tangular elevations  and  stages,  one  above  the  other,  all  faced 
with  large  pophyry  stones,  skilfully  cut,  but  joined  without  ce- 
ment. The  construction  of  the  stories  is  remarkably  similar  to 
the  Egyptian  style  of  architecture.  On  the  stones  of  this  pyra- 
mid are  many  figures  sculptured  in  relief,  some  representing 
hieroglyphical  signs,  and  others,  human  figures  seated  cross- 
legged,  in  the  Asiatic  manner,  and  crocodiles  spouting  water.  At 
Papantl^.  are  the  remains  of  another  pyramid,  constructed  of 
enormous  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  regularly  laid  in  cement.  It  is 
sixty  feet  high  and  eighty  feet  square.  No  city  of  any  impor- 
tance, at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  was  without  a  number  of  these 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


29 


stupendous  edifices  in  its  vicinity.  Most  of  them  were  over- 
thrown by  the  Spaniards,  but  their  remains,  scattered  over  the 
country  in  every  direction,  attest  the  former  populousness  of 
Mexico  and  Guatimala.- 


Ruins  at  'Zayi. 

The  paper  which  was  used  for  the  Mexican  hieroglyphical 
paintings  much  resembles  the  Egyptian  paper  manufactured  from 
the  papyrus.  It  was  made  from  the  agave,  a  plant  now  familiarly 
known  in  our  gardens  by  the  name  of  aloe.  Some  of  the  hiero- 


Mexican  helmet  and  cotton  armor. 

glyphics  now  extant,  are  painted  on  deer-skins,  others  on  cotton 
cloth.     Immense  quantities  of  Mexican  manuscripts  were  burnt 
C2 


30  MEXICAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

by  the  Spaniards,  at  the  times  of  the  conquest,  for  the  purpose  of 
extirpating  the  idolatry  of  the  natives  and  all  that  could  remind 
them  of  their  nationality.  Some  hundreds  of  them,  however,  still 
remain.  In  these  manuscripts,  simple  hieroglyphics  represent 
simple  and  familiar  objects,  as  water,  earth,  air,  wind,  day,  night, 
speech,  motion,  &c.  These  signs,  added  to  the  picture  of  an  event, 
as  a  battle  or  a  procession,  marked  in  a  very  ingenious  manner 
whether  the  action  passed  during  the  day  or  the  night,  the  age  of 
the  persons  represented,  whether  they  had  been  talking,  and  who 
among  them  talked  the  most.  There  are  also  vestiges  of  phonetic 
writing,  or  that  which  indicates  relations,  not  with  things,  but 
with  the  language  spoken.  Among  semi-barbarous  nations,  the 
names  of  individuals,  of  cities,  mountains,  &c.,  have  generally 
some  allusions  to  objects  that  strike  the  senses;  and  it  is  by  a  com- 
bination of  these  objects  that  the  Mexican  characters  were  able  to 
express  proper  names. 


Chimalpopoca,  or  smoking  shield. 

The  annals  of  the  Mexican  empire,  as  we  are  informed  by 
Humboldt,  appear  to  go  back  as  far  as  the  sixth  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  At  that  period  we  find  the  epochs  of  the  migra- 
tions, the  causes  which  produced  them,  the  names  of  the  chiefs 
and  warriors  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Citin,  who  led  the  north- 
ern nations  from  the  unknown  regions  of  Aztlan  and  Teocolhu- 
acan  into  the  plains  of  Anahuac.  The  foundation  of  Mexico,  like 
that  of  Rome,  goes  back  to  the  heroic  ages,  and  from  the  twelfth 
century,  the  annals  of  the  Aztecks  give  an  uninterrupted  account 
of  secular  festivals,  the  genealogy  of  their  kings,  the  tributes  im- 
posed on  the  conquered,  the  foundation  of  cities,  celestial  phenom- 
ena and  the  minutest  events  which  influence  the  state  of  society 
in  its  infancy.  It  is  singular  that  neither  history  nor  tradition 
connects  the  nations  of  South  America  with  those  north  of  the 
isthmus  of  Darien. 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


31 


Several  Mexican  paintings  represent  the  deluge  of  Coxcox,  the 
American  Noah.  Coxcox  is  drawn  floating  in  a  bark.  Mount 
Coihuacan,  the  Arrarat  of  the  Mexicans,  lifts  its  summit  above 
the  waters,  crowned  by  a  tree.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountain 


Ancient  Mexicans. 

appear  the  heads  of  Coxcox  and  his  wife.  The  men  born  after 
the  deluge  are  represented  as  dumb ;  but  a  dove  from  the  top  of  a 
tree  distributes  tongues  among  them.  This  deluge  of  Coxcox 
stands  in  the  Azteck  cosmogony  as  the  fourth  destruction  of  the 
world.  In  these  four  destructions  we  find  the  emblems  of  four 
elements,  earth,  fire,  air,  and  water. 

The  Mexican  volumes  examined  by  the  first  Spanish  missiona- 
ries, contained  notions  on  a  great  number  of  different  subjects. 


Mexican  women  making  bread. 

They  consisted  of  annals  of  the  empire,  rituals  indicating  the  days 
on  which  sacrifices  were  to  be  made,  cosmogonial  and  astrologi- 
cal representations,  papers  relating  to  lawsuits,  lists  of  tributes 


32  MEXICAN   ANTIQUITIES. 

payable  at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  genealogical  tables,  alma- 
nacs, laws,  &c.  A  great  proportion  related  to  lawsuits,  and  the 
use  of  these  paintings,  in  matters  of  litigation,  were  continued  in 
the  Spanish  tribunals  long  after  the  conquest.  The  natives, 
unable  to  address  the  judges  except  through  an  interpreter,  found 
the  hieroglyphics  doubly  necessary.  It  was  for  a  long  time  deemed 
indispensable  to  have  attorneys,  pleaders,  and  judges,  who  were 
able  to  read  the  titles,  the  genealogical  paintings,  the  ancient  laws, 
and  the  lists  of  taxes,  which  each  feudatory  was  obliged  to  pay  his 
lord.  * ,,. 

One  of  these  manuscripts  represents  a  lawsuit  for  the  possession 
of  an  Indian  farm.  The  farm  is  drawn  in  a  bird's-eye  view ;  the 
main  road  is  indicated  by  foot-prints,  and  the  houses  are  sketched 
in  profile.  The  Spanish  judges  sit  in  their  chairs,  with  the  law- 
books  before  them.  The  Spanish  plaintiff  sits  on  the  ground  on 
one  side,  in  conjunction  with  the  hieroglyphic  of  water  painted 
green,  showing  that  his  name  was  Aguaverde.  The  Indian's 
name  is  Bow.  The  amount  of  talking  is  indicated  by  the  number 
of  tongues  marked  against  each  individual.  Everything  portays 
the  state  of  a  vanquished  country.  The  native  scarcely  utters  a 
word,  while  the  men  with  long  beards  make  long  speeches  with 
the  demeanor  of  conquerors  and  masters. 


Modern  Mexicans. 
\** 

Many  tribes  of  the  Aborigines  inhabit  the  forests  and  plains  of 
the  northern  part  of  South  America,  where  they  continue  in  their 
original  wildness.  These  are  among  the  most  indolent  of  all  the 
American  Indians.  Their  firm  belief  is  that  the  purest  and  most 
exalted  enjoyments  under  the  sun  are  idleness  and  intoxication. 
A  strong  liquor  called  chicke  was  formerly  manufactured  by  them 
from  the  fermented  juice  of  fruits ;  but  this  has  been  discontinued 
by  those  tribes  who  dwell  near  the  Spanish  settlements,  where  they 
can  supply  themselves  with  rum  and  brandy.  These  people  pass 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA.  33 

their  lives  between  drinking  and  sleeping.  With  great  reluctance, 
the  Indian  leaves  his  hammock  only  when  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather,  rendering  the  agricultural  labors  of  his  wife  unproduc- 
tive, obliges  him  to  go  and  hunt;  then  he  concerts  his  measures 
with  so  much  address,  that  the  exertions  of  one  day  procure  him 
subsistence  and  repose  for  a  week.  The  Otomaques,  on  the  high- 
lands of  the  Orinoco,  are  an  exception ;  they  are  active  and  indus- 
trious, though  even  an  Indian  of  this  tribe  was  never  known  to 
labor  two  days  in  succession.  They  have  games,  played  with  a 
ball  of  caoutchouc,  requiring  much  agility,  like  our  game  of  ball. 
The  strange  custom  of  eating  earth,  which  is  peculiar  to  some  of 
the  South  American  tribes,  exist,  among  the  Otomaques,  who  are 
among  the  most  voracious  of  all  these  people.  They  mix  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  earth  with  alligator-fat,  and  subject  it  to  a  species 
of  cooking,  which  prevents  it  from  being  hurtful.  All  the  va- 
grant tribes  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Meta,  likewise  eat  earth. 
Some  natives,  in  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Casiquiare,  live 
chiefly  upon  ants.  The  lot  of  the  women,  throughout  all  the  tribes 
of  the  Orinoco,  is  peculiarly  hard.  The  day  of  marriage  is  the 
last  day  of  ease  and  comfort  to  a  female  here.  All  domestic 
labors,  without  exception,  form  her  task ;  the  toil  of  culture  and 
harvest  must  be  performed  by  her  hands ;  whatever  embarrass- 
ments she  may  endure  from  children,  she  is  never  exempt  from 
the  painful  toils  which  are  imposed  by  the  matrimonial  state. 
She  stands  exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  scorching  sun,  and  to  torrents 
of  rain,  while  her  barbarous  husband,  lazily  reposing  in  his  ham- 
mock, smokes  his  cigar  and  stupifies  himself  with  strong  liquor, 
without  addressing  a  word  to  his  companion  exhausted  with 
fatigue.  Standing  silently  by,  she  waits  till  her  oppressor  has 
finished  his  meal,  which  she  has  prepared  for  him  at  the  expense 
of  the  greatest  suffering ;  when  he  has  done  eating,  she  is  allowed 
to  regale  herself  on  the  fragments. 

Among  some  of  these  tribes,  husbands  exchange  wives  with 
one  another  for  a  limited  time,  and  receive  them  back  again, 
without  the  smallest  difficulty  arising  between  the  parties.  No 
costume  appears  so  beautiful  to  one  of  these  Indians,  as  to  have 
his  whole  body  painted  red.  Oil  arid  arnotto  are  the  ingredients 
which  compose  the  paint,  and  every  one  applies  it  either  with  his 
own  hand,  or  by  that  of  another.  Children  at  the  breast  undergo 
this  operation  twice  a  day.  No  Indian  thinks  himself  naked 
when  he  is  painted;  it  would  require  a  long  time  to  persuade  him 
that  it  is  more  decent  to  dress  than  to  paint.  When  Indian 
strangers  visit  them,  hospitality  requires  that  the  women  should 
wash  away  the  old  paint,  and  give  them  a  fresh  coat.  Vast  tracts 

3 


34  ABORIGINES   OF  AMERICA. 

of  country  on  the  Orinoco  and  its  branches,  remain,  and  are  likely 
to  continue,  in  the  undisputable  possession  of  the  Indians.  The 
soil,  for  a  great  extent,  is  periodically  inundated  by  the  river,  and 
immense  swarms  of  insects  are  generated  by  the  intense  heat  of 
the  sun  upon  these  marshy  tracts,  rendering  them  utterly  unin- 
habitable except  to  the  natives. 

In  our  history  of  the  conquest  of  Peru,  we  have  given  an 
account  of  the  political  and  religious  system  of  that  empire. 
The  Peruvian  Indians  of  the  present  day,  have  become  christian- 
ized, but  retain  most  of  their  native  characteristics ;  they  have 
somewhat  deteriorated  since  the  conquest,  and  are  now  infected 
with  the  vices  of  the  northern  Indians,  idleness  and  intoxication. 
In  labor  they  are  persevering,  but  so  slow  as  to  give  rise  to  a 
proverb.  When  a  thing  of  little  value  requires  much  time  and 
patience,  it  is  pronounced  "  fit  only  to  be  done  by  an  Indian." 
They  weave  carpets,  curtains,  quilts  and  other  stuffs,  but  being 
unacquainted  with  any  better  method  in  passing  the  warp,  they 
have  the  patience  every  time  to  count  the  threads  one  by  one,  so 
that  two  or  three  years  are  required  to  finish  a  single  piece.  As 
among  the  northern  Indians,  also,  the  women  do  nearly  all  the 
work ;  they  grind  the  barley,  roast  the  maize,  and  brew  the  chiche, 
while  the  husband  sits  squatting  on  his  hams.  An  Indian,  once 
settled  in  this  posture,  cannot  be  made  to  stir  by  any  reward. 
So  that  if  a  traveller  has  lost  his  way,  and  applies  to  an  Indian 
cottage,  the  man  hides  himself,  and  tells  his  wife  to  say  he  is  not 
at  home,  though  he  might  earn  a  considerable  sum  by  going  a 
mile  or  less.  Should  the  stranger  alight  from  his  horse  and  enter 
the  hut,  the  Indian  would  still  be  safe ;  for  as  there  is  no  light, 
except  what  comes  through  a  very  small  opening,  he  could  not 
be  discovered.  The  only  things  in  which  a  Peruvian  Indian 
shows  any  lively  sensation  or  alacrity,  are  parties  of  pleasure, 
rejoicings  and  dances;  but  in  all  these,  the  liquor  must  circu- 
late plentifully.  With  this  they  begin  the  day,  and  continue 
drinking  till  they  are  deprived  of  sense  and  motion.  The  women, 
however,  young  and  old,  are  never  intemperate. 

The  common  food  of  the  Peruvian  Indians  is  the  meal  of 
roasted  maize  or  barley,  which  they  eat  by  spoonfuls,  two  or  three 
of  which,  and  a  draught  of  chiche  or  water,  make  a  repast. 
When  they  set  out  on  a  journey,  their  whole  store  is  a  little  bag 
of  this  meal  and  a  spoon,  and  this  suffices  for  a  journey  of  two  or 
three  hundred  miles.  Their  habitations  are  very  small,  and  con- 
tain a  fireplace  in  the  middle;  the  family  and  their  animals 
occupy  the  hut  promiscuously,  like  an  Irishman  and  his  pigs. 
They  have  a  particular  fondness  for  dogs,  and  are  never  without 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA.  35 

three  or  four  little  curs  in  their  hut.  They  sleep  squatting,  on 
beds  of  sheepskin,  and  never  undress. 

Those  of  the  Indians  who  are  brought  up  in  the  towns,  have 
some  knowledge  of  Spanish,  but  the  others  speak  only  the 
Quichua,  or  language  of  the  Incas.  The  Indians  of  the  towns 
are  far  more  acute  and  intelligent  than  those  of  the  country. 
Among  them  the  barber  surgeons  are  particularly  distinguished ; 
the  French  academicians,  who  travelled  in  Peru,  thought  them 
equal  to  the  most  famous  of  their  craft  in  Europe.  The  attach- 
ment of  the  Indians  to  the  Christian  religion  appears  to  be  neither 
strong  nor  constant  j  their  fickleness  is  such  that  although  they 
attend  divine  service  on  Sundays,  it  is  merely  from  the  fear  of 
punishment.  The  following  anecdote  will  illustrate  one  point  in 
their  character.  An  Indian  had  for  some  time  absented  himself 
from  the  church  service,  and  the  priest  being  informed  that  it  was 
owing  to  a  drinking  frolic  on  Sunday,  ordered  him  the  usual  pun- 
ishment of  whipping.  The  Indian  took  the  flagellation  with 
great  meekness  and  patience,  and  when  it  was  finished,  he  turned 
round  to  the  priest  and  humbly  thanked  him  for  having  chastised 
him  according  to  his  deserts.  The  priest  commended  him  for  his 
submissive  behavior  and  true  Christian  spirit,  and  added  a  timely 
exhortation  to  the  whole  audience,  on  the  excellence  of  the  eccle- 
siastical discipline.  No  sooner  had  he  completed  his  homily,  than 
the  Indian  stepped  up,  and  gravely  requested  a  second  whipping 
for  the  next  Sunday,  as  he  had  made  an  appointment  for  another 
drinking-match,  and  wished  for  his  flogging  in  advance,  that  his 
frolic  might  be  enjoyed  with  more  comfort. 

The  hills  and  plains  of  Peru  are  covered  with  architectural 
remains  of  the  times  of  the  Incas.  The  Peruvians  had  made 
considerable  progress  in  the  mechanic  arts;  and  considering  that 
they  were  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  iron,  the  magnitude  of 
these  superb  ruins,  and  the  contrivance  and  ingenuity  which  they 
exhibit,  are  certainly  sufficient  to  excite  our  admiration.  The 
European  symmetry,  elegance  and  peculiar  disposition  of  parts, 
must  not  be  looked  for  in  these  structures ;  yet  they  have  a  beauty 
of  their  own.  On  the  plains  of  Latacunga  are  to  be  seen  the 
walls  of  the  Inca's  palace,  built  entirely  of  stone  as  hard  as  flint, 
and  nearly  black.  The  stones  are  exceedingly  well  cut,  and 
joined  so  admirably  that  the  point  of  a  knife  cannot  be  thrust 
between  them.  No -mortar  or  cement  of  any  kind  is  perceivable. 
The  stones  in  some  of  the  walls  are  convex,  and  there  is  an  ine- 
quality both  in  the  size  of  the  stones  and  the  direction  of  the 
courses,  which  gives  a  singular  appearance  to  the  work.  A  small 
stone  is  immediately  followed  by  a  large  one ;  the  interstices  and 


36  ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 

projections  are  irregular,  yet  all  the  stones  are  joined  with  the 
same  exactness.  The  walls  are  about  fifteen  feet  high,  and  three 
or  four  feet  thick  at  the  base,  narrowing  upwards.  The  doors  of 
the  palaces  were  made  of  such  a  height  as  to  allow  room  for  the 
chair  in  which  the  Inca  was  carried  on  men's  shoulders  into  his 
apartment,  the  only  place  in  which  his  feet  touched  the  ground. 
It  is  not  known  whether  these  palaces  had  stories,  nor  how  they 
were  roofed,  as  the  Peruvians,  like  the  natives  of  Mexico  and 
Guatimala,  were  ignorant  of  the  arch. 

Near  Atun  Canar,  is  another  palace  or  fortress  of  the  Incas,  the 
largest,  best  built,  and  most  entire  in  the  country.  It  is  two  or 
three  hundred  feet,  in  length,  with  very  thick  walls,  built  of  hard 
and  well-polished  stone.  The  long  galleries  contain  niches  like 
sentry-boxes,  and  many  of  the  walls  are  full  of  hollows  resem- 
bling cupboards,  ornamented  with  beads.  This  building  contains 
a  great  number  of  apartments,  and  the  walls  make  a  great  many 
irregular  angles.  In  the  centre  of  the  space  which  they  enclose 
is  an  oval  tower.  A  little  stream  flows  at  the  foot  of  the  walls. 
Many  other  ruins  are  to  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
most  of  them  in  desert  places,  without  any  vestige  of  a  town  or 
village  near  them.  The  more  irregular  are  thought  to  be  the 
work  of  the  Indians  before  they  were  reduced  by  the  Incas.  An 
immense  number  of  mounds  or  tumuli,  are  also  scattered  over 
the  territory,  which,  on  being  opened,  are  found  to  be  tombs. 
They  are  commonly  sixty  feet  high,  and  a  hundred  and  twenty 
in  length.  The  bodies  are  found  in  cells  of  brick  or  stone.  These, 
also,  contain  various  utensils  of  copper  and  gold,  stone  mirrors 
and  axes. 

The  Araucanians  are  the  most  martial  and  courageous  of  all 
the  South  American  Indians.  They  inhabit  the  country  south  of 
Chili,  and  have  sustained  an  almost  uninterrupted  war  with  the 
Spaniards  for  three  hundred  years.  Their  exploits  have  afforded 
a  subject  for  the  finest  heroic  poem  in  the  Spanish  language;  and 
the  Araucana  of  Don  Alonzo  de  Ercilla,  celebrates,  in  thirty-seven 
cantoes,  the  heroic  defence  which  this  brave  nation  made  against 
the  European  invaders.  The  Araucanians  have  never  been  sub- 
dued. In  person,  they  are  of  a  moderate  stature,  strong,  muscu- 
lar, exceedingly  well  built,  and  they  have  naturally  a  very  martial 
air.  Their  color  is  a  little  lighter  than  the  other  Indians,  and  they 
often  attain  to  the  age  of  eighty,  without  a  gray  hair.  They  are 
exceedingly  jealous  of  their  honor,  hospitable,  honest,  grateful, 
generous  and  humane  to  the  enemies  they  conquer.  When  not 
engaged  in  a  campaign,  they  are  indolent,  addicted  to  intoxica- 
tion, presumptuous  and  haughty.  Their  dress  is  generally  of 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


37 


blue  cloth,  and  they  are  extremely  fond  of  this  color.  Their 
women  are  highly  ornamented,  and  every  one  wears  a  silver  ring. 
They  practise  cultivation,  but  never  build  large  towns.  The 
government  is  aristocratical,  and  their  several  communities  are 


Araucanians. 

associated  in  a  federal  union.  They  hold  a  general  congress 
when  any  affair  of  importance  is  to  be  decided  upon.  Both  their 
military  government  and  their  civil  and  criminal  codes  display  a 
great  degree  of  intelligence..  Their  army  consists  of  cavalry  and 
infantry.  The  infantry  is  formed  into  regiments  of  one  thousand 
men  each;  there  are  ten  companies  to  a  regiment.  Each  regi- 
ment has  a  banner  with  a  star,  which  is  the  arms  of  the  nation. 


Araucanians  burning  a  negro. 

The  soldiers  wear  helmets,  shields  and  cuirasses  of  leather,  hard- 
ened with  varnish.     The  cavalry  have  lances  and  swords,  and 
the  infantry,  pikes  and  clubs,  headed  with  iron.     They  have 
D 


38  ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 

never  been  able  to  make  gunpowder,  though  they  were  at  first 
very  anxious  to  learn  the  secret  of  it.  Having  observed  some 
negroes  among  the  Spaniards,  they  supposed  that  gunpowder, 
from  its  blackness,  was  extracted  from  their  bodies.  One  of  these 
negroes,  having  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  their  hands,  gave  them 
an  opportunity  of  trying  the  experiment.  He  was  first  flayed  from 
head  to  foot,  and  then  burnt  to  cinders ;  but  this  chemical  essay, 
to  their  great  surprise,  proved  a  total  failure.  They  have  since 
imbibed  a  strong  prejudice  against  fire-arms,  and  when  they  are 
taken  from  the  Spaniards,  little  use  is  made  of  them. 

The  Abipones  are  a  numerous  and  warlike  tribe  of  Indians,  in 
Paraguay.  They  have  never  been  subdued  by  the  Spaniards,  but 
maintain  their  independence  to  the  present  day.  They  lead  a 
roaming  life,  and  are  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  their  neigh- 
bors. They  are  a  well-formed  race,  muscular,  robust  and  active. 
They  are  particularly  famous  for  their  skill  in  managing  horses, 
and  may  be  considered  a  nation  of  cavalry.  They  have  harassed 
the  Spanish  settlements  ever  since  those  unwelcome  intruders 
came  into  their  neighborhood,  and,  next  to  the  Araucanians,  have 
been  the  most  formidable  foes  encountered  by  the  Castilian  inva- 
ders. The  vast  extent  of  country,  bounded  by  the  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Paraguay,  is  occupied  by  the  Abipones,  who  are  divided 
into  several  hordes,  each  of  which  is  headed  by  a  chief,  whom 
they  call  capita,  a  name  borrowed  from  the  Spaniards.  This 
affords  some  evidence  that  their  form  of  government  or  military 
tactics  underwent  some  modification  after  the  arrival  of  the 
strangers.  Although  they  make  common  cause  against  the 
Spaniards,  yet  the  different  tribes  are  often  involved  in  desperate 
wars  with  each  other.  Their  numbers  have  been  greatly  dimin- 
ished by  these  intestine  hostilities,  as  well  as  by  the  measles  and 
small  pox.  Their  natural  increase  is  also  checked  by  a  barba- 
rous and  unnatural  custom,  prevalent  among  the  women,  of  killing 
their  children. 

No  man  can  obtain  celebrity  among  the  Abipones,  except  by 
warlike  prowess.  Their  arms  are  the  bow  and  spear.  The 
Abiponian  spear  is  as  long  as  a  Macedonian  pike,  and  is  a  most 
formidable  weapon.  It  is  pointed  at  both  ends,  so  that  if  one  be 
blunted  in  battle,  the  other  may  be  immediately  turned  against 
the  enemy.  When  going  to  fight,  they  grease  the  points,  that 
deeper  wounds  may  be  inflicted.  They  also  possess  a  few  mus- 
kets, but  have  no  skill  in  using  them.  They  also  use  a  weapon 
made  of  three  stones,  covered  with  leather,  and  fastened  together 
by  a  thong ;  this  they  whirl  round  rapidly,  and  dart  at  an  object 
with  great  precision.  A  hostile  expedition  is  always  preceded  by 

.    ..    i  •  V 


ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA.  39 

a  drinking  festival,  in  which  copious  draughts  of  mead  are  swal- 
lowed ;  and  the  drunker  they  get,  the  more  wisdom  is  supposed  to 
be  in  their  councils.  Whatever  is  determined  upon  in  these  bac- 
chanalian orgies  is  always  religiously  executed  after  they  become 
sober.  On  their  march,  each  man  has  three  horses,  riding  one  and 
driving  the  others,  so  that  he  has  always  a  fresh  horse.  When 
they  attack  the  Spaniards,  they  put  their  horses  to  a  gallop  and 
rush  upon  them  with  all  the  speed  they  can  exert;  the  attack  is 
made  not  in  close  ranks,  but  in  a  scattering  manner  and  in  various 
parties,  so  that  the  enemy  finds  himself  assailed  in  front,  flank 
and  rear.  They  strike  a  single  blow,  and  then  leap  back  quickly, 
to  avoid  a  blow  in  return.  They  can  turn  their  horses  round  in 
circles  with  surprising  swiftness,  and  hold  the  animal  in  perfect 
command ;  they  have  all  the  expertness  of  a  professed  tumbler, 
and  practise  every  sort  of  gyration  and  evolution  upon  the  horse's 
back,  sometimes  hanging  under  his  belly,  and  thus  by  continually 
changing  their  position,  avoid  every  shot  that  is  aimed  at  them. 

These  savages  are  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.  On  their 
marches,  they  pass  the  day  and  the  night  in  the  open  air,  and  are 
either  parched  with  heat  or  drenched  with  rain  for  many  days 
together.  They  expose  their  bare  heads  to  the  burning  sun ;  if 
wide  rivers  or  lakes  are  to  be  crossed,  they  need  neither  bridge 
nor  boat ;  when  the  water  is  no  longer  fordable,  they  leap  from 
their  horses,  strip  off  their  clothes,  and  holding  them  above  the 
water,  on  the  point  of  their  spears;  swim  across,  leading  their 
horses  by  the  bridle.  They  use  a  prodigious  number  of  trumpets, 
horns  and  other  uncouth  instruments,  which  they  sound  on  going 
to  battle ;  and  these  horrid  clangors,  with  the  terrific  appearance 
they  give  themselves  by  painting,  strike  great  dismay  into  the 
Spaniards. 

The  Jesuit  Dobrizhofier,  who  lived  many  years  among  these 
Indians,  thus  speaks  of  the  extreme  dread  in  which  they  held  their 
neighbors.  "  How  often  have  I  seen  the  Spanish  settlements 
thrown  into  the  greatest  terror  by  a  mere  flying  report  that  the 
Abipones  were  coming.  In  an  instant  every  man  imagined  a 
troop  of  these  ferocious  savages,  with  blackened  faces,  mounted 
on  swift  horses,  rushing  to  the  attack  with  horrid  shouts  and  the 
alarm  of  trumpets,  brandishing  an  enormous  spear  in  their  right 
hands,  laden  with  bundles  of  arrows,  breathing  fire  and  slaughter, 
and  with  their  ferocious  eyes  threatening  death  and  destruction ! 
You  might  see  crowds  of  people  running  up  and  down,  bewailing 
their  fate,  while  not  an  enemy  was  nigh.  Not  only  women  and 
children,  but  men  distinguished  by  military  titles,  took  refuge 
within  the  stone-walls  of  the  churches,  or  skulked  into  hidden 


40  ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA. 

corners.  Not  many  years  ago,  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
thrown  into  such  an  alarm,  one  Sunday  afternoon,  by  a  cry  that 
the  Indians  were  upon  them.  In  an  instant  the  streets  were 
filled  with  crowds  of  people,  terrified  almost  to  distraction,  and 
uttering  the  most  piteous  cries.  Nothing  could  surpass  the  scene 
of  disorder;  every  one  was  hurrying,  he  knew  not  whither,  for 
security,  and  in  this  great  confusion,  one  lost  his  wig,  another  his 
hat,  another  his  cloak,  and  the  fright  was  universal,  till  the  garri- 
son troops,  plucking  up  courage,  turned  out  and  scoured  the 
neighborhood,  and  discovered  that  not  a  vestige  of  an  enemy  was 
to  be  seen !  Scenes  like  these  were  very  common  in  the  cities  of 
Santa  Fe,  Cordova,  Assumpcion  and  Salta,  whilst  the  savages 
were  overrunning  the  province  with  impunity.  A  ludicrous 
event,  that  took  place  in  the  city  of  Corrientes,  is  worthy  of  par- 
ticular mention.  Towards  evening,  an  alarm  was  suddenly  given 
that  a  troop  of  Abipones  had  burst  into  one  of  the  streets,  and 
were  slaughtering  the  inhabitants.  This  spread  an  instant  panic ; 
crowds  of  people,  overcome  with  fright,  hurried  to  the  church, 
which  had  strong  stone  walls.  The  chief  captain  himself,  an  old 
man,  was  seen  amid  a  throng  of  terrified  women,  uttering  groans 
and  prayers.  '  Here,'  said  he,  '  in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and 
in  the  presence  of  Jesus  Christ,  we  must  die.5  This  cowardly 
behavior,  in  an  old  soldier,  excited  the  indignation  of  a  priest,  who 
swore  a  tremendous  oath,  and  exclaimed,  '  No  dying, — fight  the 
enemy ! '  With  these  words,  he  snatched  a  gun,  leaped  upon  a 
horse,  and  galloped  toward  the  quarter  of  the  city  where  the  sav- 
ages were  thought  to  be  raging.  But  lo !  when  he  arrived  there,, 
everything  was  quiet,  the  inhabitants  were  sound  asleep,  not  so 
much  as  dreaming  of  the  Abipones !" 

The  Patagonians  have  been  supposed  to  be  a  nation  of  giants. 
Magellan,  the  discoverer  of  the  country,  stated  them  to  be  seven  or 
eight  feet  in  height.  Sarmiento,  a  Spanish  voyager,  made  them 
out  to  be  actual  Cyclops.  Sir  Thomas  Cavendish  measured  their 
footsteps,  which  were  eighteen  inches  long.  Sebald  de  Weert,  in 
1599,  was  attacked  by  a  troop  of  them,  ten  and  eleven  feet  high, 
as  he  affirms.  Le  Maire  and  Schouten,  in  1615,  found  skeletons 
in  their  tombs,  ten  and  eleven  feet  long.  Commodore  Byron,  in 
1765,  saw  much  of  the  Patagonians,  and  the  narrator  of  this  dis- 
coveries affirms  them  to  be  from  eight  to  nine  feet  and  upwards  in 
height.  Many  other  voyagers  have  confirmed  these  wonderful 
tales.  But  as,  on  the  other  hand,  many  visiters  in  Patagonia 
came  away  without  finding  any  of  the  inhabitants  who  were 
above  the  ordinary  size  of  Europeans,  and  as  some  of  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Patagonian  giants  contained  matters  evidently 


ABORIGINES    OF   AMERICA. 


41 


fabulous,  the  whole  story  fell  into  discredit,  though  the  evidence 
of  the  huge  size  of  the  natives,  seemed,  in  the  first  instance,  to  be 
too  positive  to  be  diregarded.  The  voyages  of  Captains  King  and 
Fitzroy,  in  this  quarter,  by  order  of  the  British  government,  have 
supplied  us  with  fresh  information  on  this  curious  and  interesting 
subject.  The  following  facts  may  be  fully  relied  upon. 


8*noofc  Libnwy 

The  Patagonians  are  at  present  divided  into  four  tribes,  each  of 
which  has  a  separate  leader  or  cacique;  but  they  all  speak  one 
language.  When  it  is  found  convenient,  they  all  assemble  in  one 
place,  but  if  food  becomes  scarce,  or  quarrels  happen,  each  party 
withdraws  to  its  own  territory.  At  such  times  one  body  will 
encroach  upon  the  hunting  grounds  of  another,  and  a  battle  is  the 
consequence.  The  whole  Patagonian  nation  comprises  not  above 
four  or  five  thousand  souls,  and  the  women  exceed  the  men  three 
to  one.  The  Patagonians  are  generally  tall  and  stout,  though 
not  giants ;  no  one  has  been  seen  for  many  years  much  above  six 
feet  in  height.  Yet  it  seems  indisputable  that  the  Patagonians 
are  really  the  tallest  race  of  men  in  the  world,  taken  collec- 
tively. Not  more  than  one  in  forty  or  fifty  of  the  adults  is  below 
five  feet  nine  or  ten  inches.  The  cacique  Cangopol,  measured  by 
Falkner,  was  more  than  seven  feet  high.  The  women  are  tall  in 
proportion  to  the  men.  Both  men  and  women,  moreover,  have  a 
D2 


42 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


habit  of  folding  their  arms  in  their  mantles,  across  the  chest,  which 
magnifies  their  apparent  height.  Their  heads  and  features  are 
large,  their  hands  and  feet  comparatively  small.  Their  color  'is  a 
rich,  reddish  brown.  They  wear  mantles  or  cloaks  of  skins 
loosely  gathered  round  them,  and  boots  made  of  the  skins  of 
horses'  legs.  They  disfigure  themselves  with  red,  white  and 
black  paint.  They  have  horses  of  a  diminutive  size,  with  which 
they  hunt  ostriches  and  guanacoes.  Their  huts  are  common 
Indian  wigwams. 


Fuegian. 

The  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  inferior  in  stature,  ill- 
looking,  and  badly  proportioned ;  they  have  a  villanous  expression 
of  features,  and  have  altogether  the  most  savage  exterior  of  the 
whole  human  race.  Their  color  is  that  of  old  mahogany.  They 
pass  much  of  their  time  in  low  wigwams,  or  cramped  up  in  small 
canoes,  which  injures  the  growth  and  shape  of  the  legs,  and  causes 
them  to  move  about  in  a  stooping  manner,  with  the  knees  much 
bent ;  yet  they  are  nimble  and  strong.  The  smoke  of  wood  fires, 
confined  in  small  wigwams,  hurts  their  eyes  so  much,  that  they 
are  always  red  and  watery.  They  rub  their  bodies  with  grease, 
oil,  charcoal,  ochre  and  clay,  and  wear  a  scanty  clothing  of  skins, 
but  no  shoes  or  moccasins.  Their  canoes  are  made  of  bark,  and 
when  they  are  paddling  about,  always  have  a  fire  burning  in  a 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA.  43 

heap  of  earth  in  the  middle.  They  are  constantly  roving  from 
one  place  to  another,  and  never  attempt  to  cultivate  the  soil,  fish 
being  almost  exclusively  their  food.  Cannibalism  prevails  among 
them,  and  the  following  horrid  custom  is  proved  by  the  evidence 
of  a  native  bojr,  who  was  carried  to  England,  and  learned  the 
language.  In  a  severe  winter,  when  the  snow  prevents  their  ob- 
taining food,  arid  famine  is  staring  them  in  the  face,  they  seize 
the  oldest  woman  of  the  party,  hold  her  head  over  a  thick  smoke, 
pinch  her  throat  and  choke  her  to  death;  after  which,  they 
devour  every  particle  of  her  flesh.  They  also  eat  invariably  the 
enemies  whom  they  kill  in  battle.  The  scenery  of  the  territory  is 
perfectly  consonant  to  these  savage  and  atrocious  manners ;  noth- 
ing can  surpass  the  horrid  aspect  of  Tierra  del  Fuego — a  heap  of 
craggy  rocks,  wild,  sterile  and  desolate,  fit  for  the  production  of 
monsters  rather  than  men. 

At  this  extremity  of  South  America  man  appears  to  exist  in  a 
lower  state  of  improvement  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
The  South  Sea  Islander  is  comparatively  civilized.  The  Eski- 
maux,  in  his  subterranean  hut,  enjoys  some  of  the  comforts  of  life, 
and  in  his  canoe,  when  fully  equipped,  manifests  much  skill. 
The  tribes  of  Southern  Africa  and  New  Holland  are  sufficiently 
wretched,  but  with  their  skill  in  climbing  trees,  tracking  animals 
and  hunting,  they  are  superior  to  the  miserable  Fuegians.  many 
tribes  of  whom  subsist  on  nothing  but  shell-fish.  Hardly  a  gleam 
of  sunshine  illumines  the  rooky  barrenness  of  the  country.  In 
midsummer,  snow  falls  every  day  upon  the  hills,  and  the  valleys 
are  deluged  with  rain  and  sleet.  The  Fuegian  wigwam,  consist- 
ing of  nothing  but  a  few  broken  branches  stuck  in  the  ground, 
slightly  thatched  with  grass  and  rushes,  lasts  only  for  a  few 
days.  Sometimes  these  sleeping-places  amount  to  nothing  better 
than  the  lair  of  a  wild  beast.  A  late  voyager  thus  describes 
them.  "  In  going  ashore,  we  pulled  alongside  a  canoe  contain- 
ing six  Fuegians.  These  were  the  most  abject  and  miserable 
creatures  I  anywhere  beheld.  They  were  quite  naked,  and  one 
of  them  was  a  full-grown  woman.  It  was  raining  heavily,  and 
the  water  with  the  spray  of  the  sea  trickled  down  her  body.  In 
another  harbor  not  far  distant,  a  woman,  who  was  suckling  a 
recently  born  child,  came  one  day  alongside  the  vessel,  and  re- 
mained there  while  the  sleet  fell  and  thawed  on  her  naked  bosom 
and  on  the  skin  of  her  naked  child.  These  poor  creatures  were 
stinted  in  their  growth,  their  hideous  faces  bedaubed  \Vith  white 
paint,  their  skins  filthy  and  greasy,  their  hair  entangled,  their  voices 
discordant,  their  gestures  violent  and  without  dignity.  Viewing 
such  men,  one  can  hardly  believe  they  are  fellow-creatures  and 


44  ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 

inhabitants  of  the  same  world.  It  is  a  common  subject  of  con- 
jecture what  pleasure  in  life  some  of  the  less  gifted  animals  enjoy; 
how  much  more  reasonably  the  same  question  may  be  asked  with 
respect  to  these  barbarians.  At  night,  five  or  six  human  beings, 
naked  and  scarcely  protected  from  the  wind  and  rain  of  this  tem- 
pestuous climate,  sleep  on  wet  ground,  coiled  up  like  animals. 
Whenever  it  is  low  water,  they  must  rise  to  pick  shell-fish  from 
the  rocks;  and  the  women,  winter  and  summer,  either  dive  to 
collect  sea-eggs,  or  sit  patiently  in  their  canoes  fishing.  If  a  seal 
is  killed,  or  the  floating  carcass  of  a  putrid  whale  discovered,  it  is 
a  feast,  and  such  miserable  food  is  assisted  by  a  few  tasteless 
berries  and  fungi.  Nor  are  they  exempt  from  famine,  and  as  a 
consequence,  cannibalism,  accompanied  by  parricide." 

Whilst  beholding  these  savages,  we  naturally  ask,,  whence 
have  they  come?  What  could  have  tempted,  or  what  change 
compelled,  a  tribe  of  men  to  leave  the  fine  regions  of  the  north,  to 
invent  and  build  canoes,  cross  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  estab- 
lish themselves  in  one  of  the  most  dreary  and  inhospitable  coun- 
tries on  the  face  of  the  globe?  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Fuegians  decrease  in  number,  and,  therefore,  we  must  suppose 
that  they  enjoy,  amidst  this  apparent  misery,  a  sufficient  share  of 
happiness  to  make  life  worth  possessing. 

A  surgeon,  who  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Captains  King 
and  Fitzroy.  had  frequent  opportunities  of  examining  the  physical 
structure  of  the  Fuegians,  and  discovered  that  they  are  provided 
with  a  powerful  natural  defence  against  the  cold  and  dampness 
of  their  dreary  climate.  The  Fuegian  is  like  a  cetaceous  animal, 
which  circulates  red  blood  in  a  cold  medium,  and  possesses,  in 
his  fleshy  covering,  an  admirable  non-conductor  of  heat.  The 
corpus  adiposum  is  uncommonly  thick  on  the  parts  of  the  body 
most  liable  to  the  attacks  of  cold ;  on  the  hips  it  forms  a  perfect 
cushion,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  body,  fills  up  the  interstices  be- 
tween the  muscles.  The  great  quantity  of  fat  which  covers  the 
bodies  of  the  Fuegians,  may  be  imputed  to  their  diet,  as  their 
greatest  dainty  is  fat  of  all  kinds,  that  of  the  seal  and  penguin  in 
particular ;  vegetables  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  know  as  food, 
the  country  producing  nothing  of  the  kind  eatable  except  berries 
and  the  excrescences  of  stunted  birch  trees. 

Nature  has  been  bountiful  in  providing  for  the  Fuegians  an 
almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  shell-fish,  which  are  procured  with 
so  little  trouble,  that  no  ideas  are  required  which  can  improve  the 
reasoning  faculties.  No  patience  or  perseverance  is  necessary,  like 
that  exercised  by  savages,  who,  in  hunting,  must  employ  reason 
superior  to  the  instinctive  cunning  of  the  animals  they  pursue. 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA.  45 

When  distressed  by  the  famine  of  winter,  the  dreadful  expedients 
to  which  they  resort  for  their  relief,  are  such  as  to  debase  their 
faculties  and  morals  still  more.  The  different  tribes  seem  to  have 
no  government  or  head,  yet  each  is  surrounded  by  other  hostile 
tribes,  speaking  different  dialects ;  and  a  dearth  of  provisions  is 
sure  to  lead  to  wars.  Their  country  is  a  broken  mass  of  wild 
mountains,  barren  rocks,  and  dreary,  unproductive  forests,  and 
these  gloomy  objects  are  viewed  through  mists  and  endless  storms. 
The  habitable  land  is  reduced  to  the  stones  which  form  the 
beach.  In  search  of  food,  they  are  compelled  to  wander  from  spot 
to  spot,  and  so  steep  is  the  coast  that  they  can  only  move  about 
in  their  wretched  canoes.  They  cannot  know  the  feeling  of 
having  a  home,  and  still  less  that  of  domestic  affection,  unless 
the  treatment  of  a  master  to  a  laborious  slave  can  be  considered 
as  such.  How  can  the  higher  powers  of  the  mind  be  brought 
into  play  in  these  circumstances?  What  is  there  for  imagination 
to  picture,  for  reason  to  compare,  for  judgment  to  decide  upon? 
To  know  a  limpet  from  a  rock,  does  not  even  require  cunning, 
that  lowest  power  of  the  mind.  The  skill  of  the  Fuegians  may 
in  some  respects  be  compared  to  the  instinct  of  animals,  for  it  is 
not  improved  by  experience.  The  canoe,  their  most  ingenious 
work,  poor  as  it  is,  has  remained  the  same  from  the  time  they 
were  first  known  to  Europeans. 

The  condition  of  the  Fuegians,  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
ancient  Mexicans  and  Peruvians,  affords  us  a  striking  instance  of 
the  effect  of  climate  and  local  circumstances,  in  accelerating  or 
retarding  civilization  and  human  culture.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  same  original  stock  produced  the  several  nations  which 
erected  magnificent  cities  in  the  temperate  regions  of  America, 
and  which  roam  over  the  bleak  and  barren  regions  of  the  north 
and  south,  in  a  state  more  assimilated  to  that  of  beasts  than  men. 
The  American  continent,  like  that  of  Africa  and  Asia,  presents 
several  points  of  a  primitive  civilization,  of  which  the  mutual 
relations  are  as  unknown  as  those  of  Meroe,  Thibet  and  China. 
The  civilization  of  Mexico  emanated  from  a  country  in  the  north ; 
that  of  Peru  appears  to  have  arisen  from  a  point  having  no  con- 
nexion with  Mexico.  Other  civilized  and  industrious  nations  have 
flourished  and  passed  away  in  America,  leaving  no  written  or  tra- 
ditionary memorials  of  their  existence  behind  them.  Amidst  the 
extensive  plains  of  Upper  Canada,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  in  Florida,  in  the  deserts  bordered  by  the  Orinoco, 
the  Cassiquiare  and  the  Guiania,  walls  and  dikes  of  great 
length,  weapons  of  brass  and  sculptured  stones,  afford  evidence 
that  these  countries  were  formerly  inhabited  by  populous,  civil- 


46  ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 

ized  and  industrious  nations,  where  savage  hunters  now  chase 
their  prey,  or  adventurous  emigrants  from  the  east  are  forming 
new  settlements. 

The  unequal  distribution  of  animals  over  the  surface  of  the 
globe  has  had  a  considerable  influence  on  the  fate  of  nations,  and 
on  their  progress,  more  or  less  rapid,  toward  civilization.  In  the 
old  continent,  the  pastoral  life  formed  the  passage  from  a  hunting 
to  an  agricultural  nation.  The  ruminating  animals,  so  easily 
reared  under  every  climate,  have  followed  the  African  negro,  the 
Mogul,  the  Malay  and  the  hordes  that  dwell  on  the  Caucasus. 
Though  several  quadrupeds  and  a  greater  number  of  the  vegeta- 
ble tribe  are  common  to  the  most  northern  regions  of  both  conti- 
nents, America  possesses,  in  the  species  of  oxen,  only  two, — the 
bison  and  the  musk-ox.  These  animals  are  difficult  to  tame,  and 
their  females  yield  but  little  milk,  notwithstanding  the  richness 
of  the  pasture.  The  American  hunter  was  not  led  to  agriculture 
by  the  care  of  flocks  and  the  habits  of  a  pastoral  life.  The 
inhabitant  of  the  Andes  was  never  tempted  to  milk  the  lama, 
the  alpaca,  or  the  guanaco.  Milk  was  formerly  a  nourishment 
unknown  to  the  Americans,  as  well  as  to  several  nations  of  east- 
ern Asia. 

Though  no  traditions  point  out  any  direct  connection  between 
the  nations  of  North  and  South  America,  their  history  is  not  less 
fraught  with  analogies  in  the  political  and  religious  revolutions, 
from  which  is  to  be  dated  the  civilization  of  the  Mexicans,  the 
Peruvians,  and  the  other  nations  that  had  made  any  progress  in 
social  improvement.  Men  with  beards,  and  with  clearer  comr 
plexion  than  ordinary,  make  their  appearance  in  different  countries 
of  America,  without  any  indication  of  the  place  of  their  birth, 
and  bearing  the  title  of  high-priests,  of  legislators,  of  the  friends 
of  peace  and  the  arts  which  flourish  under  its  auspices,  operate  a 
sudden  change  in  the  policy  of  the  nations,  who  hail  their  arrival 
with  veneration.  Quetzalcoatl  in  Mexico,  Manco  Capac  in  Peru, 
and  Bochica,  the  Boodh  of  the  Muyscas,  on  the  lofty  plains  of 
Bogota,  are  the  sacred  names  of  these  mysterious  beings.  Quet- 
zalcoatl, clothed  in  a  black  sacerdotal  robe,  comes  from  Panuco, 
on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Bochica  arrives  from  the 
savannas,  which  stretch  along  the  east  of  the  Cordilleras.  Manco 
Capac  and  his  wife  appear  on  the  banks  of  the  Lake  Titicaca. 
The  history  of  these  legislators  is  intermixed  with  miracles,  reli- 
gious fictions,  and  with  characters  which  imply  an  allegorical 
meaning.  Some  learned  men  have  pretended  to  discover  that 
these  strangers  were  shipwrecked  Europeans,  or  the  descendants 
of  those  Scandinavians  who  visited  the  shores  of  New  England 


ABORIGINES   OF   AMERICA.  47 

in  the  eleventh  century ;  but  a  slight  reflection  on  the  period  of 
the  Toltec  migrations,  on  the  monastic  institutions,  the  symbols 
of  worship,  the  calendar,  and  the  form  of  the  pyramids,  and  other 
monuments  which  still  exist  in  North  America,  will  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  civilization  of  this  continent  was  not  of  Euro- 
pean origin. 

When  the  Mexicans  or  Aztecks,  in  the  year  1190,  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country  where  they  founded  their  empire,  they  already 
found  the  pyramidal  monuments  of  Teotihuacan,  of  Cholula  and 
of  Papantla.  They  ascribed  these  great  edifices  to  the  Toltecs, 
a  powerful  and  civilized  nation,  who  inhabited  Mexico  five  hun- 
dred years  earlier,  who  made  use  of  hieroglyphical  characters, 
who  computed  the  year  more  precisely,  and  had  a  more  exact 
chronology  than  the  greater  part  of  the  people  of  the  old  conti- 
nent. The  Aztecks  knew  not  with  certainty  which  tribe  had 
inhabited  the  country  of  Anahuac  before  the  Toltecs ;  conse- 
quently, the  belief  that  the  monuments  of  Teotihuacan  and 
Cholula  were  built  by  the  Toltecs,  assigned  them  the  highest 
antiquity.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  annals  of  the  Toltecs 
should  be  as  uncertain  as  those  of  the  Pelasgi  and  the  Ausonians, 
and  that  no  history  of  any  American  nation  goes  farther  back 
than  the  seventh  century.  The  history  of  the  north  of  Europe 
reaches  no  further  than  the  tenth  century,  a  period  when  Mexico 
was  in  a  more  advanced  state  of  civilization  than  Denmark, 
Sweden  or  Russia.  In  one  of  the  Mexican  pictures  now  extant, 
is  a  figure  representing  Quetzalcoatl  appeasing,  by  his  penance, 
the  wrath  of  the  gods,  when,  thirteen  thousand  and  sixty  years 
after  the  creation  of  the  world,  as  the  hieroglyphics  state,  a  great 
famine  prevailed  in  the  province  of  Chulan.  We  seem  here  to 
behold  one  of  those  ancient  hermits  of  the  Ganges,  whose  pious 
austerity  is  celebrated  in  the  Puranas.  We  have  alluded  already 
to  the  striking  similarity  of  some  of  the  figures  in  the  antiquities 
of  Central  America,  to  the  Hindoo  drawings. 

Yet,  whatever  resemblances  may  be  traced  between  the  Amer- 
icans and  the  nations  of  the  old  world,  there  is  nothing  in  them 
modern  or  recent.  Neither  the  physical  peculiarities  nor  the 
political  and  religious  institutions  can  be  identified  with  those 
of  any  nations  of  the  ancient  continent,  though  they  approximate 
the  western  civilization  to  that  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Chinese.  The  origin  of  this  resemblance  is  to  be  traced  back 
to  the  earliest  ages,  when  these  great  nations  first  separated,  and 
carried  into  Egypt,  Hindostan  and  China,  the  same  religion,  arts, 
customs  and  institutions,  to  be  variously  modified  under  the  influ- 
ence of  diverse  causes.  The  great  diversity  of  American  Ian- 


48 


ABORIGINES    OF    AMERICA. 


guages,  the  few  analogies  which  they  present  to  those  of  the  old 
world,  the  absence  of  the  use  of  iron,  certain  peculiarities  in  their 
astronomical  systems,  and  some  of  their  own  traditions,  which 
have  preserved  the  memory  of  historical  events,  all  concur  in 
supporting  this  belief.  In  conclusion,  we  may  state  that  the 
aborigines  of  America  appear  to  have  been  a  primitive  branch  of 
the  human  family  which  penetrated  at  a  very  early  period  into 
the  western  continent ;  that  the  American  race  was  not  derived 
from  any  nation  now  existing,  but  is  assimilated,  by  numerous 
analogies,  to  the  Etrurians,  Egyptians,  Mongols,  Chinese  and 
Hindoos,  and  is  most  closely  related  to  the  Malays  and  Polyne- 


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